Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology (2022) 63:793–807

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-022-00457-z

RESEARCH REPORT

Properties of paper‑based biodegradable pots for growing seedlings

Bhola Paudel1 · Jayanta Kumar Basak2 · Bolappa Gamage Kaushalya Madhavi1 · Na‑Eun Kim1 ·
Gun‑Ho Lee3 · Gyeong‑Mun Choi2 · Young‑Woo Choi3 · Hyeon Tae Kim1

Received: 4 April 2022 / Revised: 5 June 2022 / Accepted: 6 June 2022 / Published online: 20 July 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Korean Society for Horticultural Science 2022

Abstract
The disadvantageous properties of plastic and plastic wastes have resulted in biodegradable products and seedling pots gain-
ing popularity. Agents of different strengths and sizes agents are usually mixed in the paper pulp to enhance the strength
of paper-based seedlings pots. In this study, three types of paper-based seedling pots, with 0%, 3% and 5% of additives,
named N0, N3, and N5, respectively, were tested to determine their physical, mechanical and biodegradation properties.
Water absorption test results showed that the absorption rate was higher in N0, followed by N3 and N5; a similar pattern was
observed in the maximum water absorption, thickness and solubility tests. The tensile test showed the highest strength in N3
(3.9 MPa), followed by N0 (3.8 MPa) and N5 (3.1 MPa) at 0% moisture absorption. However, at 100% moisture absorption,
tensile strength dropped the most for N0 (82%), followed by N3 (67%) and N5 (65%). Hybrid broccoli seeds germinated
inside the plant factory showed that 95% germinated within 13 days. Temporal data showed that germination time was most
delayed in N5. No significant difference was found in seedling height; however, a significant difference was found in the root
to shoot height ratio. N0 showed maximum weight and tensile strength loss on the biodegradation test, followed by N3 and
N5. At the end of the fourth week, the tensile strength of N0, N3 and N5 was found to be 0.25 MPa, 0.69 MPa and 0.79 MPa,
respectively, which was reduced by 94%, 81%, and 79%, respectively, compared to their initial strength. In conclusion, pots
containing water repellent additives showed different properties than those without additives, except for germination and
seedling growth. This experiment confirms that using additives will increase the strength of paper-based seedling pots in
wet conditions without affecting the germination and growth of seedlings.

Keywords Biodegradation · Seedling pots · Properties · Biodegradable pot · Paper waste · Plug-trays · Additives

1 Introduction

The uses of plastic products in everyday life are ever-increas-

ing due to their remarkable properties, including being
lightweight, durable, economical, and versatile. However,
Communicated by Jun Gu Lee.

* Hyeon Tae Kim Gyeong‑Mun Choi

[email protected] [email protected]
Bhola Paudel Young‑Woo Choi
[email protected] [email protected]
Jayanta Kumar Basak 1
Department of Bio‑Systems Engineering, Gyeongsang
[email protected]
National University (Institute of Smart Farm), Jinju 52828,
Bolappa Gamage Kaushalya Madhavi Republic of Korea
[email protected] 2
Smart Farm Research Center, Gyeongsang National
Na‑Eun Kim University, Jinju 52828, Republic of Korea
[email protected] 3
Department of Smart Farm, Graduate School of Gyeongsang
Gun‑Ho Lee National University (Institute of Agriculture & Life Science),
[email protected] Jinju 52828, Republic of Korea

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794 Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology (2022) 63:793–807

