Contents

1
1 States of matter 2
2 Atoms, elements and compounds 4
3 Stoichiometry 9
4 Electrochemistry 11
5 Chemical energetics 13
6 Chemical reactions 14
7 Acids, bases and salts 19
8 The Periodic Table 22
9 Metals 24
10 Chemistry of the environment 27
11 Organic chemistry 29
12 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis 39

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 1 States of matter

1.1 - Solids liquids and gases

Solids Liquids Gas

- Fixed shape - Takes shape of container - No fixed shape

- Fixed volume - Fixed volume - No fixed volume
- Cannot flow - Can flow - Can flow
- Cannot compress - Hard to compress - Can compress
- Arranged so particles - Arranged so particles are - Free spread out
are tightly packed in touching particles
lattice - Particles slide over each - Move around quickly
- Particles vibrate in other and randomly
place

Changes of state
Melting: Solid → Liquid
Boiling: Liquid → Gas
Evaporating: Liquid → Gas
Condensing: Gas → Liquid
Freezing: Liquid → Solid

Evaporation Vs Boiling
Evaporation Boiling

- Surface level - Happens throughout liquid

- Does not happen at a fixed - Happens at a fixed temperature
temperature (boiling point)
- Bubbles not produced - Bubbles produced
- Remaining liquid is cooled - Remaining liquid is not cooled

Kinetic Particle Theory:

- When a substance is changing it can either
1. Gain kinetic energy from heat, which causes the particles to vibrate more vigorously.
They then gain enough energy to break free of their bonds. E.g. Liquid → Gas
2. Lose energy to their surroundings. The particles move closer to each other, moving less
vigorously. E.g. Gas → Liquid

Factors affecting changing states:

+ Temperature:
Increases kinetic energy of particles, particles move more rapidly.

2
 + Pressure:
Pushes particles closer to each other. Can change the state of matter if decreased or increased
sufficiently (E.g. if a gas is under very high pressures, the particles can be pushed together so
densely that a liquid is formed.)

Cooling curve:

Heating curve:

1.2 - Diffusion
The net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration down a concentration gradient as a result of random particle movement.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:

1. Relative molecular mass: The heavier the molecular mass, the slower the diffusion
2. Temperature: The higher the temperature, the faster the diffusion, as particles have
more energy and move quicker.

3
 2 Atoms, elements and compounds

2.1 - Elements, compounds and mixtures

Elements Compounds Mixtures

- Atoms of an - Atoms of different - Particles that are

element are elements bond together mixed without any
identical to each in a chemical reaction chemical bonds
other to form compounds
- Mixture retains
- They cannot be - Can be changed properties of its
changed chemically chemically to a different particles
into another compound
element - Can be separated
- Can be broken down using techniques
- Cannot be broken into simpler forms such as filtration and
down into simpler evaporation.
forms

2.2 - Atomic structure and the Periodic Table

Structure of an atom

Relative charge Relative mass

Proton + 1 1

neutron 0 1

Electron - 1 1/1840 (negligible)

4
Richienb under [Link]

Atomic number: The number of protons in an atom of an element

Nucleon number: The number of protons and neutrons in an atom of an element

Electronic configuration - The way electrons in an atom of an element are distributed in its shells
First shell can hold up to 2 electrons
2nd 3rd shells can hold up to 8 electrons
E.g. :
Potassium (19 electrons) = 2, 8, 8, 1
Carbon (6 electrons) = 2, 4

● The number of electron shells occupied represents an element’s period

E.g. Potassium is in period 4 and Carbon is in period 2

● The number of outer shell electrons (electron valency) is equivalent to an element’s

group number
E.g. Potassium is in group 1 and Carbon in group 4

*Note that group VIII elements have full outer shells

2.3 - Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number
of neutrons.

● Isotopes of an element have the same electronic configuration, and thus still have the
same chemical properties.

Relative atomic mass (the average mass of isotopes of an element in comparison to 1/12th of
a mass of an atom of carbon-12):
(Abundance x mass number) + (abundance x mass number) / 100

2.4 - Ions and ionic bonds

5
Ion - an atom or group of atom that have an electric charge (+ or -)
Cations: Positively charged ions
Anions: Negatively charged ions

● An atom loses or gains electrons to obtain a full outer shell, which will stabilise the atom.
E.g.:
Potassium has an ion of 1+, it loses an electron to achieve a full outer shell 2, 8, 8, 1 → 2, 8, 8
Oxygen has an ion of 2-, it gains 2 electrons to achieve a full outer shell 2, 6 → 2, 8

Ionic bonds:
The strong electrostatic force between oppositely charged ions

- Between a metal (positive ion) and a nonmetal (negative ion)

- Ionic bonds are strong: high melting and boiling point (lots of energy is required to break
the strong bonds)
- Soluble in water
- Conducts electricity when molten or aqueous only
- Brittle (positive and positive charges repel whe layers slide over each other when hit)
- E.g. Potassium oxide

Ionic bonds are represented by a dot and cross diagram:

6
2.5 - Simple molecules and covalent bonds

Covalent bonds:
The sharing of pairs of electrons between 2 atoms to achieve full electron valency.

