Feedback:

The body maintains homeostasis through a number of self-regulating control systems (homeostatic
mechanisms) that share the following three components:
 Receptors – provide information about specific conditions (stimuli) in the internal
environment
 Set Point – control center tells what a particular value should be, such as body temperature
at 37C or 98.6F
 Effectors – bring about responses that alter conditions in the internal environment

Feedback mechanisms can be positive or negative.

In a negative feedback mechanism, receptors detect deviations from the set point, and effectors are
activated to return conditions toward normal. As conditions return to normal, the effectors are gradually
shut down. When the deviation is being corrected, the actions of the effectors (move in the opposite or
negative direction) are reduced. Most body systems achieve homeostasis through negative feedback
mechanisms. Body temperature, blood glucose levels, and blood pressure are all controlled by negative
feedback mechanisms.

Positive feedback mechanisms usually amplify (increase) a response, usually to achieve a certain
outcome. Examples include childbirth (labor), blood clotting, fever, fruit ripening, and lactation. The
actions of the effectors will continue until the end result (baby is born, fruit falls off tree, pathogen
destroyed) is achieved. Positive feedback mechanisms are less common than negative feedback
mechanisms because it creates an unstable response due to escalation. This response can be harmful or
even deadly to the organism if it is prolonged.

Hormone Regulation

On or off?
Hormones alter conditions inside the cell, usually in response to a stimulus. That
means they are activated at specific times. So they must be turned on and then
turned back off. What turns these hormones and their responses on or off?

Hormone Regulation: Feedback Mechanisms

Hormones control many cell activities, so they are very important for homeostasis.
But what controls the hormones themselves? Most hormones are regulated by
feedback mechanisms. A feedback mechanism is a loop in which a product feeds
back to control its own production. Most hormone feedback mechanisms
involve negative feedback loops. Negative feedback keeps the concentration of a
hormone within a narrow range.

Negative Feedback

Negative feedback occurs when a product feeds back to decrease its own production. This type of
feedback brings things back to normal whenever they start to become too extreme. The thyroid gland is a
good example of this type of regulation. It is controlled by the negative feedback loop shown in in the
Figure on the following page.
 The thyroid gland is regulated by a negative feedback loop.
The loop includes the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in
addition to the thyroid.

Here’s how thyroid regulation works. The hypothalamus

secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH
stimulates the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH). TSH, in turn, stimulates the thyroid gland to
secrete its hormones, which help to regulate the body’s
metabolism. When the level of thyroid hormones is high
enough, the hormones “feed back” to stop the hypothalamus
from secreting TRH and the pituitary from secreting TSH.
Without the stimulation of TSH, the thyroid gland stops
secreting its hormones. Soon, the level of thyroid hormone
starts to fall too low. 1) What do you think happens next?

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Negative feedback also controls insulin secretion by the pancreas.

Our cells need a consistent and readily available

supply of glucose in order to produce ATP and
therefore maintain vital functions. Blood glucose
levels within the bloodstream are monitored by a
negative feedback mechanism, due to the fact that
every cell in our body needs glucose for cellular
respiration. Blood glucose levels are controlled by
the pancreas. The pancreas has glucose receptor
cells, which monitor the concentration of glucose in
the blood, and it also has endocrine cells which
secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon. These
two hormones have opposite effects on blood glucose
levels. Glucagon stimulates the release of stored
glucose (glycogen) from the liver which increases
blood glucose levels. Insulin stimulates the uptake of
glucose by cells which decreases blood glucose
levels. Refer to the diagram.

Positive feedback
Positive feedback occurs when a product feeds back to increase its own production. This causes
conditions to become increasingly extreme. An example of positive feedback is milk production by a
mother for her baby. As the baby nurses, nerve messages from the nipple cause the pituitary gland to
secrete prolactin. Prolactin, in turn, stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk, so the baby suckles
more. This causes more prolactin to be secreted and more milk to be produced. This example is one of the
few positive feedback mechanisms in the human body. 2) What do you think would happen if milk
production by the mammary glands was controlled by negative feedback instead?

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Summary

Most hormones are controlled by negative feedback, in which the hormone feeds back to decrease its own
production. This type of feedback brings things back to normal whenever they start to become too
extreme. Positive feedback is much less common because it causes conditions to become increasingly
extreme.

If circumstances occur that require changes or more active regulation in some aspect of the internal
environment, the body must have appropriate control mechanisms available that respond to these
changing needs and then resore and maintain a healthy internal environment. Negative feedback control
systems are inhibitory – they reverse the initial change that started the homeostatic mechanism. Positive
feedback controls systems are stimulatory –they amplify or reinforce the change that is occurring.
Name: Date: Period:

Hormone Regulation Reading Activity Capture Sheet

Provide answers to numbers 1 and 2 that were asked during the reading activity.

1) What do you think happens next?

__________The hypothalamus would secrete TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone) again.___________

2) What do you think would happen if milk production by the mammary glands was controlled by
negative feedback instead?