their non-degradation characteristics result in the highest germination; the findings showed 100% seed germination
amount of municipal and agricultural waste (Zhao et al. in all seedlings pots with optimum strength compared to
2021). Due to the increasing number of plant nurseries and other commercial seedlings pots (Juanga-Labayen and Yuan
greenhouses, seedling pots have become popular for germi- 2021a, 2021b).
nation and growing seedlings. The advantage of preparing The rapid development and testing of various materials
seedlings in pots is to facilitate transplanting compared to to prepare degradable biopolymer have been reported since
seedlings prepared traditionally in soil (Singh et al. 2007; 2018. Biodegradable containers for plants have been manu-
Zhang et al. 2019). Similarly, this method also reduces the factured from industrial leather waste mixed with natural
rising period of the plant seedling, and preparation costs, as filler (Sartore et al. 2018), seaweed waste (G. verrucosa and
well as makes it possible to control growth rate by altering K. alvarezii) mixed with wood powder and adhesive (Alam-
the growth media and controlling the supply of nutrients sjah et al. 2018), fibres of Mediterranean seagrass (Posi-
and water as required (Choi et al. 2019; Park et al. 2021; donia oceanica) and composites of poly hydroxybutyrate-
Singh et al. 2007; Xu et al. 2021). The use of plastic seed- co-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) (Balestri et al. 2019; Seggiani
ling pots began in 1960 and increased rapidly in western et al. 2018), banana peels mixed with biomaterials such as
countries (Styer and Koranski 1997). Nowadays, because of tapioca starch, vinegar, and glycerol (Rafee et al. 2019), as
the increase in plastic waste and concern for environmental well as straw fibre and hydrolysed soybean (Sun et al. 2019).
pollution, people prefer biodegradable products over plastics After 2019, agricultural waste (water hyacinth and coco-
and researchers have started to develop and study the proper- nut coir) (Iriany et al. 2020), cattle manure and wood waste
ties of seedlings grown in biodegradable pots (Basak et al. (Manafi-Dastjerdi et al. 2021), nonwoven jute composites
2019; Jang et al. 2020; Jeong et al. 2020; Lee and Lee 2019; based on soya (Behera et al. 2021), textile and paper waste
Ndikumana et al. 2019), to ultimately offer an alternate way (Juanga-Labayen and Yuan 2021a, 2021b), rubber sludge,
to reduce plastic waste. mushroom and palm waste (Kaewmanee 2021), palm trunk
Biodegradable seedling pots, an eco-friendly option over (Choowang et al. 2022), paddy straw and starch (Saha and
plastic seedling pots, are prepared from various organic Hariprasad 2022) were used to manufacture biodegradable
constituents (Barbosa and Castillo 2020). Plants germinated and horticultural pots.
and transplanted in biodegradable pots show better long- Modern seedling transplanters are designed to automati-
term growth than plants germinated in plastic pots due to cally select individual seedling pots from trays (Khadatkar
the removal of transplanting shock (Muriuki et al. 2014). et al. 2021). However, for efficient transplanting, the strength
Biodegradable seedling pots allow researchers to design and other properties of seedling pots need to be identified
and use the transplanter in the field by eliminating the step beforehand as the strength of pots is significantly affected
of removing the pot from the seedling during transplant- by their water absorption characteristics (Evans and Hensley
ing (Kumar and Raheman 2011). Studies have investigated 2004; Zhang et al. 2019). The effects of various organic or
the decomposition of degradable materials when buried chemical agents used as binding agents in biodegradable
in the soil and showed that the fertilizing effect on pepper pots (Fuentes et al. 2021; Manafi-Dastjerdi et al. 2021; Prith-
plants resulted in higher plant growth and leaf development ivirajan et al. 2015; Sun et al. 2018) on seedling germination
(Fuentes et al. 2021). and growth need to be studied. Similarly, the biodegradation
The development and use of biodegradable pots have been test will help identify whether the pot materials are com-
recorded since the early 1990s. In 1991, Warner Walden- postable or suitable for planting (Evans et al. 2010; Evans
meier patented the foldable, biodegradable plant pot made and Hensley 2004) to determine if the pot materials degrade
from a flat cut-out sheet (corrugated cardboard) with a poly- fast enough when placed in the soil.
ester coating (Waldenmeier 1991). In 2004, containers made In South Korea, paper producing industries use dif-
up of peat and poultry feather waste were compared with ferent wet strengths and surface sizing agents to increase
plastic containers in terms of strength, irrigation efficiency, the paper’s strength against the effect of water (Son and
plant growth, and other properties (Evans and Hensley Kim 2005; Zhang et al. 2009). The wet strength agent will
2004; Evans and Karcher 2004). Biodegradable pots were crosslink the cellulose fibres to form covalent bonds that
prepared from tomato and hemp fibre waste that degraded improve the tensile properties of the paper in both dry and
within sixteen days with a positive influence on the height wet conditions (Ren and Li 2005). Similarly, the sizing
of the plant being grown in the pot (Schettini et al. 2013). agent will form a thin film in the fibre surface, resulting
Commercial pots made from peat moss, wood fibre, and cow in a smooth surface, repelling the water and increasing
manure were tested for water absorption, strength, germina- the hydrophobic nature of the surface (Dong et al. 2015).
tion and biodegradation (Zhang et al. 2019). Seedling pots The same technology used in the paper industry is now
made of paper and textile waste blended with cotton and being used to improve the strength of biodegradable pots
poly-cotton were tested for tensile strength, degradation, and that are made from paper waste. Most studies investigated

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paper-based pots; however, to the best of our knowledge, 2 Materials and methods
no study has been reported that used wet strength and siz-
ing agents to increase the strength of biodegradable seed- 2.1 Description and dimension of the trays
ling pots against the effect of water. The present study of seedling pots
tested the effect of different amounts of additives on the
physical, mechanical, and degradation properties of paper- Three types of trays of biodegradable seedling pots made
based biodegradable pots. We aimed to compare water from recycled paper waste were used. All the pots were
absorption, solubility, thickness, tensile and biodegrada- made up of recycled newspaper waste (80%) and cardboard
tion properties, as well as effects on germination and seed- waste (20%) as the main ingredients. Wet strength agents
ling growth, of three different seedling pots made from and surface sizing agents (additives) were added to the main
recycled paper waste with added wet strength and sizing ingredients to increase the strength of the materials against
agents under laboratory conditions. the effect of water (Table 1). The wet strength agent and
surface sizing agent are named WS-20 and AK-20, respec-
tively, in South Korea and are both biodegradable (Cui et al.
2019; Van Nguyen and Lee 2022). Three types of waste
paper-based biodegradable seedling pots, with 0%, 3%, and
5% additives, and named N0, N3, and N5, respectively, were
used in the present study. All pots were manufactured by and
imported from Dong-min Corporation, South Korea.
Individual seedling pots were removed from random posi-
Table 1  Contents of the different biodegradable seedling pots under
study
tions on the tray, and their dimensions were measured using
a Vernier calliper (CD-20APX, Mitutoyo Corp., Japan) with
N0 N3 N5 a precision of 0.01 mm. Weight was measured using a digital
Main ingredient Newspaper Newspaper News- balance (FX-300iWP, A&D Company Ltd., Tokyo, Japan)
waste (80%) waste (80%) paper with a precision of 0.01 g. The outer base, outer upper edge,
Cardboard Cardboard waste top inside edge, and height of the seedling pots were meas-
waste (20%) waste (20%) (80%)
ured (Fig. 1). Five random pieces of 15 mm × 20 mm were
Card-
board cut from the wall of each type of pot to measure its thick-
waste ness. The moisture content of the pots was measured using
(20%) the oven-dried method, i.e., at 105 °C for 24 h (Fuentes et al.
Additives Strength agent Strength agent Strength 2021) (Table 2).
(WS-20, 0%) (WS-20, 3%) agent
Sizing agent Sizing agent (WS-
(AK-20, 0%) (AK-20, 3%) 20, 5%) 2.2 Water absorption, swelling, and solubility tests
Sizing
agent A completely randomized experimental design was used to
(AK-
test for water absorption in the seedling pots. Pots treated
20, 5%)
with different amounts of sizing agents and strength addi-
Strength agent: WS-20; Main component: Polyamide epichlorohydrin tives (0%, 3%, and 5%) were used in this experiment, with
Sizing agent: AK-20; Main component: Alkyl ketene dimer