- Between nonmetal and nonmetal (2 negative ions)

- Weak intermolecular forces: low melting and boiling point (less energy is required to
break the bonds)
- Insoluble in water
- Does not conduct electricity
- E.g. Carbon dioxide

Covalent bonds are represented by a dot and cross diagram in a different form:

2.6 - Giant covalent structures

The result of many atoms bonded covalently

The 2 covered giant covalent structures:

Graphite Diamond

- Used as a lubricant and pencils - Used in cutting tools

- Hexagonal structure - Tetrahedral structure
- Once carbon bonded to 3 carbon: 1 - One carbon is bonded to 4 carbon
delocalised - Hard
- Layers can be easily rubbed off as - Insulator
they are soft - Do not conduct electricity
- Insoluble - Insoluble
- Conducts electricity: delocalised
electron

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 Mattman723 under
[Link]

● Graphite and diamond and allotropes: They are both made up of carbon, but have
different structures

*Silicon (IV) oxide, SiO2, is another example of a giant covalent structure. It has similar
properties to diamond and also has a tetrahedral structure
- One oxygen bonded to 2 silicon
- 1 silicon bonded to 4 oxygen

2.7 - Metallic bonding

The electrostatic force of attraction between positive ions and a sea of delocalised electrons

- High melting a boiling point

(due to strong electrostatic forces)
- Good conductor of electricity
(due to the mobile electrons to carry the current)
- Malleable and ductile
(positive ions are arranged in layers, when it is hit, the layers can slide over and form new bonds
easily)

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 3 Stoichiometry
3.1 - Formulae
Key definitions:
Molecular formula - The number and types of different atoms in one molecule
Empirical formula - The simplest whole number ratio of different atoms or ions in a compound

Empirical formula:

To form an ionic compound’s formula,

List of complex ions to remember:

How to write ionic equations:

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 1. Write out the full equation, including states
2. Split all aqueous compounds into its ions
3. Cross out any spectator ions (ions that are in both products and reactants)
4. Rewrite your final equation!

*to know if a compound is aqueous, refer to the solubility chart (chp 7)

*all acids are aqueous

3.2 - Relative masses of atoms and molecules

Relative molecular mass: The sum of the relative atomic masses, used for ionic compounds.
(relative atomic mass - the average mass of isotopes of n element in comparison to 1/12th of a
mass of carbon-12)

3.3 - The mole and the Avogadro constant

Mole - the unit of amount of substance where one mole contains 6.02 x 10^23 particles
Avogadro’s constant = 6.02 x 10^23

Formulas used for mole calculations:

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11
 4 Electrochemistry
4.1 - Electrolysis
The breakdown of an ionic compound in aqueous or molten state through passage of electricity.

An example of an electrolysis setup:

[Link] under [Link]

Anode - positive electrode, attracts anions (negative ions), where oxidation takes place
Cathode - negative electrode, attract cations (positive ions), where reduction takes place
Electrolyte - The molten/aqueous substance that is being used for electrolysis

Why are carbon/graphite electrodes used?

1. Graphite conducts electricity
2. Graphite is inert

Molten electrolysis
● Metal (cation) and nonmetal (anion) produced
E.g. Aluminium oxide
Anode (oxidation) = Oxygen gas produced

Cathode (reduction) = Aluminium solid formed

Half equations:
Equations that show reduction or oxidation

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Aqueous electrolysis rules
Dilute solution: OH- (oxygen) and H+ (hydrogen) are produced at anode and cathode respectively

Concentrated solution: Halogen produced at the anode (if no halogen present, oxygen is
produced), and a metal less reactive than hydrogen at the cathode (if no suitable metal is
present, hydrogen is produced)

E.g.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid – Cathode: hydrogen Anode: chlorine
Concentrated aqueous copper nitrate – Cathode: copper Anode: oxygen
Dilute hydrochloric acid – Cathode: hydrogen Anode: oxygen

Electrolysis of aqueous copper sulphate with…

Carbon electrodes (inert electrodes): concentration of copper in electrolyte reduces, electrolyte
loses colour (blue → colourless). Ions are taken from the electrolyte.

anode cathode

Copper electrodes (reactive electrodes): concentration of copper in electrolyte stays the same.
Colour does not change (stays blue). Ions move from anode to cathode, not from electrolyte.
Anode loses mass, cathode gains mass.

anode cathode

Electroplating:

● To enhance appearance
● To prevent corrosion

Example: 1. Electroplating jewellery in silver

Anode: metal used for plating. Loses mass

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Cathode: metal to be plated. Gains the lost mass

Ions move from anode → cathode

:

4.2 - Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells

Using hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, with water as the only chemical product.

