Herbs as raw materials

Definitions

Herbs

Herbs include crude plant material such as leaves, flowers, fruit, seed, stems, wood, bark, roots,
rhizomes or other plant parts, which may be entire, fragmented or powdered.

Herbal preparations

Herbal preparations are the basis for finished herbal products and may include comminuted or
powdered herbal materials, or extracts, tinctures and fatty oils of herbal materials. They are
produced by extraction, fractionation, purification, concentration, or other physical or biological
processes. They also include preparations made by steeping or heating herbal materials in
alcoholic beverages and/or honey, or in other materials.

Finished herbal products or herbal medicinal products

Medicinal products containing as active substances exclusively herbal drugs or herbal drug
preparations. They may consist of herbal preparations made from one or more herbs. If more
than one herb is used, the term mixed herbal product can also be used. They may contain
excipients in addition to the active ingredients. In some countries herbal medicines may contain,
by tradition, natural organic or inorganic active ingredients, which are not of plant origin (e.g.
animal materials and mineral materials). Generally however, finished products or mixed products
to which chemically defined active substances have been added, including synthetic compounds
and/ or isolated constituents from herbal materials, are not considered to be herbal

Herbal medicines

These include herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations and finished herbal products:

Herbal materials or Medicinal plant materials

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Herbal materials are either whole plants or parts of medicinal plants in the crude state. They
include herbs, fresh juices, gums, fixed oils, essential oils, resins and dry powders of herbs. In
some countries, these materials may be processed by various local procedures, such as steaming,
roasting, or stir baking with honey, alcoholic beverages or other materials.

Sources of herbal drugs

Plants

It has been estimated that approximately 25% of all prescription drugs currently in use are
originally derived from plants. Furthermore, approximately 75% of new anticancer drugs
marketed between 1981 and 2006 are derived from plant sources. Recently, there has been an
increase in interest in natural drugs due to the perception that natural therapeutics offers a safer
alternative than synthetic formulations due to their organic origin.

Higher plants a have long history of use as medicine in treatment of diseases. Entire plants or
some parts of plants are used as crude drugs. Hence, a crude drug consists of various parts of the
plant such as leaves, seeds, fruits, branches, flowers, roots and wood. Drugs are also obtained
from some of the lower plants like Ergot. Table 1 shows examples of crude drugs obtained from
various parts of plants.

Crude drugs from various parts of plants

Plant Name of crude drugs

parts/nature
Entire plant Chirata, euphoria, ephedra, buckwheat, alfalfa, lobelia
Leaves Senna, digitalis, tea, henna, coca, buchu
Barks Cinchona, cinnamon, cascara, cassia, quillaia, wild cherry
Fruits Coriander, fennel, caraway, anise, ajowan, dill, cumin, colocynth, bael,
cardamom, anise
Seeds Nux vomica, psyllium, strophanthus, nutmeg, castor seed, fenugreek
Flowers clove, saffron, pyrethrum, marigold
Woods Quassia, sandal wood
Roots Rauwolfia, ashwagandha, ipecacuanha, senega, gentian, aconite, jalap

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 Rhizomes Ginger, turmeric, rhubarb, valerian, podophyllum, aconite, colchicum,
male fern

Herbal cosmetics
Herbal cosmetics are beauty products which are formulated by using various herbal ingredients
to provide defined cosmetic benefits. Herbal cosmetics are formulated, using different cosmetic
ingredients to form the base in which one or more herbal ingredients are used to cure various
skin ailments. The herbal cosmetics are natural and free from all the harmful synthetic chemicals
which otherwise may prove to be toxic to the skin. There are numerous herbs available naturally
having different uses in cosmetic preparations for skincare, hair care and as antioxidants, fragrant
etc. In herbal cosmetics, herbs are used either in crude form or as extracts.

