ICT8309: SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Lecture Notes By
Dr. Usman Mohammed Joda
Department of Information Technology
Bayero University Kano
Contents

Introduction/Birth of Satellite Orbits and Lunching Methods of Satellites

Communication Satellite Communication Reliability

Satellite Communication Design Digital Transmission Satellite

Satellite Communication – Subsystems Communication

Orbit Control Subsystem Satellite Link Analysis

Power Systems Satellite Regulatory Organization

Antenna Subsystems Satellite Services

Satellite Communication – Transponders Satellite Trends and Technology


Introduction/Birth of Satellite Communication

In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed

into orbit by human endeavor.
Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them
from natural satellites such as the Moon.
Birth of Satellite Communications…
First satellite was launched in 1957 by Russia.
It was named “Sputnik 1”

INTELSAT I (nicknamed Early Bird for the proverb "The early bird catches the worm")
was the first (commercial) communications satellite
to be placed in geosynchronous orbit, on April 6, 1965.
 Birth of Satellite Communications…

First satellite was launched in 1957 by Russia. It was named “Sputnik 1”

Communications satellites may be used for many applications:

• relaying telephone calls
• providing communications to remote areas of the Earth,
• TV direct-to-user broadcasting
• providing communications to ships, aircraft and other mobile vehicles
• etc .
 Birth of Satellite Communications…
t Network
Services
Cell Maritime Disaster
Backhaul Communications Oil & Gas Aeronautical Enterprise
Recovery

Media
Services

Cable MCPC Satellite

DTH Special Events News Mobile Video
Distribution Platforms
Gathering

Government
Services

Space
Military Hosted End-to-End Embassy Situational
ISR Mobility Payloads Communications Networks Awareness
Satellite Communication Design …
Satellite communications involves four steps:
An uplink Earth station or other ground equipment transmits
the desired signal to the satellite
The satellite amplifies the incoming signal and changes the
frequency
The satellite transmits the signal back to Earth
The ground equipment receives the signal
Satellite Communication Design …
 Uplink Satellite Communication

Uplink

Uplink - The transmission of signals to the satellite

 Downlink Satellite Communication
Downlink s

Downlink - The transmission of information from the

satellite. Many Earth Stations can be covered by one satellite
beam footprint
Satellite Design
• It takes about 3 years to get a GEO telecom satellite built and launched.
• Satellite payloads are customized for a given mission.
• Satellites are heavily tested on the ground in facilities that reproduce
the space environment:
- Mechanical, Thermal, Noise and RF tests
• Typical cost of a satellite is $150-$250 million
- Some satellites can cost as much as $500 million.

- Not including launch services ($55-$100 million) and insurance.

 Satellite Design…
Satellites are built using sophisticated electronic and mechanical components
that must withstand the vibrations of a rocket launch and then operate in the
environment of space – without maintenance – for periods of 15 years or
more. A satellite consists of the spacecraft bus (which is the primary
spacecraft structure containing power, temperature control and directional
thrusters) and the communications payload (which receives, amplifies and
retransmits the signals over a designated geographic area).
 Satellite Design…
A satellite contains multiple channels, called transponders, that
provide bandwidth and power over designated radio frequencies. The
transponder’s bandwidth and power dictate how much information
can be transmitted through the transponder and how big the ground
equipment must be to receive the signal. In addition, the satellite’s
antennas direct the signal over a specific geographic area.
Block Diagram of a Communications Satellite
Propulsion System
Telemetry, Attitude Control,
Solar Arrays Commanding, Fuel, Batteries Solar Arrays
Power System/Thermal System

Down
High
D oe
Co nv er ter Power
Transponder Amplifier Transponder
Receiver Section Transmitter Section
Communications Pre- Filter
Amplifier
Payload

Filter

Rx Antennas Tx Antenna
 Satellite Communication - Subsystems
In satellite communication system, various operations take place.
Among which, the main operations are orbit controlling, altitude of
satellite, monitoring and controlling of other subsystems.

A satellite communication consists of mainly two segments. Those

are space segment and earth segment. So, accordingly there will be
two types of subsystems namely, space segment subsystems and
earth segment subsystems.
Satellite Communication – Subsystems…
Space Segment Subsystems
The subsystems present in space segment are called as space segment
subsystems. Following are the space segment subsystems.
AOC Subsystem
TTCM Subsystem
Power and Antenna Subsystems
Transponders
 Earth Segment Subsystems
Earth segment is also called ground segment. Earth segment
performs mainly two functions. These are:

i. Transmission of a signal to the satellite and

ii. Reception of signal from the satellite.