Fig. 1  An individual seedling

pot after being separated from
the pot tray, showing the differ-
ent dimensions

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Table 2  Dimensions of individual pot cells of the three different types of biodegradable seedling pots
Type Outside base dimension Outside top dimension Inside top dimension Height Weight Thickness Moisture
h (mm) w (g) t (mm) (%, db)
l1(mm) b1(mm) l2(mm) b2(mm) l3(mm) b3(mm)

N0 17.62 ± 0.25 17.07 ± 0.10 28.39 ± 0.21 28.09 ± 0.28 25.69 ± 0.21 25.03 ± 0.40 44.04 ± 0.40 1.66 ± 0.04 1.41 ± 0.11 3.06 ± 0.64
N3 21.74 ± 0.33 20.82 ± 0.19 32.12 ± 0.21 31.31 ± 0.25 30.45 ± 0.47 30.01 ± 0.50 43.22 ± 0.20 1.74 ± 0.04 1.22 ± 0.13 3.47 ± 1.04
N5 21.50 ± 0.41 20.54 ± 0.41 31.36 ± 0.13 31.08 ± 0.17 30.59 ± 0.42 30.36 ± 0.49 42.17 ± 0.37 1.50 ± 0.01 1.18 ± 0.10 3.54 ± 0.71

Data are represented as mean ± standard deviation from five replications of each type

five replicates of each treatment. Five randomly selected pot, measured after being immersed in distilled water for
seedling pots of each type were weighed using a digital bal- 24 h.
ance and immersed in a beaker of distilled water for 5 min. A solubility test of the material was performed to deter-
After 5 min, the sample was taken out of the water and mine its water-soluble content. Fifteen randomly selected
manually shaken to remove any water from the surface of samples (3 types of seedling pots × 5 replicates) were oven-
the pot. The wet samples were then weighed and immersed dried at 105 °C for 24 h to a constant weight. After measur-
in the distilled water for another 5 min. A similar procedure ing the weight (W0), specimens were immersed completely
was carried out over a period of 30 min, after which the in distilled water for 24 h. The specimens were then taken
absorbing time was increased to 15 min. Previous studies out and oven-dried at 105 °C for 24 h to a constant weight
have suggested that the moisture absorption rate increases (W). Solubility for each type of pot was calculated using
rapidly during the first 15 to 30 min and remains constant Eq. (3) (Fuentes et al. 2021):
thereafter (Manafi-Dastjerdi et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2019).
W0 − W
Therefore, after 30 min, the immersion time was increased S(%) = × 100, (3)
to 15 min. This process was repeated for 16 iterations for W0
240 min. The samples were then immersed for the next where S = percentage solubility; W0 = initial oven-dried
24 h at 25 °C to determine maximum water absorption. The weight of sample; W = weight of the oven-dried sample after
percentage change in moisture content was determined by being immersed in distilled water for 24 h.
comparing the difference in weight using Eq. (1) (Fuentes
et al. 2021):
Wn − W1 2.3 Tensile tests
WA(%) = × 100, (1)
W1
Tensile strength, elongation, young modulus, and other
where WA = percentage water absorption; W1 = weight of pot tensile properties are essential parameters to determine
before immersing into the water; Wn = weight of wet pot, the strength of materials, which is helpful when handling
measured after each immersion interval. biodegradable seedling pots. In this experiment, a factorial
The swelling of the seedling pots was evaluated following design was used to evaluate the properties of biodegrad-
the procedures described by Manafi-Dastjerdi et al. (2021). able seedling pots at various moisture levels. Three types
Two perpendicular lines were drawn on the base of the pots of biodegradable pots (N0, N3, and N5) were tested at four
and four points, namely A, B, C and D, were assigned at the different moisture levels, with five replications.
end of each line (Fig. 1). The length of each line (AB, CD) Rectangular testing specimens (15 mm × 40 mm) were cut
were measured before and after immersing in water for 24 h. from the wall of biodegradable seedling pots. The thickness
The change in the average length of each line was consid- of the samples were varied. However, the mean thickness
ered as the change in thickness, i.e. swelling. A total of 15 was 1.41 mm for N0, 1.22 mm for N3, and 1.18 mm for N5.
samples were used for this test (3 types of seedling pots × Based on the maximum water absorption of each sample,
5 replicates). The swelling percentage was calculated using specimens with four different moisture levels were prepared.
Eq. (2) (Manafi-Dastjerdi et al. 2021): The first specimen (dry) was prepared by keeping pots in a
laboratory environment for 72 h. The other three samples
t2 − t1
TS(%) = × 100, (2) with 33%, 66% and 100% moisture absorption were prepared
t1
by adding a calculated amount of water (Eq. 4) to the cor-
where TS = percentage thickness swelling; t1 = thickness of responding specimen and sealed separately in a zip tie bag
pot before immersing into the water; t2 = thickness of wet at 4 °C for 72 h for even distribution of moisture throughout
the samples.