For example, Skincare products may contain one or more of the following ingredients

1. Coconut oil
2. Sunflower Oil
3. Jojoba oil
4. Olive oil
5. Aloe vera

Sources of herbal raw materials

Sources of the raw materials of herbal origin used in formulating herbal cosmetics are
1) Fixed oils
2) Waxes
3) Colours
4) Perfumes
5) Protective agents
6) Bleaching agents
7) Antioxidants
8) Surfactants and
9) Preservatives.
Fixed Oils

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Oils are derived from vegetable and mineral sources, and are used in cosmetics. Examples of
vegetable oils are almond oil, arachis oil, castor oil, olive oil, and coconut oil. Examples of
mineral oils are light and heavy paraffin.
Almond Oil: It is a fixed oil obtained by expressing the seeds of Prunus amygdalus, Family
Rosaceae. The oil is pale yellow in colour, with a characteristic odour. It contains oleic acid,
linoleic acid, myristic and palmitic acid. It has an emollient action, so it is used in the preparation
of creams and lotions.
Arachis Oil: This is a fixed oil obtained from the seeds of the Arachis hypogea belonging to the
family Leguminoseae. The oil is pale yellow in colour, with a faint nutty odour. Refined
groundnut oil is colourless, with active principles like oleic, linoleic acid and a small amount of
other acids. At 3° C, it is cloudy, at a lower temperature, it solidifies. It is used in the preparation
of hair oils.
Castor Oil: This is a fixed oil obtained from the seeds of Ricinus communis belonging to the
family, Euphorbiaceae. It has a slight odour; the oil is either yellow in colour or colourless. It
consists of ricinoleic acid which is the major constituent. It is used as an emollient, in the
preparation of lipsticks, hair oils, creams and lotions.
Olive Oil: This is a fixed oil obtained from the fruit of the Olea europea, belonging to the
family, Oleaceae. The oil is either pale yellow or greenish yellow in colour, it has a slight odour.
It consists of the glycerides of oleic acid, palmitic, linoleic, stearic and myristic acids. At a lower
temperature, it is solid or partly solid. It has emollient, soothing properties. It is used in the
manufacturing of creams, lotions and bath oils.
Coconut Oil: This is a fixed oil obtained from the dried solid part of the endosperm of the
coconut – Cocos nucifera, family Palmea. It is a white or pearl-white unctuous mass in winter
and colourless in summer.
Light liquid paraffin: It consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons in the form of an oily liquid
which has no colour or odour. Viscosity and weight per ml (0.83– 0.87g) are both low in light
liquid paraffin. It is used in the manufacture of bath oils, hair oils, brilliantines, lotions and
creams, due to its better spreadibility.
Heavy liquid paraffin: It is composed of a mixture of hydrocarbons in the form of a colourless
and odourless oily liquid. Due to its soothing effect on the skin, it is used in creams, lotions,
brilliantines, hair oils and bath oils. Heavy liquid paraffin is obtained from petroleum.

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Waxes
Waxes are the esters resulting from the condensation of high molecular straight chain fatty acids
with high molecular straight chain monohydric alcohol of the methanol series. They are used in
cosmetics as a base, along with oils and fats. Example: lipsticks.
Commonly used waxes are bees wax, carnauba wax, paraffin wax and spermaceti.
Beeswax: It is a purified wax separated from the honeycomb of bees, Apis mellifera which
belong to the Family, Apidae. Beeswax is composed of 70% ester myricyl palmitate. It is
yellowish brown in colour, solid, with a honey-like odour. Under cold conditions it becomes
brittle; when bleached, it becomes yellowish-white solid with a faint characteristic odour. The
melting point of beeswax is 62°C–65°C. Beeswax helps in the incorporation of water to form an
emulsion.
Carnauba Wax: This is obtained from the leaves of the Brazilian wax palm, Copernica cerifera,
which belongs to the Palmae family. Carnauba wax is available in various grades. The highest
grade is light-brown to pale-yellow in colour. It is in the form of moderately coarse powder or
flakes, with a characteristic bland odour. The melting range of this wax is 81°C–86°C. It is a
hard wax and is used in the manufacture of candles, wax varnishes, leather and furniture
polishes.
Paraffin Wax: It is derived by the distillation of petroleum. It is a mixture of solid hydrocarbons
consisting mainly of n-paraffins and, to some extent, their isomers. So, it also called hard
paraffin wax. Physically, the paraffin wax is colourless, odourless or a white, translucent, wax-
like solid, which is slightly greasy to touch. Paraffin wax melts at 50°C–57°C.
Spermaceti: It is a solid wax obtained from the head, blubber* and ear case of the sperm whale,
Physester colodon, which belongs to the Physeteridae family. It consists mainly of cetyl
palmitate and cetyl myristate. Blubber*-an insulating layer of fat under the skin of whales and
other large marine mammals