Advantages Disadvantages

- Does not have to be recharged - Flammable

- No pollution made - It is hard to store gas

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 5 Chemical energetics
5.1 - Exothermic and endothermic reactions

Activation energy: The minimum amount of energy necessary for a reaction to occur

Exothermic reaction: Transfers energy to the surroundings leading to increase in surrounding

temperatures. Bond making.

Endothermic reaction: Takes in energy from surroundings leading to decrease in the

temperature of surroundings. Bond breaking.

Enthalpy change: the transfer of thermal energy during a reaction.

How to calculate enthalpy change?

Total energy of reactants – Total energy of products

*enthalpy change is negative for exothermic reactions and positive for endothermic reactions

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 6 Chemical reactions
6.1 - Physical and chemical changes

Chemical Vs Physical changes:

Physical Chemical

- Can be undone easily - Difficult to reverse

- No new material formed: chemically the - Colour change
same - Bubbles formed
- Change in state - New materials formed

6.2 - Rate of reaction

Factors that increase the rate of reaction:

- Increasing concentration of the reactants/products
- Increasing the pressure used
- Increasing the temperature used
- Increasing the surface area of the reactants
- Using a catalyst

Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of reaction while remaining unchanged (not used
up) at the end of the reaction

How to measure rate of reaction:

1. The mass of product produced/time
2. The mass of reactant used/time

Collision theory:
For a reaction to take place, the particles must:
1. Collide with each other
2. They must collide with enough activation energy successfully

Thus, to increase the chances of successful collisions you can,

- Increase the number of particles colliding (by increasing the concentration of reactants
or increasing pressure)
- Increase the kinetic energy of the particles (by increasing the temperature)
- Increase the frequency of collision (by increasing the surface area of the products)
- Add a catalyst (which would lower the activation energy required of the particles)

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6.3 - Reversible reactions and equilibrium

A reversible reaction is represented by the symbol:

Examples of reversible reactions include hydrated and anhydrous compounds:

- When you add water to anhydrous compounds they become hydrated
- When you heat hydrated compounds they become anhydrous

Hydrated salt: chemically combined with H2O

Anhydrous salt: does not contain H2O

Anhydrous copper(II) sulphate (WHITE) Hydrated copper(II) sulphate (BLUE)

Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride (BLUE) Hydrated cobalt(II) chloride (PINK)

Water of crystallisation: The water present in a hydrated compound

A reaction in equilibrium: When the forward and the backward reaction are equal in rate, the
concentration of reactants and products remain constant, and the reaction happens in a closed
system.

equilibrium shifts (how factors affect the yield of forward and backward reactions):
1. Increase in temperature
Favours side with endothermic reaction
2. Decrease in temperature
Favours side with exothermic reaction.

1. Increase in pressure
Favours side with less moles
2. decrease in pressure

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Favours side with more moles

1. Increase in concentration
Favours the production of products
2. Decrease in concentration
Favours the production of reactants

1. Adding a catalyst
Increases rate of reaction but does not affect equilibrium shifts/yield

*yield and rate of reaction are NOT equivalent

Processes studied:
Haber process Contact process

- Creation of ammonia - Making of sulfuric acid

- Reacting N2 and H2 to produce NH3. - Burn sulphur in air or roast sulphur ore
- An exothermic process to produce sulphur dioxide
- Nitrogen from air and hydrogen from 1. React with sulphur dioxide with
methane oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide
- N2 + 3H2 2NH3 (Reversible part)
2. Sulphur trioxide react with sulphuric
Conditions: acid to produce Oleum (H2S2O7)
3. Oleum reacts with water to produce
1. 200 atm (20,000 kPa)
sulphuric acid
2. iron catalyst
3. Temp of 450 degrees celsius — have to transfer into oleum because
directly it is highly exothermic and the fumes
are toxic.