Earth stations are the major subsystems that are present in earth
segment.
 Satellite Communication - AOC Subsystem
Altitude and Orbit Control (AOC) subsystem consists of rocket motors,
which are capable of placing the satellite into the right orbit, whenever it is
deviated from the respective orbit. AOC subsystem is helpful in order to
make the antennas, which are of narrow beam type points towards earth.

AOC subsystem divided into the following:

Altitude Control Subsystem

Orbit Control Subsystem

Altitude Control Subsystem

Altitude control subsystem takes care of the orientation of

satellite in its respective orbit. Following are the two
methods to make the satellite that is present in an orbit as
stable.

i. Spinning the satellite

ii. Three axes method

 Spinning the Satellite

In this method, the body of the satellite rotates around its spin axis. In
general, it can be rotated at 30 to 100 rpm in order to produce a force, which
is of gyroscopic type. Due to this, the spin axis gets stabilized and the
satellite will point in the same direction. Satellites of this type are called
as spinners.

Spinner contains a drum, which is of cylindrical shape. This drum is covered

with solar cells. Power systems and rockets are present in this drum.
 Three Axis Method
In this method, the satellite can be stabilize by using one or more
momentum wheels. This method is called as three-axis method. The
advantage of this method is that the orientation of the satellite in three
axes will be controlled and no need of rotating satellite’s main body. In this
method, the following three axes are considered:
i. Roll axis is considered in the direction in which the satellite moves in orbital plane.
ii. Yaw axis is considered in the direction towards earth.
iii. Pitch axis is considered in the direction, which is perpendicular to orbital plane.
 Orbit Control Subsystem
Orbit control subsystem is useful in order to bring the satellite into its
correct orbit, whenever the satellite gets deviated from its orbit.
The TTCM subsystem present at earth station monitors the position
of satellite. If there is any change in satellite orbit, then it sends a
signal regarding the correction to Orbit control subsystem. Then, it
will resolve that issue by bringing the satellite into the correct orbit.
In this way, the AOC subsystem takes care of the satellite position in
the right orbit and at right altitude during entire life span of the
satellite in space.
 Satellite Communication - TTCM Subsystem

Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM) subsystem is

present in both satellite and earth station. In general, satellite gets data
through sensors. So, Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite sends this
data to earth station(s). Therefore, TTCM subsystem is very much
necessary for any communication satellite in order to operate it
successfully.
TTCM subsystem can be divided into the following three parts.
Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem
Tracking Subsystem
Commanding Subsystem
 Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem
The word ‘Telemetry’ means measurement at a distance. Mainly, the
following operations take place in ‘Telemetry’.
Generation of an electrical signal, which is proportional to the
quantity to be measured.
Encoding the electrical signal.
Transmitting this code to a far distance.
Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite performs mainly two
functions −
receiving data from sensors, and transmitting that data to an earth station.
 Tracking Subsystem
Tracking subsystem is useful to know the position of the satellite and its
current orbit. Satellite Control Center (SCC) monitors the working and
status of space segment subsystems with the help of telemetry downlink.
And, it controls those subsystems using command uplink.
There are number of techniques used in order to track the satellite.
For example, change in the orbital position of satellite can be identified
by using the data obtained from velocity and acceleration sensors that
are present on satellite.
 Commanding Subsystem
Commanding subsystem is necessary in order to launch the satellite
in an orbit and its working in that orbit. This subsystem adjusts the
altitude and orbit of satellite, whenever there is a deviation in those
values. It also controls the communication subsystem.
This commanding subsystem is responsible for turning ON / OFF
of other subsystems present in the satellite based on the data getting
from telemetry and tracking subsystems.
 Power Systems
We know that the satellite present in an orbit should be operated
continuously during its life span. So, the satellite requires internal
power in order to operate various electronic systems and
communications payload that are present in it.
Power system is a vital subsystem, which provides the power
required for working of a satellite. Mainly, the solar cells (or panels)
and rechargeable batteries are used in these systems.
 Power Systems…
Solar Cells
Basically, the solar cells produce electrical power (current) from
incident sunlight. Therefore, solar cells are used primarily in order
to provide power to other subsystems of satellite.
Solar Arrays
There are two types of solar arrays that are used in satellites. Those
are cylindrical solar arrays and rectangular solar arrays or solar
sail.
Antenna Subsystems
Antennas are present in both satellite and earth station. Now,
let us discuss about the satellite antennas.
Satellite antennas perform two types of functions. These are:
i. Receiving of signals, which are coming from earth station
ii. Transmitting signals to one or more earth stations based on
the requirement.
In other words, the satellite antennas receive uplink signals and
transmit downlink signals.
Antenna Subsystems…
Antennas are a limiting factor in all radio communication systems.
Very complex antennas have been developed for satellites to provide
multiple beams and orthogonal polarizations from a single antenna.
Reflector antennas with clustered feeds and phased array antennas are
used to generate shaped and multiple beams.
Antenna Subsystems…
The antennas, which are used in satellite are known as satellite
antennas. There are mainly four types of Antennas. They are:

i. Wire Antennas

ii. Horn Antennas

iii. Array Antennas

iv. Reflector Antennas

 Satellite Antenna Polarization
The polarization is defined by the orientation of its electric field vector. For satellite systems,
the signal polarization can be either Cross-pol and Co-pol. linear or circular. Typically, satellite
signals at Ku-band are linearly polarized (LP); that is, their electric fields, which are
perpendicular to the direction of signal propagation, are aligned in a single direction (for
instance, north-south or east-west for a signal approaching the equator from space). This
means the receiving ground antenna feed must also be appropriately rotated to ensure the
electric field is captured at the correct angle for maximum signal. This makes implementing
mobility solutions difficult in Ku-band.
There are two major types of polarization: Cross-pol and Co-pol. We are going to concentrate
on cross polarization as that is primarily what we will be working with the most.
 Satellite Antenna Polarization…
There are two types of cross polarization that we are familiar with but probably only deal
with one. The two type are:
i. Circular Polarization
ii. Linear Polarization
Within the circular realm there is the Left Hand Circular, or LHCP, or Right Hand Circular,
or RHCP. This type of polarization is used in C-Band and in X-Band. One will be hard
pressed to find circular polarization on Ku- or Ka-Band frequencies.
Typically, satellite signals at Ku-band are linearly polarized (LP); that is, their electric
fields, which are perpendicular to the direction of signal propagation, are aligned in a
single direction (for instance, north-south or east-west for a signal approaching the equator
from space). This means the receiving ground antenna feed must also be appropriately
rotated to ensure the electric field is captured at the correct angle for maximum signal. This
makes implementing mobility solutions difficult in Ku-band.
 Satellite Antenna Polarization…
Most satellite signals at Ka-band are circularly polarized (CP), which
means the electric field rotates clockwise or anti-clockwise looking along
the direction of propagation, called right hand circularly polarized (RHCP)
or left hand (LHCP) respectively. Once the receiving antenna is aligned for
maximum signal by pointing along boresight to the transmitting satellite,
CP avoids the need for rotation of the feed to any particular transverse
angle.
Various systems may also use different types of polarization, even if they
operate in the same band. For instance, some Ka-band satellites are linearly
polarized, rather than circular. Therefore, it is often required for a terminal
to be able to switch between polarizations, which is typically done by using
waveguide switches or manually changing ports.
Satellite Antenna Polarization…
Polarization frequency re-use

• A satellite can get twice the capacity on the same frequency channels by
using opposite polarizations over the same coverage area.
- E.g. Transponder A using 6,000-6,072 MHz in vertical polarization
Transponder B using 6,000-6,072 MHz in horizontal polarization
• In case of misalignment of polarization between transmitter and receiver,
there is cross-pol interference.
• Cross-pol discrimination (XPD) is defined as the ratio of power transmitted on
the correct polarization to the power transmitted on the incorrect
polarization. The specified XPD is usually in the range of 20-30 dB for VSATs.
Earth Segment Subsystems…
Indoor Outdoor
Equipment Rack
Feed Horn
Contains:
• Modems,
• RF Power Amplifiers
• Data Communications IFL
Reflector
Equipment
• Data Networking Eqpt
• UPS
• etc
Rigid Mounting

Earth Station Components – generic simplified diagram

Earth Segment Subsystems…
Earth Station Components- simplified list
• Reflector – Physical reflecting piece – focuses signal into the LNB assembly and / or
focuses the transmission signal towards the satellite
• Feed horn – Device to accept the focused RF signals into the LNB or conversely to
output the RF signal to the satellite
• Power amplifier – Device that accepts a signal from the modem and boosts it to a
suitable level for onward transmission to the satellite
• LNA,B or C – Low Noise Amplifier – Receives the signal from the satellite,
• Modem – Converts a data signal to one suitable for transmission to the satellite
• Up Converter– Converts the modulated signals from RF to RF frequency
• Down Converter– Converts the modulated signals from RF to RF frequency
• Mounting – Some form of mounting to hold the antenna assembly vertical and
pointed correctly under most normal condition
Picture of a VSAT

Reflector

Ground
Mount
with
weights
Picture of a VSAT Components
Feed horn assembly

RF Power amplifier
(SSPA)

LNB

Transmit cable
From indoor modem
Receive cable
From LNB modem
Factors Governing Reflector Sizes
Why install a large antenna when a small one would do the job?

