Electromagnetic Waves

Contents :

 Introduction
 Scalar and vector fields
 Gradient, divergence, and curl
 Stokes’ and Green’s (Gauss’) theorems
 Concept of Displacement current
 Maxwell’s equations
 Electromagnetic wave equations in free space and
conducting media
 Skin depth and its applications
Electromagnetic Waves :
Electromagnetic Waves
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves:

• They are transverse in nature i.e. direction of propagation

(k) is perpendicular to electric field (E) and magnetic field
(B). 𝑬⊥𝑩⊥𝒌
• EM waves have oscillating electric and magnetic field.
• They travel with fixed speed (3 × 108 m/s) in vacuum.
• They don’t need medium to propagate.
• While travelling through medium, their speed is less than c.
Scalar Fields : like temperature, electric potential etc.
• Scalar fields are used to represent scalar
quantities/functions in a region.

• These fields can be represented by contours which are

imaginary surfaces drawn through all points are which field
has same value (called as equipotential surfaces).

• No two equipotential surfaces cut each other.

Ex : equipotential surface :
Vector Fields : quantities with magnitude and direction
like electric field, force, velocity etc.
• Vector fields are used to represent vector
quantities/functions in a region.
• These fields are represented by flux or field lines drawn in
such a way that tangent at any point of the line gives
direction of vector field at that point.
• Lines representing vector fields can not cross each other
because that would give non-unique value at that point.
Del operator (𝛁) : Not a scalar or vector but operator.
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝛁= 𝒙 +𝒚 +𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
It doesn’t have meaning until it acts (not multiply) up on a
function.
It is an instruction to differentiate what follows.

There are 3 ways 𝛁 can act :

1. On a scalar function T : 𝛁T (gradient)

2. On a vector function (𝒗) by dot product : 𝛁 ∙ 𝒗 (divergence)

3. On a vector function (𝒗) by cross product : 𝛁 × 𝒗 (curl)

Gradient 𝛁T :
Suppose scalar quantity (Let us say temperature) T is function of
(x,y,z). Theorem on partial derivatives states
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑑𝑇 = dx + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Physically this tell us how T changes when three variables are

changed by infinitesimal amounts dx, dy, dz.
Equation (1) can be written as dot product
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑑𝑇 = 𝒙+ 𝒚+ 𝒛 ∙ 𝑑𝑥𝒙 + 𝑑𝑦𝒚 + 𝑑𝑧𝒛
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝛻T . 𝑑𝑙 (2)
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
Where 𝛻T = 𝒙+ 𝒚+ 𝒛 is gradient of T. It is
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
vector quantity with three components.
Gradient 𝛁T interpretation : Gradient has magnitude as
well as direction.

𝑑𝑇 = 𝛻T . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝛻𝑇 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃
Where θ is angle between 𝛻T and 𝑑𝑙.
If magnitude of 𝑑𝑙 is fixed and θ is varied, dT is maximum
when θ = 0 (cos 𝜃 = 1). It means for fixed distance 𝑑𝑙 , dT is
maximum when you move in direction of 𝛻T.
or
Gradient 𝛻T points in direction of maximum increase of
function T.
and
Magnitude 𝛻𝑇 gives the slope along this maximal direction.
Gradient 𝛁T = 0 meaning :

If 𝛻T = 0 at (x, y, z) then dT = 0 for small displacements about

the point (x, y, z). This is then stationary point of the function
T(x, y, z). It could be a maximum, a minimum or a shoulder.

If you want to locate extrema of a function of three variables, set

its gradient equal to 0.
Numerical on gradient :

The height of certain hill (in feet) is given by

ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 10 2𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥2 − 4𝑦2 − 18𝑥 + 28𝑦 + 12
where y is distance (in miles) in north and x the distance in east.
a) Where is the top of hill located?
b) How high is the hill?
c) How steep is slope (in feet per mile) at point 1 mile north
and 1 mile east?
 ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 10 2𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥2 − 4𝑦2 − 18𝑥 + 28𝑦 + 12
𝜕ℎ 𝜕ℎ
𝛻ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥+ 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝛻ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 10 2𝑦 − 6𝑥 − 18 𝑥 + 10(2𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 28)𝑦

(a) Where is the top of hill located ?

Remember to find maxima, minima, you put gradient = 0

2𝑦 − 6𝑥 − 18 = 0
2𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 28 = 0
Solving these x = -2, y = 3 (location of top of hill)

(b) How high is the hill?

Putting x = -2 and y =3,
h = 10(-12 - 12 - 36 + 36 + 84 + 12) = 720 ft
(c) How steep is slope (in feet per mile) at point 1 mile north and
1 mile east?
Remember Magnitude 𝛻𝑇 gives the slope.

ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 10 2𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥2 − 4𝑦2 − 18𝑥 + 28𝑦 + 12

𝛻ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 10 2𝑦 − 6𝑥 − 18 𝑥 + 10(2𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 28)𝑦
Putting x = 1 and y = 1
𝛻ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 10 2 − 6 − 18 𝑥 + 10(2 − 8 + 28)𝑦

𝛻ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = −220 𝑥 + 220 𝑦

𝛻ℎ = 220 2
Divergence 𝜵. 𝒗:
From definition of 𝛻, divergence will be
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻∙𝑣 = 𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 ∙ 𝑣𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Divergence of vector function is a scalar quantity.

If 𝛁 ∙ 𝒗 = 0, then it is called solenoidal field.

Ex: Calculate divergence of function 𝑣 = 𝑥2𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑧2𝑦 −

2𝑥𝑧𝑧
Geometrical Interpretation of divergence (𝜵. 𝒗):
𝛻. 𝑣 is a measure of how much the vector 𝑣 spreads out
(diverges) from the point in question.
A point of positive divergence is a “source” and a point of
negative divergence is a “sink” or “drain”.

Positive Zero Positive

divergence divergence divergence
Positive Negative Zero
Divergence Divergence Divergence
The curl (𝛁 × 𝒗):
From definition of 𝛻, curl will be
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻×𝑣 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑧
𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑥
=𝑥 − +𝑦 − +𝑧 −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Curl of vector function 𝑣 is, like any cross product, a vector.

If 𝛁 × 𝒗 = 0, then it is called irrotational field.

Geometrical interpretation of the curl (𝛁 × 𝒗):
𝛻 × 𝑣 is a measure of how much the vector curls/swirls around
the point in question.

What is curl of these functions?

Geometrical interpretation of the curl (𝛁 × 𝒗):
𝛻 × 𝑣 is a measure of how much the vector curls/swirls around
the point in question.

What is curl of these functions?

Zero
Geometrical interpretation of the curl (𝛁 × 𝒗):
𝛻 × 𝑣 is a measure of how much the vector curls/swirls around
the point in question.

These functions have curls pointing in z-direction (given by right

hand rule : Curl your fingers in direction of swirl, then thumb
gives direction of curl.)

Calculate curl of the function 𝒗 = −𝒚 𝒙 + 𝒙 𝒚.

Fundamental Theorem for divergences (Green’s
theorem or Gauss’s theorem):
This theorem states that :
(V represents volume and
𝛻. 𝑣 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑎
𝒗 represents a vector)
V S

dτ is integration over volume V (dxdydz).

In words, it says that the integral of a divergence over a volume

V is equal to the value of the function at the boundary (here,
surface S that bounds volume.

The boundary of a volume is a closed surface, that of a surface

is a closed line. But the boundary of a line is just two points.
Fundamental Theorem for curls (Stoke’s theorem):
𝛻 × 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 = 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑙
S P

It says that integral of curl over a region of surface S is equal to

the value of function at the boundary (here perimeter of surface,
P).
Maxwell’s first equation (Gauss’s Law) :

Flux of 𝐸 through a surface S is measure of “number of field

lines” passing through S
𝜑𝐸 ≡ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑎
s
(The dot product picks out area 𝑑𝑎 in direction of 𝐸.)

This means total flux through a closed surface is measure of

total charge inside. This is essence of Gauss’s Law.
Maxwell’s first equation (Gauss’s Law) :
If there is point charge at origin, flux E through a spherical radius
of r is

+q

𝑞 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑟
𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 = 𝑟 ∙ 𝑟
4𝜋𝜖0𝑟2
𝑞 𝑞
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝜖0

For any closed surface, whatever its shape, would be pierced by

same number of field lines. Hence, flux through any surface
enclosing charge q is 𝑞 𝜖0 .
Maxwell’s first equation (Gauss’s Law) :
𝑞
𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 = (1)
𝜖0
Applying divergence theorem 𝛻. 𝑣 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 on
V S
L.H.S., eq. (1) can be written

𝑞 𝜌
𝛻. 𝐸 𝑑𝜏 = ⇒ 𝛻. 𝐸 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑑𝜏 ∵𝑞= 𝜌 𝑑𝜏
𝜖0 𝜖0 V
V V V

𝝆 (Maxwell’s First Equation in

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝜵. 𝑬 =
𝝐𝟎 differential form)
Maxwell’s Second equation:
Flux of 𝑩 through a surface S is measure of “number of field
lines” passing through S
𝜑𝐵 ≡ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑎

(The dot product picks out area 𝑑𝑎 in direction of 𝐵.) For a

closed surface S,

𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 = 0 (Because number of lines entering and

S
leaving closed surface has to be same)
 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 = 0 (2)
S

𝛻. 𝐵 𝑑𝜏 = 0
V

⟹ 𝛁. 𝑩 = 0 (Maxwell’s Second Equation in

differential form)
Maxwell’s third equation (Faraday’s Law):
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction says that the induced
emf (𝜀) is rate of change of magnetic flux (𝜑)
𝑑𝜑
𝜀=−
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝜀=− 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑡

𝜕𝐵
𝜀=− ∙ 𝑑𝑎 (2)
𝜕𝑡
S
Maxwell’s third equation (Faraday’s Law):