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Final MC − Initial MC (~ 20 °C) to remove any surface water and the root and shoot
Water added (g) = Dry weight ×
100 − Final MC biomass (fresh and oven-dried) were measured using a digi-
(4) tal balance. A group of ten seedlings per pot type was tested
An EZ-20 testing machine (Ametek EZ-20 Universal to measure biomass, with three replicates of each pot type.
Testing Machine, AMETEK Lloyd Instruments Ltd, West
Nn
Sussex, UK) was used for tensile testing. The extension rate GPn = × 100%, (5)
N0
for testing was set to 1 mm/min. The testing machine was
equipped with special grips that held each edge of the speci- where GPn = germination percentage on the n-th day;
men (10 mm from each end). The bottom grip was kept sta- N0 = total number of seeds sown; Nn = total number of seeds
tionary, and the tensile force was applied when the top grip germinated by the n-th day.
moved upward. The gauge length for each specimen was
20 mm. The tensile force was applied until the extension
reached 5 mm. Tests were conducted before the experiment 2.5 Biodegradation test
to confirm that all samples broke within the extension limit
of 5 mm. A stress–strain diagram was generated, and other The biodegradation test helps to determine the biodegra-
tensile parameters (maximum load, extension until maxi- dability of the seedling pot materials and is characterized
mum load, work till maximum load and tensile strength) by loss in mass, tensile properties, and change in mor-
were recorded using the embedded control software of the phology. (Tosin et al. 2012). Several methodologies have
testing equipment (Nexygen Plus version 3.0 for Windows been developed to assess the degradability of biomaterials.
operating system). The software was also used to control the Juanga-Labayen and Yuan (2021b) performed an anaerobic
testing machine, set limits, and record the geometric proper- degradability test and a soil burial test. Sun et al. (2018)
ties of each testing specimen. used the soil burial method to determine weight loss and
tensile strength as an indicator of biodegradation. Fuentes
2.4 Seed germination and growth test et al. (2021) tested the degradability of biodegradable pots
made from agro-industrial waste and by-products using a
Sixteen seedling pots were selected from each main tray of soil burial test. Comparing images (surface morphology)
pots and filled with commercial growing media, i.e. peat obtained via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) before
moss soil (Klasmann-Deilmann Gmbh, Germany). Seeds of and after the degradation test helps to identify the change in
Brassica oleracea var. italica, commonly known as Hybrid morphology of the materials (Sun et al. 2016).
Broccoli (F1 hybrid seeds, Asia Seed Co. Ltd., Seoul, In this study, we determined the biodegradability of the
Korea), were used for germination. One seed was placed in seedling pots using the soil burial method. Commercial
each seedling pot (14 cells in total; one seedling per pot cell) soil media, (Brand: Bio-plus compost, Composition: 9.00%
at a depth of 13 mm (~ 0.5 in) from the soil's surface and zeolite, 11.00% perlite, 11.00% peat moss, and 68.86%
covered with the same commercial growing media. Seeds cocopeat; Kaushalya Madhavi et al. 2021) and pig manure
obtained from commercial packaging were used directly for compost were separately passed through a sieve (mesh size:
sowing. The prepared setup was placed inside the plant fac- 2 mm) and mixed in a ratio of 1:1 by weight. The mois-
tory of Gyeongsang National University (Jinju, Republic of ture content of the mixture was adjusted to 60 ± 5% by add-
Korea) in a controlled environment maintained at a tem- ing distilled water. The soil nutrient content, EC, pH, and
perature of 25 °C and an 18-h photoperiod using artificial soil temperature were measured using a handheld digital
lighting conditions (wavelength: 440–680 nm). Watering multi-parameter soil sensor (JXBS-3001-SCY-PT, Weihai
was carried out once a day at 18:00. This experiment tested JXCT Electronics Technology Co. Ltd., China) to ensure
three types of biodegradable seedling pots with three repli- that the pH of the soil remained within the range of 6–8
cations of each type. (Briassoulis et al. 2014). Individual seedling pots were used
Germination percentage was calculated using Eq. (5) (Ali for this test. Samples were first oven-dried (105 °C, 24 h),
et al. 2021). The cumulative number of germinated seeds and their corresponding dry weight was recorded. Three
was recorded over 13 days. The experiment was set up in replicates of each seedling pot were placed into the soil
the plant factory. On the 35th day after sowing, ten mostly vertically at a depth of 15 cm below the soil surface. The
developed seedlings per pot were selected to measure the high-density polyethylene boxes containing soil and sam-
SPAD index of most recently grown leaves. These seedlings ples were incubated at 25 ± 3 °C for one month. After each
were removed from the pot and washed with distilled water week (i.e., at 7 days, 14 days, 21 days, and 28 days), the pot
to remove growing media from the roots. The shoot height samples were taken out of the soil. Any soil on the pots was
and length of the longest root were measured for each seed- removed manually, and the pots were washed with distilled
ling. Next, the seedlings were stored at room temperature water to remove the remaining soil from the sample pot and

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oven-dried (105℃, 24 h). The weight of oven-dried pots was 3 Results