Gums

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Gums are translucent and amorphous substances produced by the plants. Usually pathological
products, gums are produced when the plant is growing under unfavorable conditions or when
injured. Gums are plant hydrocolloids and may be anionic or non ionic polysaccharides. On
hydrolysis gums yield sugar and salts of uronic acid.
Guar gum: Guar gum derived from the seeds of cyamopsis tetragonolobus (Family
Leguminosae) is a naturally occurring galactomannan polysaccharide.
Gum acacia: Gum acacia or gum arabic is the dried gummy exudate obtained from the stem and
branches of Acacia senegal (Linne) Willdenow and other related species of acacia (Family
Leguminosae). It is an acidic polysaccharide containing D-galactose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose,
and D-glucuronic acid. Acacia is mainly used in oral and topical pharmaceutical formulations as
a suspending and emulsifying agent, often in combination with tragacanth. It is also used in the
preparation of pastilles and lozenges and as a tablet binder.
Tragacanth: This gum is obtained from the branches of Astragalus gummifer, Family
Leguminosae.
Karaya gum: Karaya gum is obtained from Sterculia urens (Family sterculiaceae) is a partially
acetylated polymer of galactose, rhamnose, and glucuronic acid
Xanthan gum: Xanthan gum is a high molecular weight extra cellular polysaccharide produced
by the fermentation of the gram-negative bacterium Xanthomonas campestris

Colours
Colours have been used in cosmetics. Colour is one of the most important ingredients of
cosmetic formulations. Natural colours are cochineal, saffron and chlorophyll.
Cochineal: Cochineal is a red dyestuff derived from the dried female insect, Dactilopius coccus,
which belongs to the Coccidae family. Carminic acid is the main colouring constituent in
cochineal. On crystallization, carminic acid forms red needles and at 130°C, the needles darken
and also carbonize at 250°C. For the preparation of caramine, the cochineal is extracted with
water. Alum is added to this solution to precipitate the red aluminium salt called carmine lake.
Saffron: It consists of the stigmas and tops of the styles of the plant, Crocus sativa, which
belongs to the Iridaceae family. It is a perennial plant grown in Jammu and Kashmir in India.
Saffron powder is yellowish and is easily soluble in water, so it is used as a flavouring and
colouring agent in food preparations. Saffron contains a number of carotenoids – crocin is an

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important natural saffron carotenoid. Picrocrocin is a colorless bitter glycoside responsible for
saffron’s characteristic odour.
Chlorophyll: It is the natural green pigment, found abundantly in nature. It is the component
that is responsible for photosynthesis.
Perfumes
Some commonly used perfuming agents in cosmetics are rose oil, jasmine oil, lavender oil,
tuberose oil, cinnamon oil, geranium oil and neroli oil.
Rose oil: It is obtained by the steam distillation process from the flower petals of Rosmarinas
officinalis which belongs to the Labiatae family. For obtaining rose oil, the blossoms are
collected before they open, a little before sunrise.
Jasmine Oil: It is obtained from the flowers of Jasminum grandiflorum which belongs to the
Oleaceae family. The oil is obtained by the solvent extraction method and its essence is used in
the perfumery industry.
Lavender oil: It is obtained from the flowers and stalk of Lavandula officinals which belongs to
the Labiatae family.
Tuberose oil: Tuberose oil is extracted from Polianthes tuberosa of the Agavaceae family. The
oil is a brown, viscous liquid with a sweet, heavy and sensuous scent. The main chemical
components are menthyl benzoate, menthyl anthranilate, benzyl alcohol, butyric acid, eugenol,
nerol, farnesol and geraniol.
Geranium oil: This oil is obtained from the flowers, leaves and stalks of the Pelargonium
graveolens, which belongs to the Geraniaceae family. Its essence is obtained by the distillation
process, from the flowers and stems of the plant.
Champa: It is obtained from the flowers of the Michelia champaka. The colour of the flower is
yellow to deep orange.
Cinnamon oil: Cinnamon oil is obtained from the different parts of the cinnamon tree – its
leaves, bark and roots. Cinnamon zeylanicum belongs to the family, Lauraceae. The oil obtained
from the bark is most valuable. The oil has a warm, spicy and sweet character.
Neroli oil: It is an essential oil obtained through the distillation process from the flower of the
bitter orange tree. It can be stored in amber-coloured bottles in the refrigerator.