(3)
S

𝜕𝐵
From eq. (2) and (3) ∇ × 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 = − ∙ 𝑑𝑎
S S 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐵 (Maxwell’s Third Equation in

⇒ ∇×𝐸 =− differential form)
𝜕𝑡
Maxwell’s third equation (Faraday’s Law):
𝜕𝐵
⇒ 𝛻×𝐸 =−
𝜕𝑡
Taking divergence on both sides

𝜕(∇ ∙ 𝐵)
∇ ∙ (𝛻 × 𝐸) = −
𝜕𝑡

L. H. S. of above eq. is zero because divergence of curl of any

vector is zero and R. H. S. is zero from Maxwell’s second
equation (∇ ∙ 𝐵 = 0).

Hence, everything is okay so far.

Ampere’s Circuital Law:
According to Ampere’s circuital law, if 𝑑𝑙
is perimeter of Amperian loop and Ienc is
current enclosed by that loop
𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 (4)

Using Stoke’s theorem: 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = (∇ × 𝐵) ∙ 𝑑𝑎

And 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐽 ∙ 𝑑𝑎

Hence, equation (4) becomes 𝛻 × 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 = 𝜇0 𝐽 ∙ 𝑑𝑎

Therefore, ∇ × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽 (Ampere’s Circuital Law in

differential form)
Electrodynamics before Maxwell:
𝝆
1. 𝜵. 𝑬 = 𝝐𝟎
(Gauss’s Law)
2. 𝜵. 𝑩 = 0 (No Name)
𝝏𝑩
3. 𝜵 × 𝑬 = − 𝝏𝒕
(Faraday’s Law)
4. 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑱 (Ampere’s Law)
Equation of continuity:
Current density (𝐽) : Defined as current per unit area (area being
parallel to direction of flow)
𝐼= 𝐽 ∙ 𝑑𝑎
S
The charge per unit time leaving a volume is
𝐽 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 = 𝛻 ∙ 𝐽 𝑑𝜏 (Using Gauss’ divergence theorem)
S V

Because charge is conserved, so whatever is flowing through

surface must come at expense of what remains inside

𝑑 𝜕𝜌
𝛻 ∙ 𝐽 𝑑𝜏 = − 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 = − 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
V V V
 Equation of continuity:
𝑑 𝜕𝜌
𝛻 ∙ 𝐽 𝑑𝜏 = − 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 = − 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
V V V

ρ is the charge density (charge per unit volume).

(-ve sign because the outward flow decreases the charge left in
volume V.)
𝜕𝜌
⟹ ∇∙𝐽 =− (Equation of continuity)
𝜕𝑡

When a steady current (I) is flowing through a wire then its

magnitude I must be same all along line; otherwise charge would
𝜕𝜌
be piling up somewhere. Because = 0, hence 𝛻 ∙ 𝐽 = 0.
𝜕𝑡
Problem with Ampere’s Circuital Law:
Ampere’s circuital law states that 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽
Taking divergence on both sides ∇ ∙ (𝛻 × 𝐵) = 𝜇0 (∇ ∙ 𝐽)

As discussed before divergence of curl for any vector is zero , so,

L.H.S. is zero but R. H.S. might not be zero necessarily. Actually.
R.H.S. is zero only when a steady current is flowing (As
discussed in continuity equation).
Problem with Ampere’s Circuital Law:

𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐

There could be two surfaces for which closed path is boundary

and for both surfaces same amount of current pierces the surface.
So, Ampere’s law works fine!!
Problem with Ampere’s Circuital Law:

𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐

But when charge is piling up somewhere like in case of capacitor,

Ampere’s circuital law fails. Again for closed path as boundary,
there are 2 surfaces shown in Fig. and for surface 1, current I
pierces it but no current pierces surface 2 which is contradictory.
How Maxwell fixed Ampere’s Circuital Law:
Maxwell fixed it by purely theoretical arguments.

Ampere’s circuital law states that 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽

Taking divergence on both sides 𝛻 ∙ (𝛻 × 𝐵) = 𝜇0 (𝛻 ∙ 𝐽)
L.H.S. is zero but R. H.S. might not be zero which is issue. R. H.
S. can be rewritten using continuity equation :
𝜕𝜌 𝜌
∇∙𝐽 =− Using Gauss Law : ∇ ∙ 𝐸 =
𝜕𝑡 𝜖0

𝜕 𝜕𝐸
⟹ ∇∙𝐽 =− 𝜖0 ∇ ∙ 𝐸 = − ∇ ∙ 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
How Maxwell fixed Ampere’s Circuital Law:
𝜕 𝜕𝐸 (5)
𝛻∙𝐽 =− 𝜖0 𝛻 ∙ 𝐸 = − 𝛻 ∙ 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Ampere’s circuital law states that 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽
Taking divergence on both sides 𝛻 ∙ (𝛻 × 𝐵) = 𝜇0 (𝛻 ∙ 𝐽) (6)

Problem was R. H. S. of equation (6) not being zero, but if we

add negative of (5) in equation (6) R. H.S., then this too will be
zero i.e.
𝜕𝐸
𝛻 ∙ 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝛻 ∙ 𝐽 + 𝜖0 =0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
⟹ 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
How Maxwell fixed Ampere’s Circuital Law:

𝜕𝐸
𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜖0 (Maxwell’s fourth equation)
𝜕𝑡
Changing electric field produces magnetic field just as changing
Magnetic field induces an electric field (Faraday’s law)!!