S + O2 → SO2

2SO2 + O2 2SO3

SO3 + H2SO4 →(Oleum) H2S2O7

H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4

Conditions:

- Vanadium (V) oxide catalyst

- Temp of 450 degrees celsius
- 2 atm (200 kPa)

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Why aren't lower temperatures used since the reactions are exothermic (exothermic reactions
favour lower temperatures)?
- Below 450 degrees celsius, the rate reaction is too slow
- Above 450 degrees celsius, the yield of forward reaction decreases

Why aren't higher pressures used (since higher pressure favours the side with less moles)?
- Higher pressures are dangerous
- Higher pressures are more expensive to maintain

6.4 - Redox
A reaction that undergoes both oxidation AND reduction

What is oxidation and reduction?

Oxidation Reduction

● Loss of hydrogen ● Gain of hydrogen

● Gain of oxygen ● Loss of oxygen
● Loss of electrons (OIL) ● Gain of electrons (RIG)
Oxidation is loss of electrons Reduction is gain of electrons
● Increase of oxidation state ● Decrease in oxidation state

1. Elements not combined (alone) have an oxidation state of 0 e.g H2, Mg

2. Oxidation state = charge (it is represented as roman numerals)

E.g. cobalt(II) has an oxidation state of +2

3. Sum of all oxidation states in a a molecule is 0

4. In complex ions (e.g SO4), sum of oxidation numbers equal to charge

Examples:

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Oxidising agent: The substance that causes another substance to be oxidised in a reaction. It
itself is reduced

Reducing agent: The substance that causes another substance to be reduced in a reaction. It
itself is oxidised

Potassium (VII) manganate : oxidising agent

Purple to colourless when it is reduced

Potassium iodide: reducing agent

Colourless to yellow/brown when it is oxidised

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 7 Acids, bases and salts
7.1 - The characteristic properties of acids and bases

Acids:
They are proton donors
- They have a pH of less than 7
- Oxides or hydroxides of nonmetals are acidic
- Aqueous solutions of acids contain H+ ions

Acid reactions:
Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

Metal Oxide + acid → salt + water (neutralisation)

Metal carbonates + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide

Metal hydroxide + acid → salt + water (neutralisation)

Weak acid: partially dissociates in water (e.g ethanoic acid): CH3COOH (pH 4-6)
Strong acid: fully dissociates with water (means that the hydrogen ions are broken off fully)
e.g. HCl (pH 1-3)

Dissociation equations:
Strong acid (hydrochloric acid)

Weak acid (ethanoic acid)

Identification of acids:
- Turns damp blue litmus paper red
- Turns thymolphthalein colourless
- Turns methyl orange red

Bases:
They are proton acceptors

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 - They have a pH above 7
- alkalis are soluble bases (all alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis)
- Oxides or hydroxides of metals are basic
- Aqueous solutions of alkalis contain OH- ions

Base reactions:
Base + acid → salt + water
Base + ammonium salt → ammonia + water + salt (decomposition reaction)
E.g. NaOH + (NH4)2SO4 → NH3 + H2O + Na2SO4

Weak bases: partially dissociates in water (pH 8-10)

Strong bases: fully dissociates with water (pH 11-14)

Identification of bases:
- Turns damp red litmus paper blue
- Thymolphthalein turns blue
- Methyl orange turns yellow

Neutralisation reaction between acids and alkali’s ionic equation:

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O(l)

7.2 - Oxides

- metallic oxide = base E.g CuO and CaO

- Non metallic oxide = acid E.g SO2 and CO2

Amphoteric oxide: Oxides that react with both base and acid to produce salt and water. E.g.
Zinc oxide and aluminium oxide

Neutral oxides: oxides that do not react with either acid nor base. E.g carbon monoxide and
nitric oxide

7.3 - Preparation of salts

Solubility rules of salts:

Salts Soluble not soluble

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 Sodium, potassium and All none
ammonium

Nitrates All None

Chlorides Most Silver and lead

Sulphates Most Barium, calcium and lead

Carbonates sodium, potassium and Most

ammonium
Methods of preparing salts:

Insoluble salt prep - soluble Soluble salt prep - metal + Soluble salt prep - acid +
+ soluble (precipitation) acid (not containing K, NH4, alkali (titration) salt
Na) containing K, NH4, Na

1. 2 aqueous solutions 1. React insoluble base 1. Prepare acid in a

of soluble substances and acid burette
mixed and reacted 2. Filter out excess solid 2. Prepare a known
2. Filtrate filtered out 3. Heat solution in amount of alkali in a
3. Rinse with distilled evaporating dish over beaker
water a water bath 3. Add and suitable
4. Dry residue in oven 4. Stop when crystals indicator into alkali
start to appear around 4. Slowly drip the acid
the edge into the alkali until it
5. Leave solution at reaches its end point
room temp for (when the indicator
crystals to form changes colour)
5. Record the volume of
titrant used
6. Repeat experiment
without the indicator
7. Solution is evaporated
and cooled to form
crystals