recorded. After each testing interval, the percentage loss in
weight was determined (Eq. 6) (Juanga-Labayen and Yuan 3.1 Water absorption, swelling and solubility
2021b). Similarly, the tensile strength of the sample after of seedling pots
each testing interval was also compared with the strength
of the corresponding oven-dried fresh sample to determine Immersion lasted 5 min for the first 30 min of the experi-
strength loss (Eq. 7). ment; thereafter, the duration of immersion was increased
to 15 min. During the first 30 min (with 5 min intervals),
W0 − Wn
%weightlossn = × 100 (6) all three types of seedling pots showed a rapid increase in
Wn
water absorption. Moisture absorption was increased by
45%, 40%, and 30% in the first five minutes in N0, N3 and
T0 − Tn N5 biodegradable seedling pots, respectively, and reached
%strengthlossn = × 100, (7)
T0 76%, 56% and 54%, respectively, at the end of the 30-min
period. After 30 min, weight was recorded at each 15-min
where n represents each testing interval (7 days, 14 days, interval. The moisture absorption was rapid in N0 compared
21 days, and 28 days), W0 = initial dry weight of sample at to N3 and N5 (Fig. 2). After 240 min, moisture absorption
day 0, Wn = dry weight of the sample after n-th day, T0 = ten- reached 153% for N0, followed by N3 (96%) and N5 (85%).
sile strength of pot wall before degradation test, and Tn = This result shows that the addition of a water repellent agent
tensile strength of pot wall after each testing interval. alters the water absorption characteristics of the paper-based
pot materials.
2.6 Data analysis Maximum moisture absorption followed a similar pat-
tern (Fig. 3) to the absorption rate. At the end of 24 h, N0
The data collected during the study were recorded using absorbed more moisture (190% of its initial weight) com-
Microsoft Excel 2016. Statistical analyses were performed pared to N3 (116%) and N5 (106%). Statistical analyses
using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) showed that moisture absorption in N3 and N5 seedling pots
v.26 (IBM corporation, Armonk, New York, USA). Means was significantly different (at p < 0.05) from that in N0.
obtained during the different tests were compared using However, no significant difference in moisture absorption
analysis of variance (ANOVA). Statistical differences was found among N3 and N5 pots ( p > 0.05). This result
between treatments were determined using Tukey’s honestly indicates the effect of wet strength and sizing agents in the
significant difference (HSD) post hoc test at a significance pot materials. A significant difference in swelling/thickness
level of p ≤ 0.05. was found among the pots ( p < 0.05). A comparison of the
change in the mean value of thickness showed that N0 exhib-
ited maximum swelling (4.98%), followed by N3 (3.26%)
and N5 (2.34%). The results of the solubility test showed
that N0 had the highest, N3 had intermediate, and N5 had
the least water-soluble content. The pots with water repel-
lent additives (N3 and N5) were significantly different from

Fig. 2  The three different types

of biodegradable seedling
pots exhibit different moisture
absorption when immersed in
water for 240 min. The moisture
absorption (%) was calculated
based on the increase in weight
of the specimen after each
immersion period in water

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Fig. 3  Results of the changes in the physical properties of the differ- show the standard deviation; different letters represent the statistical
ent types of biodegradable pots when immersed in water for 24 h. a difference in mean values at p < 0.05 based on Tukey’s post hoc test
Moisture absorption test; b swelling test; c solubility test; error bars

those without water repellent additives (N0). However, no biodegradable pots at four different moisture absorption
significant difference was found between the N3 and N5 pot levels (0%, 33%, 66%, and 100%) (Fig. 6). The average
types (at p < 0.05). tensile strength of the dry samples was maximum for N3
(3.9 MPa), intermediate for N0 (3.8 MPa) and lowest for
3.2 Tensile test N5 (3.1 MPa). There was no statistical difference in tensile
strength between the pot types for the dry sample. However,
3.2.1 Stress–strain curves the tensile strength of N0 dropped the most with an increase
in moisture absorption. The tensile strength of N0 was the
The pattern obtained from the failure assessment of pot lowest (0.65 MPa) at a 100% moisture absorption level, fol-
materials was similar to that of ductile materials because lowed by N5 (1.23 MPa) and N3 (1.25 MPa), i.e., the tensile
the material failed due to tearing (Fig. 4) instead of sud- strength of the biodegradable pot decreased by 82%, 67%,
den sharp failure. The stress–strain curve of a representa- 60% in N0, N3 and N5 pots, respectively, with 100% mois-
tive sample of each pot type at different moisture absorption ture absorption. A comparison of the tensile strength among
levels is shown in Fig. 5. Stress and strain had non-linear the wet samples showed no significant difference among the
relationships at each material and moisture absorption level. pot at 33%, 66% and 100% moisture absorption levels. The
However, yield strength could be identified in each material effect of wet strength and surface sizing agent can be seen
with no moisture absorption. The yield strength was highest in the tensile strength of the pot as N3 and N5 were stronger
in N3 pots and lowest in N0 pots. Stress and strain increased than N0 for each different level of moisture absorption.
nonlinearly for all samples, reaching the peak at the point
where the materials failed. Necking occurred after the mate- 3.2.3 Other tensile properties
rials reached breaking stress, at the point where complete
fracture of materials occurred. Stress suddenly dropped to The other important mechanical properties that were deter-
zero after breaking in materials with no moisture absorp- mined included maximum load, extension at maximum load
tion, whereas samples with moisture absorption showed a and work till maximum load (Fig. 6). As per the statisti-
gradual decrease in stress after failure, suggesting higher cal analysis results, the effect on the interaction between
ductile failure after water absorption. material type and moisture absorption was significant for
all measured tensile properties. Similarly, a significant dif-
3.2.2 Tensile strength ference in maximum load was observed between dry and
wet materials. However, no significant difference was found
Tensile strength is the maximum value of stress on the among wet samples, irrespective of different moisture per-
stress–strain curve. It represents the amount of force centages. The maximum load was taken by dry samples (0%
the material resists, which tends to pull it apart. A ten- moisture absorption), i.e. 90 N for N0, 80 N for N3 and
sile strength test was performed on the three types of 62 N for N5. Following an increase in moisture absorption