Maxwell called his extra term as displacement current

𝜕𝐸
𝐽 𝐷 ≡ 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
Now, Ampere’s circuital law becomes
𝜕𝐸
𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 + 𝜇0 𝜖0 ∙ 𝑑𝑎
𝜕𝑡
How Maxwell fixed Ampere’s Circuital Law:
Electric field between capacitor plates is
𝜎 𝑄 𝜕𝐸 1 𝑑𝑄 1
𝐸= = ⟹ = = 𝐼
𝜖0 𝜖0𝐴 𝜕𝑡 𝜖0𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝜖0𝐴
Ampere’s circuital law after Maxwell’s
change :
𝜕𝐸
𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 + 𝜇0 𝜖0 ∙ 𝑑𝑎
𝜕𝑡
For surface 1, E = 0 and Ienc = I. For surface 2, Ienc = 0, Hence

𝜕𝐸 𝐼
𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝜕𝑡 𝜖0
Hence, we get same answer for either surface!!
Maxwell’s Equations :

𝝆
1. 𝜵. 𝑬 = (Gauss’s Law)
𝝐𝟎

2. 𝜵. 𝑩 = 0 (No Name)

𝝏𝑩
3. 𝜵 × 𝑬 = − (Faraday’s Law)
𝝏𝒕

𝝏𝑬
4. 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑱 + 𝝁𝟎𝝐𝟎
𝝏𝒕
(Ampere’s Law with

Maxwell’s correction)
EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
In free space, charge density ρ = 0, current density 𝐽 = 0. Hence,
Maxwell’s equations are
𝝆
1. 𝜵. 𝑬 = 𝝐𝟎
𝐛𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝜵. 𝑬 = 0

2. 𝜵. 𝑩 = 𝟎 𝐛𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝜵. 𝑩 = 𝟎
𝝏𝑩 𝝏𝑩
3. 𝜵 × 𝑬 = − 𝝏𝒕
𝐛𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝜵×𝑬=−
𝝏𝒕

𝝏𝑬 𝝏𝑬
4. 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑱 + 𝝁𝟎𝝐𝟎
𝝏𝒕
𝐛𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎𝝐𝟎
𝝏𝒕

Here 𝜇0 is permeability and 𝜖0 is permittivity of free space.

EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
Taking curl of Maxwell’s third equation
𝜕𝐵
∇ × (𝛻 × 𝐸) = −∇ ×
𝜕𝑡
𝜕
⟹ ∇ ∇∙𝐸 − ∇∙∇ 𝐸 =− ∇×𝐵
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
(because 𝛻 ∙ 𝐸 = 0 and 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕𝐸
⟹ 0 − ∇2 𝐸
=− 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
2 𝜕2 𝐸
⟹ 𝛻 𝐸 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 2
𝜕𝑡
𝜕2𝐸 1
⟹ 2 = 𝛻2𝐸 (7)
𝜕𝑡 𝜇0 𝜖 0
EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
Taking curl of Maxwell’s fourth equation
∂E
∇ × (∇ × B) = ∇ × (μ0ϵ0 )
∂t
𝜕
⟹ ∇ ∇ ∙ 𝐵 − ∇ ∙ ∇ 𝐵 = μ0ϵ0 ∇×𝐸
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐵
(because 𝛻 ∙ 𝐵 = 0 and 𝛻 × 𝐸 = − )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2𝐵
⟹ 0 − 𝛻 2 𝐵 = −μ0ϵ0 2
𝜕𝑡
𝜕2𝐵 1 2
⟹ 2
= 𝛻 𝐵 (8)
𝜕𝑡 μ0ϵ0
EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
𝜕2𝐸 1 2 (7) 𝜕2𝐵 1 2 (8)
2
= 𝛻 𝐸 and 2
= 𝛻 𝐵
𝜕𝑡 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝜕𝑡 μ0ϵ0

Equation of plane wave travelling in x direction is given by

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)

𝜕2𝑦 2
𝜕 2
𝑦 𝜔
And = 𝑣 (𝑣 = ) (9)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑘
Comparing equation (9) with (7) and (8), speed of 𝐸 and 𝐵 will
1
be given by = 3 × 108 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐 .
𝜇0 𝜖0
EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
𝜕2𝐸 1 2
2
= 𝛻 𝐸 (7)
𝜕𝑡 𝜇 0 𝜖0
Solution of equation (7) will be
𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐸 0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡)
𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐸0𝑥 𝑥 + 𝐸0𝑦 𝑦 + 𝐸0𝑧 𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡)