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 8 The Periodic Table
8.1 - Arrangement of elements
The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing proton number

Sandbh under [Link]

● Metals are found to the left of the periodic table

● Non metals are found to the right of the periodic table
● Members of the same group have the same electron valency
● Elements of the same group have the same chemical properties (due to same electron
valency)
● The group number of an element also determines its ionic charge E.g Group 2 has
charge +2
● The period of a group represents the number of shells an element occupies

8.2 - Group I properties

- They are soft metals that can be cut with a knife
- They are known as alkali metals
- They react with water to form an alkali solution

As you go down the group:

1. Melting point decreases
2. Density increases
3. Reactivity increases

8.3 - Group VII properties

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 - They exist as diatomic molecules E.g Br2, Cl2
- They are known as halogens
- More reactive halogens can displace less reactive halogens in a reaction

As you go down the group:

1. Density increases
2. Reactivity increases

Appearance of halogens:
The colour gets darker down the group
Chlorine Pale yellow-green gas

Bromine Red-brown liquid

Iodine Grey-black solid

Displacement chart of halogens: more reactive halogens can displace less reactive halogens in a
reaction
Potassium chloride Potassium bromide Potassium iodide

Chlorine x Potassium chloride and Potassium chloride and

Bromine produced Iodine produced

Bromine No reaction x Potassium bromide and

Iodine produced

Iodine No reaction No reaction x

8.4 - Transition elements

Found around the middle of the periodic table

Properties:
- High density
- High melting and boiling point
- Form coloured compounds
- They act as catalysts
- Their ions have variable oxidation states E.g Iron(II) and Iron(III)

8.5 - Noble gases (group VIII)

- Noble gases have full electron shells so they are inert (they do not react) and stable
- They exist as monatomic gases E.g. Ar, He

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 9 Metals
9.1 - Properties of metals
1. Metals are conductors of heat and electricity
2. the are malleable and ductile
3. High melting and boiling points

Metal reactions:

Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

Metal + cold water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen

Metal + steam → metal oxide + hydrogen

Metal + oxygen → metal oxide

9.2 - Uses of metals

1. Aluminium
● Used in aircrafts as it has a low density
● It used in electrical cables due to its low density and conductivity
● Used in food storage as it is corrosion resistance

2. Copper
● Used in electrical wiring due to copper being ductile and a conductor

9.3 - Alloys and their properties

Alloys are mixtures of metals

E.g.
1. Brass; mixture of zinc and copper
2. Stainless steel; mixture of iron, carbon, chromium and nickel

- Alloys are often stronger than pure metals due to the differently sized atoms, that stops
the layers from sliding over each other

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*stainless steel is used in cutlery due to its rust resistance

9.4 - Reactivity series

Most reactive
1. Potassium K
2. Sodium Na
3. Lithium Li
4. Calcium Ca
5. Magnesium Mg
6. Aluminium Al: seems less reactive due to the oxide layer it has
7. Carbon C
8. zinc Zn
9. Iron Fe
10. Hydrogen H
11. copper Cu
12. silver Ag
13. Gold Au

Least reactive

More reactive metals can displace less reactive metals in a reaction.

Reactivity series reactions:

Steam Water Acid

Potassium K Reacts with steam Reacts with cold Reacts explosively to

vigorously to form water vigorously to form hydrogen gas
Sodium Na hydroxide form hydroxide

Lithium Li

Calcium Ca

27
 Magnesium Mg Reacts with steam Reacts slowly to form Reacts to form
vigorously to form hydroxide hydrogen
hydroxide

zinc Zn Reacts slowly to form Reacts slowly to form Reacts slowly to form
hydroxide hydroxide hydrogen
Iron Fe

copper Cu Does not react does not react does not react

silver Ag

Gold Au

9.5 - Corrosion of metals

Sacrificial protection: The reaction of a more reactive metal in place of another metal to protect
it from corrosion

E.g. Galvanising iron using zinc

● Zinc is more reactive than iron. Reacts instead of iron. Zinc oxidises (loses electrons)

When Iron is in the presence of water and oxygen, RUST is formed (hydrated iron(III) oxide)

rust prevention: painting, greasing, coating with plastic, galvanising

9.6 - Extraction of metals

2 processes studied:

Extraction of Iron (blast furnace) Extraction of Aluminium oxide (electrolysis)