• Transmission:
Large earth stations have smaller BEAM Width's therefore point
more accurately
 Less RF signal wastage
 Less co-satellite interference
 Link budget requirement
 Cost factors
- Larger antenna may be less than the cost of a lease
with a smaller antenna
Factors Governing Reflector Sizes…
• Receiving:
 Antenna Gain dictated by the Link Budget
Large earth station can receive a weaker signal than the
equivalent small antenna
 Cost implications with the Link Budget
 Planning permission
e.g. Europe 0.9M is the minimum size
Factors Governing Reflector Sizes…
The differences between a Major Earth Station and a VSAT

VSAT – Very Small Aperture Terminal

• A VSAT is typically a small earth station 0.7M to 3.7M
• Usually operates a single service or application

Major Earth Station

• Typically A Major Earth station is sized from 3.7M to 16M+ weighing 20 T or mo re costing $1M+
• Basically same components in each station
• Supports multiple services
• All components redundant
• Can transmit and receive in multiple polarisations
• Usually configured with large RF power amplifiers
• Always connected to suitable Power supplies
• Usually connected to multiple terrestrial paths
Factors Governing Reflector Sizes…
Permissions required to install & operate a VSAT / Earth station
•Just because it can work does not necessarily mean you may go out
install and operate!
•Planning permission
 Local Authority building departments
 Zoning issues
•Landlord’s permission
Will the landlord permit your activity?
•Regulatory authority
Does the law allow you to build and operate?
 Satellite Communication - Transponders
The subsystem, which provides the connecting link between transmitting and
receiving antennas of a satellite is known as Transponder. It is one of the
most important subsystem of space segment subsystems. Typically satellites
have between 24 and 72 transponders. A single transponder is capable of
handling up to 155 million bits of information per second (155 Mbps)
Transponder performs the functions of both transmitter and receiver
(Responder) in a satellite. Hence, the word ‘Transponder’ is obtained by the
combining few letters of two words, Transmitter (Trans) and
Responder (ponder).
Satellite Communication – Transponders…
Transponder performs mainly two functions. Those are amplifying the received input
signal and translates the frequency of it. In general, different frequency values are chosen
for both uplink and down link in order to avoid the interference between the transmitted
and received signals.
Types of Transponders

Basically, there are two types of transponders. These are Bent pipe
transponders and Regenerative transponders.
i. Bent pipe transponder receives microwave frequency signal. It
converts the frequency of input signal to RF frequency and then
amplifies it.
ii. Regenerative transponder performs the functions of Bent pipe
transponder. i.e., frequency translation and amplification. In addition
to these two functions, Regenerative transponder also performs the
demodulation of RF carrier to baseband, regeneration of signals and
modulation.
 Satellite Frequencies
Allocation of frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process
which requires international coordination and planning. This is done as
per the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). To implement this
frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions:
Region1: Europe, Africa and Mongolia
Region 2: North and South America and Greenland
Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia and south-west Pacific
Satellite Frequencies…
Within these regions, the frequency bands are allocated to various satellite
services. Some of them are listed below.
Fixed satellite service: Provides Links for existing Telephone Networks
Used for transmitting television signals to cable companies
Broadcasting satellite service: Provides Direct Broadcast to homes. E.g.
Live Cricket matches etc
Mobile satellite services: This includes services for: Land Mobile Maritime
Mobile Aeronautical mobile
Navigational satellite services : Include Global Positioning systems
Meteorological satellite services: They are often used to perform Search
and Rescue service
 Satellite Frequencies…
Commercial satellite services primarily use three radio frequency
bands:
C-band, which provides lower transmission power over wide
geographic areas and generally requires larger ground equipment for
reception.
Ku-band, which offers higher transmission power over smaller
geographic areas and can be received with smaller ground equipment.
Ka-band, which offers higher transmission power than Ku-band and
generally is used for high-bandwidth services such as high-speed
internet, video conferencing and multimedia applications.
Satellite Frequencies…
Below are the frequencies allocated to non commercial satellites:
Frequency Band (GHZ) Designations:

VHF: 01-0.3

UHF: 0.3-1.0

L-band, which is used for mobile applications, such as maritime and

aeronautical communications, employing a variety of ground
equipment.
Multiple Access Techniques

Sometimes a satellite’s service is present at a particular location on the

earth station and sometimes it is not present. That means, a satellite
may have different service stations of its own located at different places
on the earth. They send carrier signal for the satellite.
Following are the three types of multiple access techniques.
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
Orbits and Lunching Methods of Satellites
The vast expanse of space has always captivated human imagination,
and our ability to explore and communicate across the globe has been
greatly enhanced by satellites orbiting above us. These satellites serve
various purposes, from weather monitoring to communication and
navigation, and they owe their presence in orbit to the remarkable
technology and engineering behind their launch. In recent years, new
methods like SpinLaunch have emerged, promising to revolutionize
how we propel payloads into space.
Launching of Satellites

The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known

as launching process. During this process, from earth stations we
can control the operation of satellite.
Mainly, there are four stages in launching a satellite.
First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and
fuel for lifting the satellite along with launch vehicle from ground.
Launching of Satellites…

Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller

rockets. These are ignited after completion of first stage. They have
their own fuel tanks in order to send the satellite into space.
Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is
connected to the satellite fairing. This fairing is a metal shield, which
contains the satellite and it protects the satellite.
Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch
vehicle, when it has been reached to out of Earth's atmosphere. Then,
the satellite will go to a “transfer orbit”. This orbit sends the satellite
higher into space.
Launching of Satellites…
When the satellite reached to the desired height of the orbit, its
subsystems like solar panels and communication antennas gets
unfurled. Then the satellite takes its position in the orbit with other
satellites. Now, the satellite is ready to provide services to the
public.
 Satellite Launch Vehicles

Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a particular orbit

based on the requirement. Satellite launch vehicles are nothing but
multi stage rockets. Following are the two types of satellite launch
vehicles.
i. Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV)
ii. Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)
Satellite Launch Vehicles…
Expendable launch vehicles (ELV) get destroyed after leaving the
satellites in space. The ELV contains three stages. First and second
stages of ELV raise the satellite to an about 50 miles and 100 miles.
Third stage of ELV places the satellite in transfer orbit. The task
of ELV will be completed and its spare parts will be fallen to earth,
when the satellite reached to transfer orbit.
Satellite Launch Vehicles…
Reusable Launch Vehicles
Reusable launch vehicles (RLV) can be used multiple times for
launching satellites. Generally, this type of launch vehicles will
return back to earth after leaving the satellite in space.
Satellite Launch Vehicles…
The functions of space shuttle are similar to the functions of first
and second stages of ELV. Satellite along with the third stage of
space shuttle are mounted in the cargo bay. It is ejected from the
cargo bay when the space shuttle reaches to an elevation of 150 to
200 miles.
Then, the third stage of space shuttle gets fired and places the
satellite into a transfer orbit. After this, the space shuttle will return
back to earth for reuse.
 Satellite Communication - Services

The services of satellite communication can be classified into the

following two categories. These can be broadly categorize in the
next paragraph.
i. One-way satellite communication link service
ii. Two-way satellite communication link service
Satellite Communication – Services…
In one-way satellite communication link service, the information can be
transferred from one earth station to one or more earth stations through a
satellite. That means, it provides both point to point connectivity and point to
multi point connectivity.
Satellite Communication – Services…
Following are some of the One-Way satellite communication
link services:
Broadcasting satellite services like Radio, TV and Internet services.
Space operations services like Telemetry, Tracking and Commanding
services.
Radio determination satellite service like Position location service.
Satellite Communication – Services…
In Two-Way satellite communication link, the information can be
exchanged between any two earth stations through a satellite. That means,
it provides only point to point connectivity.
Satellite Communication Services…
The Commercial Satellite Industry

Voice/Video/Data Communications
Rural Telephony, News GPS/Navigation
Gathering/Distribution Position Location, Timing, Search and Rescue, Mapping
Internet Trunking, Corporate VSAT Fleet Management, Security & Database Access and
Networks, Tele-Medicine, Distance- Emergency Services
Learning, Mobile Telephony,
Videoconferencing, Business Television,
Broadcast and Cable Relay, VOIP & Multi-
media over IP Remote Sensing
Direct-To-Consumer Pipeline Monitoring, Infrastructure Planning
Broadband IP, DTH/DBS Television, Digital Forest Fire Prevention, Urban Planning, Flood and
Audio Radio, Interactive Entertainment & Storm watches, Air Pollution Management, and Geo-
Games Video & Data to handhelds spatial Services
 Satellite Communication – Services…
Following are some of the two-way satellite communication
link services:

Fixed satellite services like Telephone, Fax and Data of high bit
rate services.