𝑘 ∙ 𝑟 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 𝑧 ∙ 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑧
= 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 𝑧

or 𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑥 𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑧 where

𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) , 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) , 𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸0𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡)

EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
𝜕2𝐵 1 2
2
= 𝛻 𝐵 (8)
𝜕𝑡 μ0ϵ0

Solution of equation (8) will be

𝐵 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐵 0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡)
𝐵 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐵0𝑥 𝑥 + 𝐵0𝑦 𝑦 + 𝐵0𝑧 𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡)

𝑘 ∙ 𝑟 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 𝑧 ∙ 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑧
= 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 𝑧

or 𝐵 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑧 where

𝐵𝑥 = 𝐵0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) , 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐵0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) , 𝐵𝑧 = 𝐵0𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡)

EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑥 𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑧
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) , 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) , 𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸0𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡)
Putting these values in Maxwell’s first equation in free space
𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧
∇∙𝐸 =0 ⟹ + + =0 (9)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐸𝑥
= 𝑖𝑘𝑥𝐸0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) = 𝑖 𝑘𝑥 𝐸𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧
Similarly = 𝑖𝑘𝑦𝐸𝑦 and = 𝑖𝑘𝑧𝐸𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Hence equation (9) becomes 𝑖𝑘𝑥𝐸𝑥 + 𝑖𝑘𝑦𝐸𝑦 + 𝑖𝑘𝑧𝐸𝑧 = 0
⟹𝑖 𝑘∙𝐸 =0
Dot product of two vectors is zero when they are
perpendicular to each other. It means 𝒌 ⊥ 𝑬.
EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
𝐵 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑧
𝐵𝑥 = 𝐵0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) , 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐵0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) , 𝐵𝑧 = 𝐵0𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡)
Putting these values in Maxwell’s first equation in free space
𝜕𝐵𝑥 𝜕𝐵𝑦 𝜕𝐵𝑧
∇∙𝐵 =0 ⟹ + + =0 (10)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐵𝑥
= 𝑖𝑘𝑥𝐵0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) = 𝑖 𝑘𝑥 𝐵𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐵𝑦 𝜕𝐵𝑧
Similarly = 𝑖𝑘𝑦𝐵𝑦 and = 𝑖𝑘𝑧𝐵𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Hence equation (10) becomes 𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝑖𝑘𝑦𝐵𝑦 + 𝑖𝑘𝑧𝐵𝑧 = 0
⟹𝑖 𝑘∙𝐵 =0
It means 𝒌 ⊥ 𝑩.
EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
𝜕𝐵
Maxwell’s third equation : ∇×𝐸 =− (11)
𝜕𝑡
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻×𝐸 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝑧
𝜕𝐸𝑧 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧 𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑥
= 𝑥 − −𝑦 − +𝑧 −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥 𝑖𝑘𝑦 𝐸𝑧 − 𝑖𝑘𝑧 𝐸𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝐸𝑧 − 𝑖𝑘𝑧 𝐸𝑥 + 𝑧 𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝐸𝑦 − 𝑖𝑘𝑦 𝐸𝑥
= 𝑖 (𝑘 × 𝐸) (12)

(𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) , 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) , 𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸0𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡)

𝜕𝐸𝑧
= 𝑖𝑘𝑦𝐸0𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) = 𝑖 𝑘𝑦 𝐸𝑧 and so on……)
𝜕𝑦
EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
𝜕𝐵
Maxwell’s third equation : ∇×𝐸 =− (11)
𝜕𝑡
𝛻 × 𝐸 = 𝑖 (𝑘 × 𝐸)
𝜕𝐵 𝜕
And − = − 𝐵0 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘∙𝑟 −𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖𝜔𝐵
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Putting value of L.H.S. and R. H.S. in equation (11)

𝑖 𝑘 × 𝐸 = 𝑖𝜔𝐵 or 𝑘 × 𝐸 = 𝜔𝐵 (12)

From equation (12), 𝑩 ⊥ 𝑬 and 𝑩 ⊥ 𝒌 . We already proved 𝑬 ⊥ 𝒌

which means 𝑩 ⊥ 𝑬 ⊥ 𝒌.

Hence, EM waves are transverse in nature.

EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
We just derived 𝑘 × 𝐸 = 𝜔𝐵
𝑘 𝐸 sin 90° = 𝜔 𝐵 (13) ( 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐸 ⊥ 𝑘 )

(𝐵 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐵0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) and 𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐸 0𝑒 𝑖(𝑘∙𝑟−𝜔𝑡) )

∗ ∗
𝐵 = 𝐵 𝐵 = 𝐵0 and similarly 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐸 = 𝐸0
So, equation (13) becomes
𝜔 𝜔
𝐸0 = 𝐵0 = 𝑐 𝐵0 (14) ∵ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐 =
𝑘 𝑘

Hence, magnitude of electric field is c times magnitude of magnetic

field. That is why direction of polarisation is denoted by electric field
conventionally.
EM wave equation in free space/vacuum :
Equation (14) states that 𝐸0 = 𝑐 𝐵0

Space impedance (Z0) is defined as

𝐸 𝐸0
𝑍0 = = 𝜇0 (𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐻)
𝐻 𝐵0
𝐵0
= 𝜇0 𝑐 = 𝜇0 𝑐
𝐵0
1 𝜇0
= 𝜇0 =
𝜇0 𝜖0 𝜖0
= 376.7 Ω
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝜕𝜌
From equation of continuity ∇∙𝐽 =−
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
⟹ = − ∇ ∙ 𝜎𝐸
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
⟹ = −𝜎 ∇ ∙ 𝐸
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌 𝜌
⟹ = −𝜎
𝜕𝑡 𝜖
𝜕𝜌 𝜎
⟹ = − 𝜕𝑡
𝜌 𝜖
𝜎
Integrating on both sides ln(𝜌) 𝜌𝜌 = − t t
0
0 𝜖
𝜎
− 𝜖 𝑡
𝜌= 𝜌0 𝑒
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝜎
− 𝑡
𝜌 = 𝜌0 𝑒 𝜖

Characteristic time or charge relaxation time (𝜏 = 𝜖 𝜎) is defined as

time in which charge reduces to 1/e of its initial value.

Characteristic time is a measure of how good conductor is. Smaller it

is, better conductor it is.

For ex. Characteristic time for Cu is 4.5 × 10−19 𝑠𝑒𝑐.

It means you can assume there is no charge inside the conductor

since it immediately flows to the surface.
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
We just said that we can assume there is no charge inside the conductor
so, one can say then ρ = 0 inside a conductor.
Let us say that μ is permeability and 𝜖 is permittivity of this medium.

Maxwell’s equations for conducting medium are :

1. 𝜵. 𝑬 = 0 (as ρ = 0 inside a conductor )

2. 𝜵. 𝑩 = 𝟎
𝝏𝑩
3. 𝜵 × 𝑬 = − 𝝏𝒕

𝝏𝑬
4. 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝝁 𝑱 + 𝝁𝝐
𝝏𝒕

Here μ is permeability and 𝜖 is permittivity of conducting medium.

EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝝏𝑩
𝜵×𝑬=−
𝝏𝒕
𝜕
Taking curl on both sides ∇ × ∇ × 𝐸 = − ∇×𝐵
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕𝐸
⟹∇ ∇∙𝐸 − ∇∙∇ 𝐸 =− 𝜇 𝐽 + 𝜇𝜖
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕𝐸
⟹0− ∇∙∇ 𝐸 =− 𝜇𝜎𝐸 + 𝜇𝜖 (∵ 𝛻 ∙ 𝐸 = 0 and 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

2𝐸
𝜕𝐸 𝜕
⟹ ∇2 𝐸 = 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜇𝜖 (13)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝝏𝑬
𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝝁 𝑱 + 𝝁𝝐
𝝏𝒕
Taking curl on both sides
𝜕
∇ × ∇ × 𝐵 = 𝜇 ∇ × 𝐽 + 𝜇𝜖 ∇×𝐸
𝜕𝑡
𝜕
⟹ ∇ ∇ ∙ 𝐵 − ∇ ∙ ∇ 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝛻 × 𝜎𝐸 + 𝜇𝜖 𝛻×𝐸 (∵ 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸)
𝜕𝑡
2
2
𝜕𝐵 𝜕 𝐵 𝜕𝐵
⟹ 0 − ∇ 𝐵 = −𝜇𝜎 − 𝜇𝜖 2 (∵ 𝛻 × 𝐸 = − )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

2𝐵
𝜕𝐵 𝜕
⟹ ∇2 𝐵 = 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜇𝜖 (14)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝜕𝐸 𝜕 2𝐸 2
𝜕𝐵 𝜕 𝐵
∇2 𝐸 = 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜇𝜖 2
∇ 𝐵 = 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜇𝜖
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
Since we have established EM waves are transverse in nature. So, if
EM wave is travelling along z-axis, Electric field along y-axis then
magnetic field will be along x-axis i.e.
𝐸 = 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡) 𝑦 𝐵 = 𝐵0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡) 𝑥
Putting value of 𝐸 in above equation (13) :
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
2
+ 2+ 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡) =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜕 2
𝜇𝜎 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡) + 𝜇𝜖 2 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
⟹ 𝑖𝑘 2𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡 = 𝜇𝜎 −𝑖𝜔 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡 + 𝜇𝜖 −𝑖𝜔 2𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡)
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
⟹ 𝑖𝑘 2𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡
= 𝜇𝜎 −𝑖𝜔 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡
+ 𝜇𝜖 −𝑖𝜔 2𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡)

⟹ 𝑖𝑘 2 = 𝜇𝜎 −𝑖𝜔 + 𝜇𝜖 −𝑖𝜔 2

⟹ −𝑘 2 = −𝑖𝜇𝜎𝜔 − 𝜇𝜖 𝜔2
⟹ 𝑘 2 = 𝑖𝜇𝜎𝜔 + 𝜇𝜖𝜔2 (15)

You can get equation (15) by putting value of 𝐵 in equation (14).

