LECTURE FIVE

Personality Development

Definition of personality

A brief definition would be that personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings
and behaviors that make a person unique. In addition to this, personality arises from within the individual
and remains fairly consistent throughout life.

Personality is a complex blend of constantly evolving and changing pattern of one’s unique behavior and
emerges as a result of one’s interaction with one’s environment and directed towards some specific ends.

Some of the fundamental characteristics of personality include:

 Consistency - There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people
act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.

 Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that
it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.

 Impact behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our
environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.

 Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in out
thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social interactions.

Theories of personality Development

There are a number of different theories about how personality develops. Different schools of thought in
psychology influence many of these theories. Some of these major perspectives on personality include:

 Type theories are the early perspectives on personality. These theories suggested that there are a
limited number of "personality types" which are related to biological influences.

 Trait theories viewed personality as the result of internal characteristics that are genetically based.

 Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, and
emphasize the influence of the unconscious on personality. Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund
Freud’s psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.

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 Behavioral Theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the
environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that
take internal thoughts and feelings into account. Behavioral theorists include B.F Skinner and John B.
Watson.
 Humanistic theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the
development of personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

Biological Factors
Heredity:
• It refers to physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition
and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are
considered to be inherent.
• It plays an important part in determining an individual's personality.
• Heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality
is the molecular structures of the genes, which are located in the chromosomes.
• Recent research studies shows that young children lend strong support to the power
of heredity and finding shows that some personality traits may be built into the same
genetic code that affects factors like height and hair color.
One of the most important factors in determining personality is the ‘Physical Characteristics’ of an
individual. It is believed that this factor plays a vital role in determining one’s behavior in any
organization. Physical features may involve the height of a person (short or tall), his color (white or
black), his health status (fat or skinny) and his beauty (handsome or ugly).
These factors are involved when interacting with any other person and thus contribute in the personality
development in many ways.

Brain:
• Brain is the second biological approach to determine personality.
• It plays an important role in determining personality.
• Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) and Split brain psychology results indicates
that a better understanding of human personality and behavior might come from a
closer study of the brain.
• The definite areas of the human brain are associated with pain and pleasure. Research
study shows that these things are true.
Biofeedback:
• It is third biological approach to determine personality.
• Physiologists and psychologists felt that biological functions like brainwave
patterns, gastric and hormonal secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and
skin temperature were beyond conscious control. Recent research shows that these
functions can be consciously controlled through biofeedback techniques.
• For this purpose, individual can learns the internal rhythms of a particular body
process through electronic signals that are feedback from equipment which is wired
to body.

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• In this process, the person can learn to control the body process through questions.
• It is one of the interesting topics to do future research work in personality.
Physical Features:
• It is third biological approach to determine personality.
• It is vital ingredient of the personality, it focus an individual person's external
appearance which also determined the personality.
• Physical features like tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white. These physical
features will be influenced the personal effect on others and also affect self concept
of individual.
• Recent research studies shows that definitely this features influence to individual
personality in an organization.
In totally, heredity would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience can be altering
them through creation of suitable environment. Apart from this, personality characteristics
are not completely dictated by heredity. There are other factors also influenced to determining
personality.
Cultural Factors
"Each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in ways that are acceptable to the group. To a
marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to
encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will reinforced and hence learned". -Paul H
Mussen
• Cultural factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual
personality.
• It refers to traditional practice, customs, procedure, norms and rules and regulation
followed by the society.
• It significantly influence to individual behavior compare to biological factors.
• Cultural factors determine attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition,
cooperation, positive thinking, team spirit, and a host of the human being and
discharge his/her duties towards valuable responsibilities to society.
• Western culture influence to Indian society. It is best example of the cultural factors
also determine the personality.
Family Factors
• Family factors are also major factors which influence/determine individual
personality.
• Family consists of husband and wife and their children's.
• Family role is very important for nurturing and personality development of their
children.
• Family will be guided, supervised, take care of all family members, cooperation,
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coordination and cooperation in work and also explained the role and responsibilities
towards the family, society and real life.
• Family either directly or indirectly influence to person for development of individual
personality.
Social Factors
• Social factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual
personality.
• It involves the reorganization of individual's in an organization or society.

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• It refers to acquiring of wide range of personality by acquiring and absorbed by
themselves in the society or an organization.
• Socialization process is starting from home and extending to work environment in
an organization or society.
• It focuses on good relationships, cooperation, coordination and interaction among
the members in the society or an organization or a family.
In totally, environment factors consist of cultural factors, family factors, and social
factors, school factors, economic factors etc
Situational Factors
• Situational factors also influence to determine of personality.
• Situational factors are very important to change the individual behavior in a
different circumstance at different situations, it also influence to personality of
individual person.
• In general term, personality is stable and consistent and it does change in different
situations.
The Interaction of Personality and Situational Factors are outlined:
• Strong situational pressures
• Personality may not predict behavior
• Example: enforcement of rules
• Weak Situational pressures
• Personality may predict behavior
• Example: Customer sales representative
• A strong situation can overwhelm the effects of individual personalities by providing
strong cues for appropriate behavior.

