Unit 1: Mole concept and gas laws

The mole of a substance Examples

A mole of a substance is the amount of a substance that
contains as many elementary particles as there are Calculate the relative molecular (molar) mass of the
particles in 12g of carbon-12 isotope. These elementary following compounds. (H=1, S=32, O=16, Cl=35.5,
particles can be atoms, molecules or ions. Mole is an SI Na=23, N=14, C=12).
unit of measuring the amount of substance. One mole of 1) H2SO4 2) HCl 3) Na2SO4 4) (NH4)2CO3
any substance contains the same number of particles.
Calculations involving mole of a substance
The experiment had shown that the number of particles
in one mole of any chemical substance is 6.023 x 1023 When calculating mole of a substance, the formula
particles. This number is called Avogadro’s constant or below is usually applied.
Avogadro’s number, denoted by letter L.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒔
Number of Moles = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝑹𝑴𝑴)
Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)

Relative Atomic Mass is the average mass of one atom The formula can be rearranged based on the variable to
1 be calculated.
compared to 12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12
isotope. It tells us, on average, how many times heavier Examples.
1
or lighter an atom of a given element is, compared to 12 i. How many moles are contained in 0.5g of
the mass of carbon-12.
Chlorine molecules? ( Cl = 35.5 )
Relative Molecular Mass (RMM)
Solution
This is the mass of one molecule of an element or
Mass = 0.5g, RMMCl =35.5 x 2 ( Cl2 being diatomic gas
compound compared to the mass of an atom of carbon-
when in molecular form ) = 71g
12 isotope. Some compounds are made up of ions rather
than atoms, hence we use the term Formula Mass which 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 0.5
No of Mole = = = 7.042 x 10-3Moles of Cl2.
incorporates atomic, molecular and ionic compounds. 𝑅𝑚𝑚 71
They are not different from molar mass, which is the
ii. Determine the number of molecules contained
mass of one mole of a substance.
in 0.5g of Chlorine molecules. ( Cl= 35.5 )
Steps followed when calculating the molar mass
Solution
(RMM).
Mass = 0.5g, Rmm = 35.5 x 2 = 71g,
1. List each of the elements and the number of
atoms of each kind present in the substance. 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 0.5
No of mole = 𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 71
= 7.o42 x 10-3moles
2. Determine the atomic mass of each element.
These are usually provided in the work. No of molecules = No of moles x Avogadro’s No (L)
3. Multiply each atomic mass with the number of
atoms in the formula of the substance. = 7.042 x 10-3 x 6.023 x 1023 = 4.242 x 1021molecules.
4. Sum up all the atomic masses got as a result of
multiplication in step 3 above. This becomes the iii. Calculate the mass of 0.4 moles of Nitrogen
molar or relative molecular mass of a substance. atoms. Hence, find the number of atoms
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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 present in 0.4 moles of Nitrogen atoms. (N = 02) Calculate the number of molecules contained in
14) 7g of nitrogen gas. (N = 14, L=6.023 x 1023)
Solution Molar gas volume.
Rfm of nitrogen atom = 14g The molar gas volume is the volume occupied by one
mole of a gas at standard conditions of temperature
NB: In this case, nitrogen is in form of atoms so it is and pressure. When heated, they expand rapidly. When
treated as monatomic but when said to be in molecular under pressure, they contract easily. Equal volumes of
form, then it is treated as diatomic where we multiply gases contain the same number of particles i.e 6.023 ×
its atomic mass by 2 as in example 1 above. 1023 particles at the same temperature and pressure. It
is therefore the same for all gases under the same
No of moles = 0.4
conditions of temperature and pressure.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
From Moles = 𝑅𝑓𝑚
, Mass = No of moles x Rfm , One mole of any gas at 250C (298K) and 1atm, occupies
Mass = 0.4 x 14 = 5.6g volume of 24dm3 (24000cm3). This condition is called
room temperature and pressure (r.t.p). It is also found
Therefore, mass of nitrogen atom in 0.4 moles is 5.6g that one mole of any gas at 00C (273K) and 1atm,
No of atoms = No of moles x L occupies 22.4dm3 (22400cm3). This condition is called
standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p). Therefore,
= 0.4 x 6.023 x 1023 = 2.4092 x 1023atoms the volumes 24dm3 and 22.4dm3 are called molar gas
volumes. These values are only true under the standard
iv. If 54g of Aluminium were obtained from
conditions given above.
aluminium ore, how many atoms were
obtained? ( Al = 27, L = 6.023 x 1023). Avogadro’s law of gases
Solution States that equal volumes of all gases under the same
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 54 conditions of temperature and pressure contains the
Mole = 𝑅𝑚𝑚, mole = 27 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 same number of molecules. The number of molecules is
still Avogadro’s number, L which is 6.023 x 1023
No of atoms = moles x L = 2 x 6.023 x 1023 = 1.2 x 1024
molecules. When calculating the number of moles of a
atoms of Al
gas, the formula below is used.
v. How many ions are there in 13g of potassium 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
ions ? (K = 39, L = 6.023 x 1023) No. of moles of a gas = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Solution Worked examples.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 13 1 i) How many moles of hydrogen gas are there in
No of moles of K+ = 𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 39 = 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
24cm3 of hydrogen at r.t.p (molar gas volume
1
No of ions = No of moles x L = 3 𝑥 6.023 x 1023 = 2.0 x at r.t.p = 24dm3).
1023 ions. Solution.
Work to do! Volume given = 24cm3, Molar gas Volume = 24dm3. The
volumes must be in the same unit.
01) How many moles are there in 12g of oxygen
gas? (O = 16).
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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
So, molar gas volume = 24 x 1000 = 24000cm3. from The empirical formula (Ef)
This is the formula that shows the simplest ratio of
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
No. of moles of a gas = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 different atoms present in a compound. It is the
simplest formula of the compound.
24𝑐𝑚3
= = 0.001𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻 2
24000𝑐𝑚3
Steps followed when determining the empirical
Alternatively, by first principle. formula of a compound.