Protective Agents

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In the formulation of creams, silicones act as protective agents; a combination of silicones with
other barrier agents like petroleum jelly, beeswax, paraffin etc can produce excellent barrier
creams.
Bleaching Agents
The most commonly used bleaching agents are hydroquinones, catechol and ascorbic acid:
Hydroquinones: They are mostly used as bleaching agents for temporarily lighting skin at a
concentration of 1.5%–2%. In the case of 5% concentration, redness and burning may be
produced.
Catechol and its derivatives: Catechol exhibits skin lighting effect to an extent. 4- Isopropy
catechol has been found to be among the most potent depigmenting agents. They can produce
irritation and a sensitization reaction at concentrations of 3% or more.
Ascorbic Acid and its derivatives: It is mostly used in skin bleaching creams, which contain
hydroquinone as a stabilizer (antioxidant). Ascorbyl oleate used in skin bleaching cream for
bleaching freckles in human skin is used at a concentration of 3% and 5%.
Antioxidants
Natural antioxidants like tocopherols present in fats and oils are destroyed during the refining
process. Hence, the addition of antioxidants is essential to avoid the rancidity of fats and oils in
cosmetics due to oxidative deterioration.
Some of the common antioxidants used in cosmetic preparation are:
Amines: Purines and lecithin
Phenols: Gallic acid, Methyl gallate
Quinones: Tocopherols, Hydroxy chromans
Alcohols: Sorbitol and Mannitol
Esters: Di-lauryl thiopropionate
Organic acids: Ascorbic acid

Herbal excipients
Pharmaceutical excipients can be defined as nonactive ingredients that are mixed with
therapeutically active compound(s) to form medicines. Excipients are primarily used as diluents,
binders, disintegrants, adhesives, glidants and sweeteners in conventional dosage forms like
tablets and capsules. Excipients affect the behavior and effectiveness of the drug product.

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Several pharmaceutical excipients of plant origin, like starch, agar, alginates, carrageenan, guar
gum, xanthan gum, gelatin, pectin, acacia, tragacanth, and cellulose find applications in the
pharmaceutical industry as binding agents, disintegrating agent, protectives, colloids, thickening
agents, gelling agents, bases in suppositories, stabilizers and coating materials.
Advantage of herbal excipients
Biodegradable – Naturally occurring polymers produced by all living organisms. They show no
adverse effects on the environment or human being.
Biocompatible and non-toxic – Chemically, nearly all of these plant materials are
carbohydrates in nature and composed of repeating monosaccharide units. Hence they are non-
toxic.
Economic - They are cheaper and their production cost is less than synthetic material.
Safe and Devoid of Side Effects: They are obtained from natural sources, and therefore are safe and do
not produce any side effects.
Easy Availability: In many countries, these products are easily obtainable due to their application in
many industries.
Colourings
A growing number of natural food colourings are being commercially produced. Some examples
include:

Annatto
beta-Carotene
Caramel
Carmine
Chlorphyllin Cu complex
Guaiazulene
Henna

Betanin
Turmeric
Saffron
Paprika
Elderberry

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Lycopene
Curcumin
Capsanthin / Capsorubin
Canthaxanthin

Annatto

This is a yellow to orange colorant derived from the seed of Bixa orellana. Annatto is a red to
orange natural pigment derived from. The major colour present is cis-bixin.

Beta-Carotene

Beta-Carotene is a yellow to orange pigment that can be used for cosmetics around the world.
It’s derived from a fungus, Dunaliella salina and exhibits good stability.

Caramel

A brown colorant that comes from the burning of sugars like sucrose, dextrose, malt syrup,
molasses, etc. It’s highly stable and can be used for formulating products around the world.

Carmine

This is a bright, red colorant which has a bluish shade. It is derived from female conchineal
beetles. The color can be used in cosmetic products. It was traditionally used to dye textiles.
Carmine is also one of the brightest of all natural colorants.