Peer pressure

Peer pressure refers to the influence exerted by a peer group in encouraging a person to change his or
her attitudes, values or behaviour in order to conform to group norms. Social groups affected
include membership groups, when the individual is "formally" a member (for example, political party,
trade union), or a social clique. A person affected by peer pressure may or may not want to belong to
these groups. They may also recognize dissociative groups with which they would not wish to associate,
and thus they behave adversely concerning that group's behaviors.

What is Psychosocial Development?

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality
in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience
across the whole lifespan.

One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego
identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson,
our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experience and information we acquire in our daily
interactions with others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also
motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned with becoming competent in

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an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which he sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy.

Erikson showed developmental stages that seamlessly integrate into a comprehensive theory of
personality based on self-organization. Each stage corresponds to access to a structural level.

In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development.
In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to
develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential
for failure.
According to Erikson, although there is a predominant issue at each stage, the stages are not watertight.
Issues of one stage overlap with issues of another; how one has dealt with earlier issues determines how
one will resolve later issues. Most important, there is a connection between present patterns of thinking
and feeling, and earlier unresolved or resolved developmental issues. But Erikson also said that
developmental blocks at any stage can be resolved at any point.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

 The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of
age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
 Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and
quality of the child’s caregivers.
 If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who
are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children
they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt

 The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood
and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
 Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's
reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
 A child of this age is beginning to explore the world at will. This is the age commonly known as the
'terrible twos'. The very young child learns by feeling with all the senses, and an expression of
autonomy in this process seems very relevant to the child's growth. If this autonomy is thwarted, three
consequences may ensue:

a. A sense of shame develops.

b. It prevents a healthy acceptance of limits.

c. The child feels devastated by small crises.

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 This is also the age when feelings are beginning to be expressed. It is important not to condemn
feelings the child may hold, such as anger or jealousy, but to help the child be sensitive to his
behavioural expressions in a particular situation.

 Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection.
 Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are
left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Psychosocial Stage 3 – Initiative vs. Guilt

The child in this stage is beginning to make decisions, and carry them out, primarily through play
activities. Imagination is the key mover. A sense of purpose develops when she is able to envision
something in her imagination and pursue it. Such initiative must be encouraged.

Some features of a kindergarten programme suggest themselves from these perceptions.

 The child must be allowed room for the expression of imagination, such as playing with various
natural, simple materials, and role-playing. Ready-made toys often inhibit this expression, as there is
very little that can be done imaginatively with most of them. For example, a matchbox can become a
car or an aircraft, but a ready-made car cannot become anything other than what it is. It can only be
manipulated.

 Stories and songs that stimulate the imagination can be introduced.

 Real-life activities like serving food, chopping vegetables or making chappatis, prepare children for
participation in the community around them. Children of this age are capable of contributing
productively to the environment in which they live. I would go so far as to say that it is vital that they
do so, and that they feel their contribution is 'real' and not just 'pretend'. This is commonly observed
in poorer families, where children of this age take charge of the younger siblings and certain home
responsibilities.

 Child-directed activities where the child chooses her activity and repeats it as often as she wants must
be encouraged. This again is an opportunity for the child to show initiative and take responsibility.
Ridiculing, making fun of the child's imagination, and subtle or overt expectation can inhibit the
natural sense of initiative. One may also distort the child's initiative by linking it to reward and
performance. Lying should be dealt with sensitively at this age, as spinning imaginative stories may
not be the same as lying. Discouraging initiative by inducing guilt or shame may lead to a repressed
child, or to one who does things on the sly.

 During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interaction.
 Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.

Psychosocial Stage 4 – Industry vs. inferiority

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 This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
 Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities.
 Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.
 These are the years when a child can begin to work hard academically and gain competence in
various areas of activity.
 This is also a time when the child is praised for the 'doing', for achievement. The question I would ask
is, what do we communicate to the child about his 'being'? Adults affirm competence, and that
becomes a strong motivation for the child to pursue an activity. While that may be a strong
encouragement to a child, it also makes him value himself for his achievements alone, and may
promote a sense of comparison and inferiority. What then happens to all those parts of him that are
not visible to the world as 'achievement'? It seems to be a very sensitive balance. It also seems
relevant not to affirm only certain kinds of aptitudes, as that may restrict the areas of exploration to
those that are approved of.
 At the same time, it is vitally important to help the child feel that he can pursue a task and do it well.
Sometimes, in this age group, there is a tendency for teachers to excuse lack of skill, lack of
completion or lack of accuracy in a child's work, the child being young and there being enough time
to learn. This may be counterproductive to developing a sense of competence. Small learning targets
may be set in a variety of areas. There seems to be a clear case for a firm and consistent demand for
the child to actually reach the target, and show proof of learning, not just of engagement. This phase
is directly linked to productivity in later life. Thus the junior and middle school is a time to validate
the child in his or her own multiple talents and to build a work ethic.
 The later part of this phase begins a redefining of the child's relationship with the world. So the
curriculum must include a different kind of input to cater to this. Observational exercises, area
studies, understanding the flow of resources and materials, examining lifestyle through resource
audits, are some of the activities that have been tried out in our school, and have proved very helpful
in this regard.