Mobile satellite services like Land mobile, Maritime and Aero

mobile communication services.
Satellite Link Analysis
The satellite receives the
Components of a satellite circuit Satellite signals, filters them,
converts the frequencies
then amplifies them for
transmission down to the
Earth

The antenna Antenna

transmits/receives and
Antenna focuses the energy of the
signal towards/from the
satellite.
The BUC amplifies and
converts up the signal for BUC LNB
The LNB amplifies the
BUC LNB transmission by the
received signal and antenna
converts down its
frequency for reception by The modem modulates
the modem and demodulates the
Modem signal and is connected to Modem
other user equipment
(router, TV, etc)
Satellite Link Analysis…
Simplified digital communication chain:

Analog Analog- Digital Channel Channel Digital Modulat

Information Digital Encoder Coded ed Signal
Converter
Information Modulat
Informat
ion or

Voice, Video … 1001010101 1001010101101 Satellite

Transmissi
Mbps MHz on
Mbps

Analog Analog- Channel Demodula Digital Received

Information
Digital Decoder
Digital Informat ted Signal Demodulat Signal
Converter ion or
Digital Transmission and Error Control
Communications satellites are used to carry telephone, video, and data
signals, and can employ both analog and digital.
When geostationary earth orbit (GEO) satellites were first used for
communications in the 1960s and 1970s, the signals were mainly
analog. The advent of satellite communications made possible the trans
mission of wide bandwidth signals between continents. For the first
time, video sig nals could be sent between North America, Europe, and
Asia. Thousands of telephone channels could be multiplexed through
one transponder and sent across the United States or across the Atlantic
or Pacific Oceans.
Digital Transmission and Error Control…
The modulation and multiplexing techniques that were used at that
time were analog, adapted from the technology developed for
microwave links in the previous two decades. Frequency modulation
(FM) was the modulation of choice and frequency division
multiplexing (FDM) was used to combine hundreds or thousands of
telephone channels onto a single microwave carrier. Regional domestic
and international satellite systems were developed to exploit the high
capacity and bandwidth that satellites offered
 Digital Transmission and Error Control…
Modulation is the process of varying some characteristics Carrier signal Modulating signal
of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a (no information) (with information)

modulating signal that contains information. Characteristics

that can vary are the amplitude, frequency and phase.
Typical modulations used in satellite communications are PSK and
QAM.