Henna

This is a brown dye derived from the Henna plant. This is a natural colorant. However, it is
specifically prohibited for use in coloring eyelashes and eyebrows due to its known ability to
cause irritation.

Betanin, the water soluble red pigment occurs in the roots of beet root, Beta vulgaris L. Beet
root is a rich source of a group of red and yellow pigments known as betalains, comprising red-
violet betacyanins and yellow betaxanthins. Betanin (75–95%) is the major constituent of red
pigment.

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Saffron is obtained from the dried styles and red stigmas of Crocus sativus L., belonging to
the Iridaceae family. The main non-volatile components include Crocin, α-Crocin, Picrocin,
Zeaxanthin, Alpha and Beta Carotene, Crocetin and carotenoids containing Lycopene.

Lycopene - reddish / orange color derived from tomatoes

Curcumin - Yellow color derived from the spice turmeric
Capsanthin / Capsorubin - Orange color derived from sweet red peppers. Commonly known as
paprika
Canthaxanthin - yellow - red color derived from mushrooms or shrimp.

Sweeteners
Stevia
Sugar alcohols
Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone
Thaumatin
Glycyrrhizin
Dates
Maple syrup
Molasses

Stevia
Stevia is a natural sweetener that’s derived from the leaves of Stevia rebaudiana. It contains
glycosides such as stevioside and rebaudioside A. These compounds don’t contain any calories,
are up to 450 times sweeter than sugar.
Sugar alcohols
Sugar alcohols, also known as polyols, are a type of carbohydrate naturally found in fruits and
vegetables. sugar alcohols used as sugar alternatives include erythritol, xylitol, and maltitol.
Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone
Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone is an non-nutritive sweetener derived from neohesperidin, a
naturally occurring bitter-tasting flavanone from citrus fruit. It is about 250 times as sweet as
sucrose.
Thaumatin
Thaumatin is a group of intensely sweet basic proteins isolated from the fruit of Thaumatococcus
danielli. It consists essentially of the proteins Thaumatin I and Thaumatin II. Thaumatin is a

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taste-modifying protein that functions as natural sweetener or flavor enhancer. Thaumatin is
stable in aqueous solutions between pH 2.0 and 10 at room temperature.
Glycyrrhizin
Glycyrrhizin (or glycyrrhizic acid or glycyrrhizinic acid) is the chief sweet-tasting constituent
of Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice) root. Structurally, it is a saponin used as an emulsifier and gel-
forming agent in foodstuffs and cosmetics. It is 30 to 50 times as sweet as sucrose

Natural binders

Binder excipients hold the ingredients of a formulation together, for example in a tablet. Binders
ensure that tablets, powders, granules and others can be formed with the required mechanical
strength. Moreover, they give volume to low active dose tablets. Natural binders such as acacia
and tragacanth are used in solution at a concentration of 10-25 percent, either alone (or) in
combination, for wet granulation, and they can also be added as powder for direct compression.

Binders are usually:

 Microcrystalline Cellulose
 Starches
 Lactose
 Sugar alcohols like mannitol
 Natural polymers are Starch, Pre-gelatinized starch, Gelatin, Acacia, Tragacanth

Starch
Starch is the most abundant carbohydrate reserve material in green plants. A number of starches
are recognized for pharmaceutical use and these include maize (Zea mays), rice (Oryza sativa),
wheat (Triticum aestivum), and potato (Solanum tuberosum).
Pre-Gelatinized Starch
Pre-gelatinized starch is an alternative to native corn starch or polymers for wet granulations.
Gelatin
Gelatin is a product obtained by partial hydrolysis of collagen, derived from the skin, white connective
tissue, tendons, ligament and bones of ox (Bos taurus Linn.), sheep (Ovis aries Linn), etc. belongs to
family Bovidae.

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Diluents
Diluents act as fillers in pharmaceutical tablets to increase weight and improve content
uniformity. Natural diluents include starches, hydrolyzed starches, and partially pregelatinized
starches. Common diluents include anhydrous lactose, lactose monohydrate, and sugar alcohols
such as sorbitol, xylitol and mannitol.
Lactose
Lactose is a natural disaccharide containing galactose and glucose. It is obtained from the milk of
most mammals. It is a white or almost white crystalline powder having no odour and a faintly
sweet taste. It is stable in air but readily absorbs odours. Lactose is available in several varieties.
Mannitol
Mannitol is a hexahydric alcohol isolated from manna or seaweeds. It can also be chemically synthesised
by mannose reduction.