The more the baby nursed the less milk the mother would produce. The baby would starve unless fed
formula.

Directions: Fill in the data table when you finish reading the article on feedback. You may have to
read the article more than once.

Complete after reading

Key term Scientific definition

feedback - A loop in which a product feeds back to control its own production. A self regulating
mechanism control system

negative - Receptors detect deviations from a set point and effectors are activated to return
feedback conditions to normal.
- The action of these effectors are reduced (move in the opposite direction).

positive - The actions of the effectors continue unitl the end result is achieved – AMPLIFIES A
feedback RESPONSE!

Adapted from: [Link]

3. Why are negative feedback mechanisms more common than positive feedback mechanisms in the
human body?

Positive feedback mechanisms create an unstable response due to escalation, therefore they are less
common.

4. What might happen if an endocrine hormone such as thyroid hormone was controlled by positive
instead of negative feedback?

Too much hormone would be produced and the metabolism of the person in question would speed up too
much and be out of control.
Name ___________________________________
KEY IDEA: Negative feedback is a control system which maintains the body’s internal environment at a steady
rate. Negative feedback has a stabilizing effect and acts to discourage variations from a set point.
It works by returning internal conditions back to a steady state when variations are detected. Most
body systems achieve homeostasis through negative feedback mechanisms.

Examples of Negative Feedback Mechanisms

1. Thermoregulation in Humans

Directions: Below the table you will find examples of physiological responses to temperature change. Place the
terms in the correct column in the data table.

In humans, the temperature regulation center of the body is a region of the brain called the hypothalamus. It has a
set point temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. Changes in temperature are perceived by the hypothalamus,
which will then coordinate a nervous or hormonal response to restore the body back to its normal temperature.
When the normal temperature is restored, the corrective mechanisms are switched off.

Bodily Responses to Heat Loss Bodily Responses to Heat Gain

Shivering Sweating

Decreased blood flow to skin Increased blood flow to skin

Decreased metabolic rate Increased metabolic rate

Body hairs become flattened

Body hairs become raised

Make sure to know these responses for the test!


2. Stomach Emptying

Directions: Scrutinize the diagram below to identify the following components in the feedback
mechanism.

 Stimulus-food is eaten – stomach wall is stretched

 Receptor-stretch receptors in the stomach are activated

 Control Center - we assume they mean stomach wall here. The control center is often the
brain (but not in this case).

 Effector -muscles in stomach contract

 Response -food is churned and pyloric sphincter opens

Food enters the stomach, causing the

stomach wall to stretch.

Stretch
receptors are
activated

Food is eaten

Muscles in the stomach contract

Stretch and begin to churn the food. The
receptors are churned substance is sent to the
deactivated small intestines, which empties the
stomach.

The stomach is now empty.

The stomach walls are relaxed.
 3. Blood Glucose
Directions: Read the passage, study the diagram, and answer the following questions.

The concentration of glucose in the blood affects every cell in the body. Therefore, its
concentration is strictly controlled within the range 80-100 mg of glucose per 100 ml of blood. Very low
levels of blood glucose or very high levels of blood glucose are both serious conditions and can lead to
death. Blood glucose concentration is controlled by the pancreas. The pancreas has glucose receptor
cells, which monitor the concentration of glucose in the blood, and it also has endocrine cells which
secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon. These two hormones have opposite effects on blood glucose.
Glucagon stimulates the release of stored glucose from the liver, which increases blood glucose levels.
Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells, which decreases blood glucose levels.

After a meal, glucose is absorbed from the digestive tract and glucose concentration in blood
increases. This increase is detected by the pancreas, which responds by secreting insulin. Insulin causes
glucose to be taken up by the body cells. This reduces blood glucose, which causes the pancreas to stop
secreting insulin. If the glucose level decreases too much, the pancreas detects this change and responds
by secreting the hormone glucagon. Glucagon causes the release of stored glucose from the liver. This
increases blood glucose, which causes the pancreas to stop producing glucagon.

1. What is the set point (normal level) for blood glucose? 80-100 mg of glucose per 100 ml of blood.

2. What organ detects above or below normal blood glucose concentrations? _the pancrease (control center)

3. If blood glucose levels are too high, what hormone will this organ secrete? insulin
4. If blood glucose levels are too low, what hormone will this organ secrete? glucagon

5. How does insulin cause the blood glucose level to decrease?

Insulin causes cells to take in glucose. As glucose enters the cells it is leaving the blood stream. This reduces the
glucose levels in the blood.

6. How does glucagon cause the blood glucose level to increase?

It signals the liver to break down glycogen into glucose and release the glucose into the blood stream.

7. People who have Type 1 Diabetes do not make enough insulin. What effect would this have on their blood
glucose level?

Their blood sugar levels would be too high

8..If their blood glucose level is too high, what two actions could people with diabetes take to maintain
homeostasis?

They would have to eat less sugar and starchy foods (remember that starch is just long branched chains of glucose).
The other alternative is to take insulin through an insulin pump or injections.