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● Substances added: (iron ore) Hematite, coke, ● Substances added: (aluminium ore) Bauxite
limestone, air purified to Al2O3 and Cryolite
● C + O2 → CO2 (produces heat) ● Al3+ + 3e- → Al (cathode)
● CO2 + C → CO (reduction) ● 2O2 → O2 + 4e- (anode)
● 3CO + Fe2O3 3CO2 and 2Fe (redox) ● Anode needs to be replaced continuously as
● CaCO3 → CaO + O2 (thermal decomposition) carbon reacts with the O2 produced to
● CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3 (neutralisation: removes produce CO2
impurities - produces slag)) ● Cryolite usage:
1. Used as solvent
2. Lowers working temp
3. Increases conductivity of electrolysis

29
 10 Chemistry of the environment
10.1 - Water
Test for water:
1. Cobalt(II) chloride: blue to pink
2. Copper(II) sulphate: white to blue

Test for water purity: Heat to boiling point (pure water boils at 100 degrees celsius)

- Distilled water is used in experiments as they have the least impurities

What is found in natural water?

- Dissolved oxygen (good for aquatic life)
- Metal compounds
- Plastic
- Sewage
- Harmful microbes
- Nitrates and phosphates from fertilisers (deoxygenation of water due to eutrophication)

How is water treated?

● Treated water is used for: drinking
1. Screen filter (large particles removed)
2. Coagulate and skim off (removal of smaller insoluble particles)
3. Filtration (small particles)
4. Use of carbon to remove taste and odour
5. Chlorination to kill pathogens

10.2 - Fertilisers

Fertiliser used to improve plant growth and health:

● NPK fertilisers — Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium for plant growth

● Ammonium (NH4) salts

10.3 - Air quality and climate

Air composition -
78% Nitrogen
21% Oxygen
0.04% CO2
<1% water vapour and other noble gases

30
Pollutants found in air:

Source Affect

CO2 (also found in Combustion Global warming + climate

clean air) change

CO Incomplete combustion Toxic gas

Acid rain

CH4 (methane) Decomposition of vegetation Global warming + climate

Waste gases from animals change

Oxides of nitrogen High temp from car engines react O2 Acid rain, photochemical
and N2 smog and respiratory issues

Sulphur dioxide Sulphur impurities in crude oil and Acid rain

combustion of fossil fuels

Greenhouse gases: CO2 and CH4 –

● They absorb heat energy from the earth, and re-emits it back into our atmosphere
● Heat is trapped instead of released into space, causing global warming

How to reduce the effects of pollutants:

1. Plant trees (reduces CO2 through plants photosynthesizing)

2. Reduce livestock (reduce methane)

3. Decrease fossil fuel use (reduce CO2)

4. Use hydrogen and renewable energy (reduce CO2)

5. Flue gas desulfurization using calcium oxide (reduces creation of sulphur dioxide)

6. Use catalytic converters (reverses the creation of CO and NO)

The use of catalytic converters in an engine: 2CO + 2NO → 2CO2 + N2

Photosynthesis in plants:
Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
Conditions:
- Light
- Chlorophyll

31
 11 Organic chemistry
11.1 - Formulae, functional groups and terminology

Key definitions:
Saturated compound: A compound where all carbon-carbon bonds are single
Unsaturated compound: A compound where at least one carbon-carbon bond is not single
(alkenes)
Functional group: An atom or group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a
homologous series
Homologous series: a family of similar compounds with the same chemical properties due to
the same functional group

Condensed formula: The formula that shows the way a molecule’s atoms are arranged

Displayed formula: The drawn out structure of the molecule and its arranged atoms

Members of the same homologous series have:

1. Same chemical properties

2. Trend in physical properties
3. Same functional group
4. Same general formula
5. Differ from one member to another by one -CH2- unit

Homologous series studied:

1. Alkanes
2. Alkenes
3. Alcohols
4. Carboxylic acids

32
 Homologous Alkane Alkene Alcohol Carboxylic acid
series

General formula CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n+1OH CnH2n+1COOH

Functional group C-C C double bond C OH COOH

E.g.
An alkane with 2 carbon’s formula is C2H6 (ethane)
An alcohol with 4 carbon’s formula is C4H9OH (butanol)

11.2 - Naming organic compounds

Number of carbons Prefix

1 meth-

2 eth-

3 prop-

4 but-

Homologous series Suffix

Alkane -ane

Alkene -ene

Alcohol -ol

Carboxylic acid -oic acid

E.g.
An alkene with 3 carbons = propene
A carboxylic acid with 2 carbons = ethanoic acid