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Fig. 4  Experimental setup and failed specimen of the tensile test. a Initial placement of specimen in the grip of the testing machine; b fractured
specimen at the end of the test; c collection of a few failed samples after the tensile test (specimen without moisture absorption)

by 33%, the load taken by pot materials was 27 N for N0, absorption and was the least at 100% moisture absorption
29 N for N3 and 22 N for N5. At 66% moisture absorption, (7.6 Nmm). There was no significant difference among the
the maximum load was 17 N, 25 N and 24 N for N0, N3 samples of wet pot materials.
and N5, respectively, which further reached 15 N, 26 N and
24 N, respectively, at 100% moisture absorption. Overall, 3.3 Seed germination and growth test
maximum load decreased by 82%, 67% and 65% for N0,
N3 and N5 pots, respectively, at 100% moisture absorption. Seed germination and seedling growth were measured by
Each pot material exhibited a different pattern of exten- sowing seeds of hybrid broccoli (Brassica oleracea var.
sion or elongation. The extension of N0-type pot materi- italic) in the three types of biodegradable pots, with three
als was maximum (1.44 mm) in dry samples but reduced replications of each type (Fig. 7). The sprout of the seed
with an increase in moisture, to 0.91 mm, 0.83 mm and began to appear on the soil surface after the fourth day of
0.82 mm at 33%, 66% and 100% moisture absorption, sowing. N0 pots had approximately 57% seed germination,
respectively. The extension of N3-type materials was maxi- N3 had 39%, and N5 had the least (20%). One week after
mum (1.37 mm) at 0% moisture absorption and minimum sowing, N0 had 95% germination, N3 had 86%, and N5 had
(1.02 mm) at 33% moisture absorption. However, maximum 34%. On the 10th day, N0 and N3 pots reached their maxi-
extension occurred in N5-type pot materials at 66% moisture mum germination, i.e. 97%; however, N5 had 64%. On the
absorption (1.36 mm), while the minimum (0.88 mm) was at 13th day after sowing, N5 reached the germination percent-
33% moisture absorption. A comparison of the dry samples age of 95%. Overall, there was no significant difference in
for each pot material showed that the extension was highest germination percentage among the pots when comparing
for N0, intermediate for N3 and lowest for N5 (1.26 mm). the final germination percentage measured on the 13th day.
We found a significant difference in work done to maxi- However, germination was delayed the most in N5 pots, and
mum load between dry and wet samples. Work done was both N0 and N3 reached maximum germination on the 10th
highest for N0 (70 Nmm), intermediate for N3 (69 Nmm) day after sowing. The germination rate and seedling height
and lowest for N5 (55 Nmm) in the dry samples. No signifi- for each pot type is shown in Fig. 8.
cant difference was found among dry samples. For N0 pot Measurements were taken from the 10th day of sowing
materials, work done decreased with an increase in moisture at five-day intervals for five weeks to compare seedling

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Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology (2022) 63:793–807 801

Fig. 5  Stress–strain curves of representative samples of three differ- N5, and columns represent pots at different moisture absorption lev-
ent types of biodegradable pots at four different moisture absorption els: 0%, 33%, 66%, and 100%
levels. Rows represent different types of seedling pots: N0, N3, and

height. During the initial stage (i.e., until the 20th day), difference was found in the SPAD index of fresh seedling
seedlings were the tallest in N0, and shortest in N5. Seed- leaves among the tested pots.
lings from N5 surpassed those from N3 on the 25th day
and those from N0 on the 30th day. On the last day of 3.4 Biodegradation test
measurement (35th day), the seedlings were tallest in N5,
intermediate in N3 and shortest in N0. However, statisti- A mixture of commercial soil, Bio Plus compost and pig
cal analysis shows no significant difference among seed- manure (1:1, by weight) was used as the medium for the
lings grown in each pot when comparing the final height. biodegradation test of seedling pots. The medium properties
Overall, N0 showed rapid growth during the initial days; were measured using a multi-parameter digital soil sensor.
however, N3 and N5 showed rapid development during the The medium consisted of nitrogen (32.33 mg/kg), phospho-
final days of the experiment. rous (44.33 mg/kg), and potassium (104.22 mg/kg). The
A comparison among seedlings was carried out using ten average pH of the medium was 6.39, EC was 627 mS/cm,
mostly developed seedlings that were selected from each and the average soil temperature at the time of measurement
pot via visual inspection. The results (Table 3) showed no was 12 °C. Individual seedlings were placed alternate to
statistical difference in the moisture content of fresh shoot each other (Fig. 9).
biomass among seedlings of each pot. On average, 88% (wb) Statistical analyses showed a significant difference in
of the shoot consisted of moisture. Overall, root height was weight loss for all pot types during each week of measure-
higher compared to shoot height. The root-shoot height ratio ments (Fig. 10). The weight loss in N0 pots increased from
was 1.39 for N0, 1.13 for N3, and 1.10 for N5. The root- 23% in week 1 to 53% in week 4. N3 pots showed 17%
shoot dry biomass ratio was found to be 0.39, 0.33, and 0.30 weight loss during the first week, which increased to 51.65%
for seedlings in N0, N3 and N5 pots, respectively. The SPAD in the fourth week. The weight loss in N5 pots increased
index of the last grown leaf was measured, and a significant from 18% in week 1 to 52% in week 4. On average, each pot

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802 Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology (2022) 63:793–807

Fig. 6  Results of the tensile test for the three different types of bio- load; d tensile strength; error bars show the standard deviation; dif-
degradable pots at four different moisture absorption levels. a Maxi- ferent letters represent the statistical difference in mean values at
mum load; b extension at maximum load; c work done till maximum p < 0.05 based on Tukey’s post hoc test

had approximately half of its weight degraded in a month. However, no significant difference was found among the N3
However, there were no statistical differences among the and N5 pots.
pot measurements done in the same week. In addition, there
were significant variations observed among 1st, 2nd, 3rd,
and 4th measurement weeks (Fig. 10). 4 Discussion
The results obtained from the tensile strength loss experi-
ment showed that the strength of pot materials decreased In this study, the physical, mechanical and degradation
every week (Fig. 10). Maximum loss occurred in N0 pots, properties of three different biodegradable pots consisting
followed by N3 and N5 pots. During the first week of meas- of 0%, 3% and 5% of wet strength and sizing agents (WS-20
urements, tensile strength was reduced by 66%, 49%, and and AK-20 in South Korea) were examined. The pot types
54% in N0, N3, and N5 pots, respectively. In addition, the were tested for water absorption, swelling, solubility, tensile
strength loss increased to 94%, 81%, and 79%, in N0, N3, strength, germination rate, seedling growth and biodegrada-
and N5 pots, respectively, at the end of the fourth week. tion to assess and compare their properties.
Statistical analysis showed that the degradation properties Results of the water absorption test showed that N0
of N0 pots were significantly different than N3 and N5 pots. pots had the highest moisture absorption rate followed by