Viscosity Builders
Viscosity builders are added to mixture to increase the viscosity without modifying other
properties like taste, odour, etc. These agents also increase the stability of the preparation. They
are also added to provide or improve palatability or pourability to the dosage form. High viscosity
of a pharmaceutical preparation inhibits crystal growth and enhances the physical stability.
Viscosity modifiers are designed to change the thickness or texture of pharmaceutical
ingredients. Viscosity modifiers can include such products as thickeners, gelatin agents and
stiffening agents. Many viscosity modifiers can be used to convert liquids to gels, pastes or
powders to aid formulators in creating the ideal product for end users. A viscosity modifier can
decrease the thickness of a liquid to improve pourability and ultimately make it more palatable.
Viscosity modifiers used in suspension formulation include natural gums such as acacia, guar
gum, tragacanth, and xanthan gum.
Carrageenan
Chemically, carrageenan is a sulphated polysaccharide, and is obtained from the seaweed (or Irish moss),
the red algae Chondrus crispus Linn.
Xanthan Gum
Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide gum produced by the bacterium , Xanthomonas campestris on some
specific carbohydrates.

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 Disintegrants
Disintegrants are also known as disintegrating agents or disintegrators. The process by which a
solid oral dosages form such as tablet breaks down into small particles is called disintegration.
Oral solid dosage form such as tablets, capsule, beads, pellet and granules need to break down
into small particles to a rapid release of the drug so that the drug is readily available to dissolve
in gastrointestinal fluid. Disintegration time must be 15 minutes for core tablets, 30 minutes for
film-coated tablets and hard gelatin capsules.
Classification of Disintegrants
Disintegrants are classified into two groups:
1. Traditional Disintegrants: such as Starch, Microcrystalline Cellulose, and Sodium Alginate
2. Super Disintegrants: such as Crospovidone (cross-linked povidone), Croscarmellose Sodium
(cross-linked cellulose) and Sodium Starch Glycolate (cross-linked starch). Super disintegrants
can swell up 10 fold with 30 seconds.
Further, Super disintegrants are two types:
1. Natural Super disintegrants.
2. Synthetic Super disintegrants
Generally, disintegrating agents are added before or after wet granulation and/or both in many
cases. When disintegrating agents come into contact with a fluid/water either they swell up or
wicking and then break down, thus facilitating dissolution.

Microcrystalline cellulose
Microcrystalline cellulose is refined wood pulp. It is a white, free-flowing powder. Chemically,
it is an inert substance, is not degraded during digestion. Microcrystalline cellulose is the most
commonly used binder on the pharmaceutical market. It can bulk, disintegrate, bind, and
lubricate. It enhances stability and extends drug release. As a natural fibre-rich component, it’s
nontoxic and chewable. Its scope is not limited to capsules and tablets but also used in medicated
gels.
Alginate
Alginates are natural polysaccharide polymers isolated from brown seaweed (Phaeophyceae).
Traditionally, sodium alginate has been used as a tablet binding agent, while alginic acid is used
as a tablet disintegrant in compressed tablets designed for immediate drug release. Alginic acid is

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used in pharmaceutical applications, it is added into tablets as a carrier to accelerate tablet
disintegration for a faster release of the medicinal component, in cosmetics due to its
functionality as a thickener and moisture retainer. For example, alginate helps retain the color of
lipstick on the lip surface by forming a gel-network.
Flavours
Flavours or flavouring agents are the excipients added to enhance the palatability of pharmaceutical
preparations. Some of the commonly used natural flavours are fruit, nut seafood, spice blends, vegetables,
and wine. Flavouring agents mainly include flavour substances, flavour extracts, or flavour preparations,
which impart flavouring properties (i.e., taste or odour or both).
Natural flavouring substances are extracted from plants, herbs and spices, animals, or microbial
fermentations. Essential oils and oleoresins are also used as natural flavourings. They are used to
improve patient compliance or palatability of pharmaceutical dosage forms.

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