Equation (15) also implies that k can be written as
𝑘 = 𝑘+ + 𝑖𝑘− ⟹ 𝑘 2 = 𝑘+ 2 − 𝑘− 2 + 2𝑖𝑘+ 𝑘− (16)

Comparing eq. (15) and (16)

𝜇𝜖𝜔2 = 𝑘+ 2 − 𝑘− 2
𝜇𝜎𝜔
𝜇𝜎𝜔 = 2𝑘+ 𝑘− ⟹ 𝑘− =
2𝑘+
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝜇𝜖𝜔2 = 𝑘+ 2 − 𝑘− 2 (17)
𝜇𝜎𝜔
𝜇𝜎𝜔 = 2𝑘+ 𝑘− ⟹ 𝑘− = (18)
2𝑘+

Putting value of k- from eq. (18) to (17)

2
𝜇𝜎𝜔
𝜇𝜖𝜔2 = 𝑘+ 2 −
2𝑘+
𝜇𝜎𝜔 2
⟹ 𝑘+ 4 − 𝜇𝜖𝜔2 𝑘+ 2 − =0
2

This is quadratic equation, solving it we will get

𝜇𝜖𝜔2 ± 𝜇𝜖𝜔 2 2 + 𝜇𝜎𝜔 2
𝑘+ 2 =
2
𝜇𝜖𝜔2 𝜎
Or 𝑘+ 2 = 1± 1+
2 𝜖𝜔
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝜇𝜖𝜔2 𝜎 2
Or 𝑘+ 2 = 1± 1+
2 𝜖𝜔

On physical grounds, -ve sign is not acceptable, because 𝑘+ 2 will

be negative. From previous equations :
𝜇𝜖𝜔2 = 𝑘+ 2 − 𝑘− 2
𝜇𝜎𝜔
𝜇𝜎𝜔 = 2𝑘+ 𝑘− ⟹ 𝑘+ =
2𝑘−
Solving this time for 𝑘− as before done for 𝑘+ , one will get
𝜇𝜖𝜔2 𝜎 2
Or 𝑘− 2 = −1 ± 1 +
2 𝜖𝜔

Again, on physical grounds, -ve sign (± between brackets) is not

acceptable, because 𝑘− 2 will be negative
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝜇𝜖𝜔2 𝜎 2
𝑘± 2 = ±1+ 1+
2 𝜖𝜔
1 1
2 2
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2 𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
⟹ 𝑘+ = 𝜔 1+ 1+ and 𝑘− = 𝜔 −1 + 1 +
2 𝜖𝜔 2 𝜖𝜔

Both k+ as well as k- are frequency (ω) dependent. We had defined

wave vector (k), electric field (𝐸) and magnetic field (𝐵) as
𝑘 = 𝑘+ + 𝑖𝑘− and 𝐸 = 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡) 𝑦 and 𝐵 = 𝐵0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑧−𝜔𝑡) 𝑥

Electric field (𝐸) and magnetic field (𝐵) can be now written as :

𝐸 = 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖( 𝑘+ +𝑖𝑘− 𝑧−𝜔𝑡)

𝑦 𝐵 = 𝐵0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖(( 𝑘+ +𝑖𝑘− 𝑧−𝜔𝑡)
𝑥
or 𝐸 = 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 −𝑘− 𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘+ 𝑧−𝜔𝑡) 𝑦 𝐵 = 𝐵0𝑥 𝑒 −𝑘− 𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘+ 𝑧−𝜔𝑡) 𝑥

Damping term
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝐸 = 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 −𝑘− 𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘+ 𝑧−𝜔𝑡) 𝑦 𝐵 = 𝐵0𝑥 𝑒 −𝑘− 𝑧 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘+ 𝑧−𝜔𝑡) 𝑥

Damping term

Skin depth (δ) is defined as the distance at which 𝐸 and 𝐵 are reduced
to 1/e of its initial value.
1 𝐸0𝑦 𝐵0𝑥
When 𝑧 = , 𝐸 = and 𝐵 = , this value of z will be skin
𝑘− 𝑒 𝑒
depth (δ).