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Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology (2022) 63:793–807 803

Fig. 7  Images showing germination and seedling growth, taken at the pot and washed potting media for seedling root and shoot length
various stages of the test. a The first week of seed sowing; b after the and biomass measurement
fifth week of seed sowing; c representative seedling removed from

Fig. 8  Results of the seed germination and growth test on the three 5-day intervals until 35 days; error bars show the standard deviation;
different types of biodegradable pots using hybrid broccoli (Bras- different letter represents the statistical difference in mean values at
sica oleracea var. italica) seeds a cumulative germination percentage p < 0.05 based on Tukey’s post hoc test
at three-day intervals, until 13 days; b seedling height measured at

Table 3  Overall results obtained Type GP (%) SH (mm) SMC (%, wb) RSHR DRSBR SPAD index
at the end of the germination
and seedling growth test N0 97.33 ± 2.79a 67.60 ± 5.73a 87.35 ± 0.41b 1.39 ± 0.19a 0.39 ± 0.12a 50.05 ± 0.76a
N3 97.33 ± 2.79a 70.50 ± 7.11a 88.31 ± 0.40ab 1.13 ± 0.23b 0.33 ± 0.03a 52.56 ± 0.74ab
N5 95.19 ± 3.11a 70.83 ± 11.26a 88.66 ± 0.58a 1.10 ± 0.18b 0.30 ± 0.04a 50.94 ± 0.85b

Values are represented as mean ± standard deviation. Different letters alongside the mean values represent
the statistical difference at p < 0.05 based on Tukey’s post hoc test
GP, germination percentage; SH, seedling height; SMC, shoot moisture content; RSHR, root–shoot height
ratio; DRSBR, dry root–shoot biomass ratio; SPAD, soil plant analysis development

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804 Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology (2022) 63:793–807

Fig. 9  Experimental setup for

the soil burial biodegradation
test a placement of individual
seedling pots in the prepared
soil setup; b a sample labelled
with its type and sample number

Fig. 10  Results of the degradation test for the three different types represent the statistical difference in mean values at p < 0.05 based on
of biodegradable seedling pots buried under the soil a weight loss; b Tukey’s post hoc test
strength loss; error bars show the standard deviation; different letters

N3 and N5. The moisture absorption behaviour of paper- maximum absorption, swelling and solubility decreased with
based biodegradable seedling pots was different to that of increasing additive content.
pots made from cow manure, wood fibre, peat moss (Zhang The tensile strength of dry pots was found to be 3.8 MPa,
et al. 2019), rice husk and cornstarch (Sun et al. 2016), and 3.9 MPa and 3.1 MPa for N0, N3 and N5 pots, respectively.
tomato and hemp fibres (Schettini et al. 2013). Water absorp- The tensile strength was lower than that of pots made of coir
tion in all these materials was rapid during the first 15 to pith and rice husk (7–18 MPa) (Prithivirajan et al. 2015),
30 min of immersion and remained constant afterwards. and straw fibre with hydrolyzed soy protein isolate/urea/
However, the present study found that the absorption rate of formaldehyde (14–20 MPa) (Sun et al. 2018), higher than
the paper-based seedling pots kept increasing even after four that of pots made of cornstarch combined with sheep’s wool
hours of immersion in water. Water absorption after 24 h (0.2–0.3 MPa) (Manafi-Dastjerdi et al. 2021), peat moss,
was much higher, and solubility was lower in paper-based wood fibre, cow manure (1–2 MPa) (Zhang et al. 2019), and
pots than pots made from gelatin, corn- and wheat-waste tomato waste and hemp fibre (0.5–1.2 MPa) (Schettini et al.
flour, sunflower seed husks and rice husks, and yerba mate 2013), and similar to that of commercial cardboard-based
waste (Fuentes et al. 2021). Due to moisture absorption, the pots (3.74 MPa) (Juanga-Labayen and Yuan 2021b). The
change in thickness was lower than for pots manufactured interaction between pot type and moisture content in pots
from cattle manure (Manafi-Dastjerdi et al. 2021). The effect with moisture absorption had a significant effect ( p < 0.05)
of additives (strength agent and sizing agent) could be seen on tensile strength, maximum load, extension, and work
in the properties of paper-based pots. Water absorption rate, done. Pots with 33%, 66% and 100% moisture absorption

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Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology (2022) 63:793–807 805