33
All displayed formulas:

34
*Alkenes:
● The number represents the location of the double carbon bond

*Alcohols:
● The number represents the location of the -OH bond

Structural isomers: compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
formula

11.3 - Fuels

Hydrocarbons: compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon ONLY

Petroleum: a mixture of hydrocarbons

Fossil fuels: Coal, Natural gas and petroleum

35
*Methane is mainly made out of natural gas

Petroleum can be separated into different products with different uses. This is done using
fractional distillation:

Wikimedia commons

11.4 - Alkanes

General formula: CnH2n+2

● They are saturated hydrocarbons (single C-C bonds)

Reactions of alkanes:

- generally unreactive except:

Combustion AND/OR
Substitution by chlorine (photochemical reaction, UV light needed to provide activation
energy)

Substitution: where an atom is replaced by another atom

Substitution by chlorine in methane:

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11.5 - Alkenes

General formula: CnH2n

● They are unsaturated hydrocarbons

How are they formed?

- Cracking
Taking a long chain alkane and heating it to form the products of
1. An alkene and hydrogen
OR
2. An alkene and an alkane

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E.g.

Reactions of alkenes:

Alkenes

1. Test for unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes):

Add bromine water (turns orange brown to colourless)

2. Addition reaction: adding on new atoms to the molecule

double bond is broken to free up bonds for the addition
- Element is added
*The addition of hydrogen turns a alkenes back to an alkane (this requires a NICKEL catalyst)
*The addition of oxygen and hydrogen (steam) turns an alkene to an alcohol (this requires a
PHOSPHORIC ACID catalyst)

Examples: (using ethene)

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11.6 - Alcohols

General formula: CnH2n+1OH

How are they formed?

1. Addition reaction of alkenes with steam (catalytic addition; a large scale process)
2. Fermentation of aqueous glucose

Fermentation Catalytic addition of steam to ethene

Conditions: Conditions:
1. 25-35 degrees celsius 1. 300 degrees celsius
2. Yeast 2. 60 atm (6000 kPa)
3. Anaerobic respiration; no oxygen 3. Phosphoric acid catalyst

It is a batch process + It is a continuous process

+ The reactants are renewable + The alcohol produced is pure
+ Does not require a lot of energy - It is expensive
- It is a slow process - It is not renewable (requires ethene,
- The alcohol produced is not pure and sourced from petroleum)
must be separated

Reactions of alcohols:
Combustion

Uses of ethanol:
1. As a solvent
2. As a biofuel

11.7 - Carboxylic acids

General formula: CnH2n+1COOH

How are they formed?

1. Oxidising an alcohol with an oxidising agent (E.g Potassium manganate(VII))
2. Bacterial oxidation of an alcohol in the production of vinegar
Reactions of carboxylic acids:

1. Reacts like a normal acid (weak acid; pH 4-6)

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 Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

Metal Oxide + acid → salt + water (neutralisation)

Metal carbonates + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide

Metal hydroxide + acid → salt + water (neutralisation)

2. Reacts with alcohol using sulfuric acid to form an ester

● Esters are sweet smelling liquids often used in flavourings and perfumes

Naming an ester:
__yl __ate

(name of alcohol)yl (name of carboxylic acid)ate

E.g.
Methanol + Propanoic acid → Methyl propanoate
Propanol + Ethanoic acid → Propyl ethanoate

11.8 - Polymers
Polymers are large molecules formed by the joining of many monomers

E.g. the monomer propene turns into the polymer polypropene

There are 2 methods of forming polymers:

Addition polymerisation Condensation polymerisation

- only for alkenes Monomer → repeating unit →polymer

Monomer → repeating unit →polymer
There are 2 products of this polymerisation
E.g. 1. Polyesters: made with diols and dicarboxylic
acids
2. Polyamides: made with diamides and

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 dicarboxylic acids

Polyamide:
- Have amide linkages
A synthetic polyamide includes
Nylon

A natural polyamide includes

Proteins
Made of the monomer amino acids

Polyesters:
- Have ester linkages
A synthetic polyamide includes
PET (terylene)

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Difference between condensation and addition polymerisation:
- Addition polymerisation involves one monomer repeated, and only the polymer forms
(one product)
- Condensation involves multiple monomers repeated, a small molecule is removed as a
byproduct (usually water, so more than one product)

Plastics:
- made from polymers

Implications for their disposals:

1. Accumulation in landfills
Takes a long time to biodegrade, smelly

2. Combustion of plastics
Releases toxic gases

3. Water pollution
Kills aquatic life and releases toxins

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 12 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis
12.1 - Experimental design