The order of the modulation how many different

symbols can be transmitted with it.
E.g. Order 2: BPSK
Order 4: QPSK, 4-AM
Order 8: 8-PSK, 8-AM
Order 16: 16-PSK, 16QAM
Constellation diagram for QPSK
Digital Transmission and Error Control…
Digital modulation is the obvious choice for satellite transmission of
signals that originate in digital form and that are to be used by digital
devices. Virtually all signals sent via satellites are now digital. Familiar
examples are data transmissions to and from internet hubs,
communications between remote terminals and computers, digital
telephony, and TV signals in digital form, such as high definition
television (HDTV) and DBS-TV.D
Digital Transmission and Error Control…
A received radio signal will always be accompanied by noise and may
also be subjected to interference from other radio sources. Unless a
very high CNR can be guaranteed in the receiver, a digital radio will
occasionally suffer bit errors at its output. Almost all digital radio links
implement some form of error control. Satellite links are typically
affected by rain in the earth-space path, resulting in attenuation of the
signal and lowered CNR. At higher radio frequencies, 10GHz and
above where the majority of satellite links operate, rain attenuation
events are inevitable and will cause significant bit errors at the output
of the receiver and occasional outages.
Digital Transmission and Error Control…
The required bandwidth in MHz for a given information rate is directly related
to the modulation and coding scheme (modcod).
- The higher the modulation order (2𝑛), the less bandwidth is required
- The higher the FEC ratio, the less bandwidth is required
- Other parameters also matter: roll-off factor (α), Reed-Solomon coding (RS)
The selection of a modcod is constrained by the signal over noise ratio at
reception:
- The higher the modulation order, the higher the signal to noise ratio
must be for the modem to be able to demodulate it.
Digital Transmission and Error Control…
• Signal over noise ratio is affected by:
- Link conditions – propagation attenuation and impairments
- Available power – on ground and on the satellite (PEB)
- Performance of the satellite
- Antenna size at reception
- Capabilities of the modem
• A satellite link budget analysis will determine what modcod can
be used and what are the required bandwidth and power.
Satellite Equipment Reliability and Space Qualification
Communication satellites built already have provided operational
lifetimes of up to 15years. Once a satellite is in Geo Stationary Orbit,
there is little possibility of repairing components that fail or adding
more fuel for station keeping. The components that make up the
satellite must therefore have very high reliability in the hostile
environment of outer space, and a strategy must be devised that allows
some components to fail without causing the entire communication
capacity of the satellite to be lost. Two separate approaches are used:
i. Space qualification of every part of the satellite to ensure that it has
a long life expectancy in orbit and
ii. Redundancy of the most critical components to provide continued
operation when one component fails.
Space Qualification
Outer space, at geostationary orbit distances is a harsh environment.
There is a total vacuum and the sun irradiates the satellite with 1.4kw
of heat and light on each square meter of exposed surface. Electronic
equipment cannot operate at such extremes of temperature and must
be housed within the satellite and heated or cooled so that its
temperature stays within the range 00 to 750C. This requires a thermal
control system that manages heat flow throughout a GEO satellite as
the sun moves around once every 24hr.
 Space Qualification…
When a satellite is designed, three prototype models are often built and
tested.
i. The mechanical model contains all the structural and mechanical
parts that will be included in the satellite and is tested to ensure
that all moving parts operate correctly in a vacuum, over a wide
temperature range.
ii. The thermal model contains all the electronics packages and other
components that must be maintained at correct temperature.
iii. The electrical model contains all electronic parts of the satellite and
is tested for correct electrical performance under total vacuum and
a wide range of temperatures.
Satellite Reliability
Reliability is counted by considering the proper working of satellites
critical components. Reliability could be improved by making the
critical components redundant. Components with a limited lifetime
such as travelling wave tube amplifier etc should be made redundant.

The main attraction of these devices is their very high gain (30-60 dB),
linear characteristics and 1-2 octave bandwidth. They are quite widely
used professionally, but are still rather scarce in amateur circles.
 Satellite Reliability…
A reliability model is used to calculate the satellite's reliability. It is
defined as "the probability that a given component or system performs
its functions as desired within a specific time t.
The failure rate for all components is calculated and they are
categorized into the following three categories:
i. Early high failure rate region: used for manufacturing faults,
defects in material etc.
ii. Low failure: used for random component failure.
iii. High failure rate: used for components weave-out.
Satellite Reliability…
By duplicating the less reliable and critical components, the overall
reliability of the system could be improved. If any failure occurs in
operational unit, then the standby unit takes over to develop a system
with redundant components, its redundant elements are considered in
parallel.
Parallel redundancy is useful when the reliability of an individual
sub-system is high.
Co-related failures could also be reduced by using units from
different manufacturers.
 Satellite Reliability…
The two major cost components are:
i. Cost of equipment together with the switching and failure sensing
mechanism used.
ii. The associated increase in weight of the satellite resulting in an
increased launch cost.
eg:
To further improve the reliability of the transponder, a second redundant
transponder may be provided with switching between the two systems.
Note that a combination of parallel and switched redundancy is used to
combat failures that are catastrophic to one transponder channel and to
the complete communication system.
Earth Station and VSAT Registration
A license is required by the national telecommunications authority
of a country where any earth station as a part of a network, be it the
hub, a control station or a VSAT, is planned to be installed and
operated.
Earth Station and VSAT Registration…
The UN agency that regulates the use of geosynchronous orbit satellites is
the International Telecommunications Union. Regulation of these
satellites is necessary, because there are a limited number of places to put
them in orbit without the risk of interference with other satellites or
collision with space debris. In addition, the “orbital slots” (where the
satellites are placed) over industrialized areas are in much more demand
than in lesser developed areas.
Earth Station and VSAT Registration…
In the past, national telecommunication authorities have required
licensing of individual VSAT terminals in addition to requiring a
network operator’s license. Then, the US Federal Communication
Commission (FCC) implemented with success a blanket licensing
approach for VSATs operated within the US.
Earth Station and VSAT Registration…
Blanket licensing has since gained interest among national
telecommunications authorities all over the world, as a result of
equipment manufacturers complying with the recommendations
issued by international standardization bodies, such as the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
Earth Station and VSAT Registration…
A license usually entails the payment of a license fee, which is most
often in two parts: a one-time fee for the licensing work and an
annual charge per station.
The licensing procedure is simpler when the network is national, as
only one telecom authority is involved.
For trans-border networks, licenses must be obtained from the
national authorities of the different countries where the relevant
earth stations are planned to be installed and operated, and rules
often differ from one country to another.
Earth Station and VSAT Registration…
Control of Interference