Psychosocial Stage 5 – Identity vs. Confusion

 During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self.
 The questions arising at this stage are, 'Who am I?', 'What are my values?', 'What is my identity?'
Identity is defined as the ability to exercise choice.

 For Erikson, this is also the stage where values have to be chosen, beliefs understood and the 'self'
explored. If values are imposed rather than chosen by the child herself, they are not internalized and
there is a lack of meaning in later life. How are these values chosen? Erikson says that adolescents are
often influenced by role models and tend to imitate and hold their values. Individuating without
rebellion is important for a healthy sense of self.

 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge
from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who
remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

Psychosocial Stage 6 – Intimacy vs. Isolation (17-45 years)

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 This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
 Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and secure.
 Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong
sense of personal identity was important to developing intimate relationships. Studies have
demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are
more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Psychosocial Stage 7 – Generativity vs. Isolation (40-65 years)

 During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
 Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being
active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.

Psychosocial Stage 8 – Integrity vs. Despair (65 and above)

 This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
 Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will
experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing
this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals
will attain wisdom, even when confronting death

Applying Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

1) Keep in mind that certain types of behaviors and relationships may be of special
significance at different age levels.
2) With younger preschool children, allow plenty of opportunities for free play and
experimentation to encourage the development of autonomy, but provide guidance to
reduce the possibility that children will experience doubt. Also avoid shaming children for
unacceptable behavior.
3) With older preschool children, encourage activities that permit the use of initiative and
provide a sense of accomplishment. Avoid making children feel guilty about well-
motivated but inconvenient (to you) questions or actions.
4) During the elementary and middle school years, help children experience a sense of
industry by presenting tasks that they can complete successfully. Arrange such tasks so that
students will know they have been successful. To limit feelings of inferiority, play down
comparisons and encourage cooperation and self-competition. Also try to help jealous
children gain satisfaction from their own behavior. (Specific ways to accomplish these
goals will be described in several later chapters.)
5) At the secondary school level, keep in mind the significance of each student’s search for a
sense of identity.
 The components of identity that Erikson stressed are acceptance of one’s appearance,
recognition from those who count, and knowledge about where one is going. Role
confusion is most frequently caused by failure to formulate clear ideas about gender roles
and by indecision about occupational choice.
 Because you are important to your students, you can contribute to their sense of positive
identity by recognizing them as individuals and praising them for their accomplishments.
If you become aware that particular students lack recognition from peers because of

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 abrasive qualities or ineptness and if you have the time and opportunity, you might also
attempt to encourage social skills.
 You might be able to reduce identity problems resulting from indecisiveness about
gender roles by having class discussions (for example, in social science courses)
centering on changes in attitudes regarding masculinity, femininity, and family
responsibilities. You can, for example, encourage boys to become more sensitive to the
needs of others and girls to be more achievement oriented. This approach to sex-role
development that combines traditional “masculine” and “feminine” behaviors is called
psychological androgyny (Karniol, Gabay, Ochion, & Harari, 1998; Steinberg, 2002).
 Another forum for such discussion is an on-line bulletin board or class web site. On-line
writing can be conducive to explorations of sensitive issues because it provides a slightly
slower, more thoughtful pace and also allows an equal voice to male and female students,
even those who feel shy about speaking out loud in class. An on-line discussion that is
carefully moderated by an experienced teacher can both model and explore the territory
of psychological androgyny.
 Working with your school counselor, you may in some cases be able to help students
make decisions about occupational choice by providing them with information (gleaned
from classroom performance and standardized test results) about their intellectual
capabilities, personality traits, interests, and values. Or you may be able to help students
decide whether to apply for admission to college instead of entering the job market after
high school graduation.
6) Remember that the aimlessness of some students may be evidence that they are engaging in
a psychosocial moratorium. If possible, encourage such individuals to focus on short-term
goals while they continue to search for long-term goals.
7) Remain aware that adolescents may exhibit characteristics of different identity status types.
Some may drift aimlessly; others may be distressed because they realize they lack goals and
values. A few high school students may have arrived at self-chosen commitments; others
may have accepted the goals and values of their parents.
 If you become aware that certain students seem depressed or bothered because they are
unable to develop a satisfactory set of personal values, consult your school psychologist or
counselor. In addition, you might use the techniques just summarized to help these students
experience at least a degree of identity achievement. Perhaps the main value of the identity
status concept is that it calls attention to individual differences in the formation of identity.
Because students in the foreclosure status will pose few, if any, classroom problems, you
must keep in mind that foreclosure is not necessarily desirable for the individual student.
Those experiencing identity diffusion or moratorium may be so bothered by role confusion
that they are unwilling to carry out even simple assignments—unless you supply support
and incentives.
8) Erikson’s theory should not be seen as a series of steps to achieve in order and on time, but
as benchmarks for educators to analyze the personality of their students and adapt their
requests
9) The theory is a very powerful way for building self-awareness and for improving oneself, as
it helps to understand a person’s learning according to his or her personal differences

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