Apparatus:
● Stopwatches - measuring time
● Thermometers - measuring temperature
● Balances - measuring mass
● Burretes - measuring liquid volume
● Volumetric pipettes - measuring a fixed volume of liquid
● Measuring cylinders - measuring liquid volume
● Gas syringe - measuring gas volume

Solvent: dissolves a solute

Solute: the substance getting dissolved

Saturated solution: solution with the maximum concentration of dissolved solute at a

temperature

Residue: the substance left after filtration of a solution

Filtrate: the substance produced after successfully passing through the filter

12.2 - Acid–base titrations

Titration is the neutralisation of a soluble base (potassium, ammonium and sodium hydroxides)
and acid

Equipment:
● Burette
● Volumetric pipette
● Indicator

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 1. Fill a burette with acid
2. Fill a conical flask with a known volume of an alkali (using volumetric palette)
3. Add a few drops of indicator into the alkali (e.g thymolphthalein)
4. Drop the acid from the burette into the alkali, swirling the solution as you go
5. Stop when the colour of the indicator changes (it has reached its end-point)
6. Record the volume of acid used
7. Repeat the experiment without the indicator, using the known volume of acid

12.3 - Chromatography
Chromatography is used to separate soluble inks and smaller molecules (e.g amino acids)

Alicia Fagerving (WMSE) under [Link]

Rf value equation:
Distance travelled by substance/Distance travelled by solvent
Rf value < 1

● If chromatography is used to separate colourless substances, a locating agent is

required to identify where the substance has travelled to

12.4 - Separation and purification

Methods:
● Filtration
● Crystallisation
● Simple distillation
● Fractional distillation

*distillation is a separation technique that takes advantage of the different boiling points of
substances

If the wanted substance is insoluble:

- filter

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 - wash the residue
- dry the residue in an oven

If the wanted substance is soluble:

- filter
- crystallise the filtrate

Separation of 2 liquids:
- simple distillation

Separation of liquids with similar boiling points:

- fractional distillation

John Kershaw under [Link]

Uses a fractionating column to separate the liquids

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12.5 - Identification of ions and gases

Anion tests
test result

Carbonate React with dilute acid then test for Bubbling and limewater turns
carbon dioxide using limewater cloudy/milky

Chloride Acidify with dilute nitric acid and add White precipitate forms
aqueous silver nitrate

Bromide Acidify with dilute nitric acid and add Cream precipitate forms
aqueous silver nitrate

Iodide Acidify with dilute nitric acid and add Yellow precipitate forms
aqueous silver nitrate

Nitrate Add aqueous sodium hydroxide and Bubbling, gas produced that turns
then aluminium foil. Warm the mixture. damp red litmus paper blue
(ammonia)

Sulfate Acidify with dilute nitric acid and add White precipitate formed
aqueous barium nitrate

Sulfite Add acidified aqueous potassium The potassium manganate (VII)

manganate (VII) changes from purple to colourless

Cation tests
Aqueous sodium hydroxide Aqueous ammonia

Aluminium White precipitate formed, soluble in White precipitate formed,

excess forming a colourless solution insoluble in excess

Ammonium On warming, a gas is produced that No reaction

turns damp red litmus paper blue
(ammonia)

Calcium White precipitate formed, insoluble in No precipitate/very little white

excess precipitate

Chromium(III) Green precipitate formed, soluble in Green precipitate, insoluble in

excess excess

Copper(II) Light blue precipitate formed, insoluble Light blue precipitate, soluble in
in excess excess forming a dark blue

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 solution

Iron(II) Green precipitate formed, insoluble in Green precipitate formed,

excess insoluble in excess

Iron(III) Red-brown precipitate formed, Red-brown precipitate formed,

insoluble in excess insoluble in excess

Zinc White precipitate formed, soluble in White precipitate formed, soluble

excess forming a colourless solution in excess forming a colourless
solution

Test for gases

test result

Ammonia Damp red litmus paper Turns blue

Carbon dioxide Limewater Turns milky

Chlorine Damp litmus paper Bleaches

Hydrogen Lighted splint Goes off with a squeaky pop

Oxygen Glowing splint Relights

Sulphur dioxide Bubble through acidified Changes from purple to

potassium manganate (VII) colourless

Flame test to identify cations:

Using a nichrome wire loop, dip it into some HCl and hold it to the flame, this cleans the loop.
Dip the loop into the cation sample and hold it to a blue flame. Observe the colour changes.
Lithium Red flame

Sodium Yellow flame

Potassium Lilac flame

Calcium Orange-red flame

Barium Yellow-green flame

Copper Blue-green flame

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Notes by: Gisele

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