ALLOCATION POWER LIMITS

Frequency separation of stations PFD to protect TERR services / EIRP
of different services to protect SPACE services / EPFD to
protect GSO from Non-GSO
REGULATORY PROTECTION
e.g. No. 22.2: Non-GSO to protect COORDINATION
GSO (FSS and BSS) between Administrations to ensure
interference-free operations
conditions
Satellite Regulatory Organizations
National Regulation
Ultimately the responsibility for licensing falls to a National
Regulatory Authority (a Government department), e.g.
– NCC in Nigeria
– Ofcom in the United Kingdom
– FCC & NTIA in the USA
Satellite Regulatory Organizations…
ITSO
The International Telecommunications Satellite Organization is an
intergovernmental organization charged with overseeing the public
service obligations of Intelsat.
GVF
Global VSAT Forum is an association of key companies involved in
the business of delivering advanced digital fixed satellite systems and
services.
 Satellite Regulatory Organizations…
ITSO
ITSO is the continuation of INTELSAT, the intergovernmental
organization established by treaty in [Link] July 18, 2001, the satellite
fleet, customer contracts and other operational assets of the Organization
were transferred to Intelsat Ltd, a new private company now registered in
Luxembourg and various amendments to the ITSO Agreement took effect.
In addition, the Director General , on behalf of the Organization, must
consider all issues related to the Common Heritage. ITSO currently has
149 Member States.”
Satellite Operators
Intelsat, Ltd. is a communications satellite services provider. Originally
formed as International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT), it was an intergovernmental consortium owning and
managing a constellation of communications satellites providing
international broadcast services. As of March 2011, Intelsat owned and
operated a fleet of 52 communications satellites.
Satellite Operators…
Eutelsat S.A. is a French-based satellite provider. Providing coverage over
the entire European continent, as well as the Middle East, Africa, India and
significant parts of Asia and the Americas, it is one of the world's three
leading satellite operators in terms of revenues.
O3b is building a next-generation network that combines the reach of
satellite with the speed of fiber. O3b’s satellite transponders have on
average three to four times the capacity of those offered by GEO satellite
systems. This translates into three to four times more bandwidth – and a
fiber-like experience for customers. Satellite technology can deliver
Internet connectivity to any location on the planet.
Satellite Operators…
The International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO) is the
intergovernmental organization that oversees certain public satellite
safety and security communication services provided via the Inmarsat
satellites. These public services include:
Services for maritime safety within the Global Maritime Distress and
Safety System (GMDSS) established by the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) distress alerting, search and rescue coordinating
communications, maritime safety information (MSI) broadcasts, and
general communications.
Technology Trends of Satellite
Market trends for capacity
•– continues to grow despite fibre deployment
•Potential shortage of capacity in some areas for certain types of
capacity due to heavy cutbacks in launches
•Bandwidth is ever increasing on a per link basis
Technology Trends of Satellite
User demands
-Smaller terminals -High throughput
-Enhanced capability -Constellations
-Responsive space Lower costs - $1000 now and lower!
-Easier access to space segment -Easier licensing regimes
-Open standards
Technology Trends of Satellite…
Open Standards?
• Industry Players (Satellite Operators, Network Operators, Equipment
manufacturers and=End-users) agree that Open Standards are good for everyone

• But which one is the best one or is it a multitude of answers

and solutions?
Global usage and coordination
• Ka / Ku/ C Band
• Interference issues
• Global Regional frequency coordination
 Thank You
Assignment: All satellite communications are sent to and received from the satellite
using an Earth Station or Antenna; sometimes referred to as a ”dish.” Earth Stations may
either be fixed and installed at a specific installation, or mobile, for uses such as Satellite
News Gathering (SNG) or mobility applications. As an ICT expert discuss in detail with
scenario on how the satellite establish communication between each other and what are
the services supported by this technology. You should also identify and discuss in
detail some of the challenges using this technology.