were significantly different ( p > 0.05) than those with 0% tomato waste and hemp fibre-based biocontainers occurred
moisture absorption for all tensile properties (maximum within 16 days, as the root was able to penetrate the con-
load, extension, work done and tensile strength). This find- tainer (Schettini et al. 2013). We noted approximately 80%
ing showed that water can significantly reduce the strength degradation in N3 and N5 pots and 94% in N0 pots at the
of paper-based pots. A similar result was found in other end of a month. The loss in weight and tensile strength for
biodegradable pots (Evans and Hensley 2004; Zhang et al. paper-based pots was high compared to biodegradable pots
2019). The value of maximum load, work done, and tensile tested in other studies (Juanga-Labayen and Yuan 2021b;
strength decreased with increasing moisture absorption in Sun et al. 2016, 2018).
N0 pots; however, these values were high in N3 and N5
pots compared to corresponding values of N0, and statistical
analyses showed no significant difference among the mois-
ture absorbed samples. 5 Conclusions
A comparison of all three types of biodegradable pots
showed no significant difference in the final germination In this study, several tests were carried out to investigate
percentage and seedling height, irrespective of the pots’ the properties of three different biodegradable seedling
composition. Temporal data showed that germination was pots, namely N0, N3 and N5, made from recycled paper
delayed most in N5, followed by N3, but that at the end of waste containing various amounts of water repellent addi-
the germination period (13 days), every pot exhibited more tives. Several conclusions were made based on our results.
than 95% germination. Similarly, during the initial days of The water absorption rate was different for each pot, and
germination, seedling height was minimum in N5 followed pots without additives (N0) absorbed maximum moisture
by N3. However, seedlings in N5 pots were the tallest within from the beginning till the end of the test. Water absorption
a month, followed by N3 and N0. A comparison of the final and solubility in N3 and N5 pots (i.e. in the presence of
results showed no distinctive effect of the pot additives on additives such as the wet strength and surface sizing agents)
the germination, seedling growth, and dry root-shoot bio- decreased significantly compared to N0 pots; however, no
mass ratio of hybrid broccoli. However, a significant differ- statistical differences were observed in terms of swelling.
ence was found when comparing seedling moisture content The maximum load holding capacity, work to maximum
and root to shoot height ratio among the seedlings in the load, and tensile strength reduced significantly with moisture
three different pot types. Juanga-Labayen and Yuan (2021b) addition compared to dry materials. Maximum load, work,
used extracted aqueous solution from four different paper- and strength decreased with increasing moisture in N0 pots;
based biodegradable pots for seed germination and obtained however, these parameters remained nearly constant for N3
100% germination on each pot type. The pot size may affect and N5 pots. Elongation in N0 pots decreased with increas-
seedling height, as when comparing seedling height in pots ing moisture for the extension at maximum load, while N3
varying from 47 mm × 47 mm to 102 mm × 102 mm, the and N5 pots had a random pattern. The stress–strain curve
average height of ‘Golden Wax’ seedlings was 219 mm, revealed that each pot's failure was ductile, on both dry and
which is approximately three times the height of hybrid moisture absorbed states. The effect of pot type and addi-
broccoli grown in this experiment (Zhang et al. 2019). tives was not seen on germination and seedling height, as no
Similarly, seedling root length was affected by seedling pot statistical difference was found among the pot types when
size (Zhang et al. 2019). Di Benedetto and Klasman (2004) comparing the final results. Every pot exhibited similar
found that root length and plant growth were not propor- weight loss for four weeks during the soil burial test. N0
tional among four different tested plant containers. However, pots showed maximum tensile loss and were significantly
we found that the root-shoot height ratio was affected by the different from N3 and N5 pots; however, no statistical dif-
presence of additives in the pots. ference was found among N3 and N5 pots. Overall, each pot
Results of the soil burial test to evaluate biodegradation type had no effect on seed germination and seedling growth.
suggested that weight loss was not significantly affected by The other properties of N3 and N5 pots (which contained
the pot types. However, tensile strength loss of biodegrad- the water repellent agent) were different than those of N0
able materials was significantly affected by the presence of pots; however, no major differences were found among N3
additives during each week of testing. The average weight and N5 pots.
loss was approximately 20%, 37%, 44% and 52% on the first,
second, third and fourth week of the soil burial test. The Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Korea Institute
of Planning and Evaluation for Technology in Food, Agriculture and
weight loss in the three tested pot types was high compared Forestry (IPET) through the Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs Con-
to peat moss-, wood fibre- and cow manure-based biodegrad- vergence Technologies Program for Educating Creative Global Leader
able pots (Zhang et al. 2019), as well as to other paper-based Program, funded by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural
pots (Fuentes et al. 2021). The complete degradation of Affairs (MAFRA) (716001-7).

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806 Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology (2022) 63:793–807

Author contributions Conceptualization, methodology, software analy- APMP effluent. J Wood Sci 61:412–419. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
sis, formal analysis, writing—original draft preparation, and visualiza- s10086-​015-​1480-0
tion by BP; validation by JKB, BGKM, Y-HC, G-HL, G-MC and HTK; Evans MR, Hensley DL (2004) Plant growth in plastic, peat, and pro-
resources by N-EK, G-MC, and HTK; writing—review and editing by cessed poultry feather fiber growing containers. HortScience
BP, JKB and N-EK; Project administration, and funding acquisition 39:1012–1014. https://​doi.​org/​10.​21273/​horts​ci.​39.5.​1012
by HTK. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of Evans MR, Karcher D (2004) Properties of plastic, peat, and processed
the manuscript. poultry feather fiber growing containers. HortScience 39:1008–
1011. https://​doi.​org/​10.​21273/​horts​ci.​39.5.​1008
Data availability The datasets generated during and/or analysed in the Evans MR, Taylor M, Kuehny J (2010) Physical properties of biocon-
current study are available from the corresponding author upon rea- tainers for greenhouse crops production. Horttechnology 20:549–
sonable request. 555. https://​doi.​org/​10.​21273/​hortt​ech.​20.3.​549
Fuentes RA, Berthe JA, Barbosa SE, Castillo LA (2021) Development
of biodegradable pots from different agroindustrial wastes and
Declarations byproducts. Sustain Mater Technol 30:e00338. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​susmat.​2021.​e00338
Conflict of interest On behalf of all the authors, the corresponding au- Iriany A, Sari OAW, Hasanah F (2020) Optimization of biopot compo-
thor declares that “there is no conflict of interest”. sitions made from water hyacinth and coconut coir for improving
the growth and yield of chili (Capsicum annum L.). Int J Recycl
Org Waste Agric 9:287–296. https://​doi.​org/​10.​30486/​IJROWA.​
2020.​18944​11.​1048
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