Real part of wave vector k+ determines wavelength (λ) and

propagation speed (v).
2𝜋 𝜔
𝜆= and 𝑣=
𝑘+ 𝑘+
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
Schematic representation of skin depth (Wave is travelling in x-
direction):
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝝈
For poor conductor (𝝈 ≪ 𝝐𝝎 or ≪ 𝟏) ∶
𝝐𝝎
1
2
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
𝑘+ = 𝜔 1+ 1+
2 𝜖𝜔

𝝈
Since ≪ 𝟏, so it can be neglected
𝝐𝝎

𝜇𝜖 1
2
⟹ 𝑘+ ≅ 𝜔 1+ 1
2
𝜇𝜖 1
⟹ 𝑘+ ≅ 𝜔 2 2
2

⟹ 𝑘+ ≅ 𝜔 𝜇𝜖
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝝈
For poor conductor (𝝈 ≪ 𝝐𝝎 or ≪ 𝟏) ∶
𝝐𝝎
1
2
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
𝑘− = 𝜔 −1 + 1 +
2 𝜖𝜔

𝑛 𝑛(𝑛−1) 2
Uisng binomial theorem when x < 1, 1 + 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 …….
2!
1
𝜇𝜖 1 𝜎 2 2
⟹ 𝑘− = 𝜔 −1 + 1 + +⋯
2 2 𝜖𝜔
1
𝜇𝜖 1 𝜎 2 2
⟹ 𝑘− = 𝜔
2 2 𝜖𝜔

𝜇𝜖 1 𝜎
⟹ 𝑘− = 𝜔
2 2 𝜖𝜔
𝝈 𝝁
⟹ 𝒌− =
𝟐 𝝐
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝝈
For poor conductor (𝝈 ≪ 𝝐𝝎 or ≪ 𝟏) ∶
𝝐𝝎
𝝈 𝝁
⟹ 𝒌− =
𝟐 𝝐
𝟏 𝟐 𝝐
Skin depth 𝜹 = =
𝒌− 𝝈 𝝁

Notice that skin depth ( 𝛿 ) is independent of frequency (ω) for a poor

conductor. That means out of spectrum shown below whatever is incident
wave, the penetration into medium will be same as long as 𝝈 ≪ 𝝐𝝎 is true.
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝝈
For good conductor (𝝈 ≫ 𝝐𝝎 or ≫ 𝟏) ∶
𝝐𝝎
1
2
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
𝑘+ = 𝜔 1+ 1+
2 𝜖𝜔
𝝈 𝝈
Since ≫ 𝟏, so we can ignore 1 in comparison to and k+ will be
𝝐𝝎 𝝐𝝎
1
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
𝑘+ ≅ 𝜔
2 𝜖𝜔

𝜎𝜔𝜇
⟹ 𝑘+ ≅
2
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝝈
For good conductor (𝝈 ≫ 𝝐𝝎 or ≫ 𝟏) ∶
𝝐𝝎
1
2
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
𝑘− = 𝜔 −1 + 1 +
2 𝜖𝜔
𝝈 𝝈
Since ≫ 𝟏, so we can ignore 1 in comparison to and k- will be
𝝐𝝎 𝝐𝝎
1
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
𝑘− ≅ 𝜔
2 𝜖𝜔

𝝈𝝎𝝁 𝜎𝜔𝜇
⟹ 𝒌− ≅ 𝑤𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑘+ ≅
𝟐 2

Hence, for good conductor, k+ = k-

EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝝈
For good conductor (𝝈 ≫ 𝝐𝝎 or ≫ 𝟏) ∶
𝝐𝝎
𝜎𝜔𝜇
𝑘− ≅
2
𝟏 𝟐
Skin depth 𝜹 = =
𝒌− 𝝈𝝎𝝁

Notice that skin depth ( 𝛿 ) is dependent on frequency (ω) for a good

conductor. Higher is frequency (ω), less will be skin depth (𝛿 ).

For copper, with 𝜇 ≈ 𝜇0 0 and 𝜎 = 5.8 × 107 𝑆/𝑚 at a frequency of 60

Hz, 𝛿 ≈ 9 mm;
at 1 MHz, 𝛿 ≈ 6.6 × 10−5 m
and at 30,000 MHz (radar wavelength of 1 cm), 𝛿 ≈ 3.8 × 10−7 m.

We see also why a conductor can act to ‘shield’ a region from

electromagnetic waves.
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
Schematic representation of skin depth :

For ex. Silver has conductivity 𝜎 = 6.30 × 107 𝑆 𝑚 and permittivity

𝜖0 ≈ 𝜖 ≈ 8.85 × 10−12 𝐹 𝑚. For frequency 1010 Hz, condition of good
conductor is satisfied, skin depth is approx. 0.6 μm.

Wavelength of radiation of frequency 1010 Hz is about 3 cm; but in silver

2𝜋 2𝜋
wavelength is 𝜆 = = = 2𝜋𝛿 ≈ 4𝜇𝑚. (for good conductor k+ = k-)
𝑘+ 𝑘−
EM wave equation in conducting medium :
𝝈
For good conductor (𝝈 ≫ 𝝐𝝎 or ≫ 𝟏) ∶
𝝐𝝎
The phase difference between electric filed and magnetic field in a good
conductor is given by
𝑘−
tan 𝜙 = =1 (for good conductor k+ = k-)
𝑘+
⟹ 𝜙 = 45°

A schematic representation of phase

difference and exponential decaying
amplitude in a good conductor for a wave
travelling in z–direction, electric field
oscillating along x-axis and magnetic field
oscillating along y-axis.
A pictorial representation of travelling wave :