1mol H2 = 24000cm3 at r.t.p 01) Note the atoms present in the compound
02) Find the mass either in grams or percentage, of
y = 24cm3 at r.t.p each element in the compound.
03) Convert this mass into moles using the
y = 1 mol × 24/24000 = 0.001 moles H2
knowledge of finding moles of substances.
ii) Calculate the volume that 8g of oxygen gas 04) Find the ratio of the moles by dividing each
would occupy at s.t.p (O = 16, molar gas mole with smallest value of the moles.
volume at s.t.p = 22.4dm3).
Examples on Empirical formula
Solution.
An organic compound is made up of carbon, oxygen and
Mass = 8g, Rfm = 16 × 2 = 32g hydrogen in the following percentage composition by
mass; 40% carbon, 53.3% Oxygen and 6.7% hydrogen.
No. of moles = 8/32 = 0.25moles O2
Determine the empirical formula of the compound. (O
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
From, No. of moles of a gas = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑚𝑒 =16, C = 12, H =1 ).

Making volume of a gas the formula, we shall have Solution

Volume of a gas = moles x Molar gas volume Atoms present: C : H : O

= 0.25 x 22.4 = 5.6dm3. Masses: 40 : 6.7 : 53.3

40 6.7 53.3
Alternatively, Moles: = 3.333 : = 6.700 : = 3.331
12 1 16

1 mole of O2 = 22400cm3 at s.t.p 3.333 6.700 3.331

Divide by smallest: 3.331 = 1 :3.331 = 2 : 3.331
=1
0.25moles O2 = x cm3 at s.t.p
Mole ratio : 1 : 2 : 1
3 3 3
X = 0.25/1 × 22400cm , x = 5600cm or 5.6dm
Therefore, the empirical formula is CH2O
Work to do!
Work to do!
Calculate the relative molecular mass of gas x if 100cm3
of its volume has a mass of 0.067g at r.t.p.(molar gas 01) Find the empirical formula of a compound
volume at r.t.p = 24dm3) containing 0.2g hydrogen and 1.6g oxygen.
(O = 16, H = 1)
Determination of the chemical formulae 02) A substance contains 17.7% hydrogen and
There are two types of chemical formulae namely the rest being nitrogen. What is the
empirical and molecular formulae.
empirical formula? (N = 14, H = 1)
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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
Molecular formula (MF) of compounds. Mole ratio: 1 : 2
This is a formula which shows the actual number of
Therefore, EF = CH2
different atoms in a compound or molecule. It is the
actual formula for a molecule or a compound, hence it But Molar mass of a compound = 70,
represents the compound in the way it exists. The
molecular formula is the multiple of the empirical Molar mass of a compound in Ef form = 14
formula. When calculating the molecular formula, the 70
empirical formula is first determined and multiplied by n= 14 = 5, so n = 5
as shown below.
Therefore, Molecular formula = n(Ef)= 5(CH2) = C5H10
Mf = n(Ef), where n is the factor which is got through
03) During a combustion analysis of 0.5g of organic
the formula below, and it is in form of moles
compound containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
n = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 (𝐸𝑓) only, 0.733g of carbon dioxide and 0.300g of water
were produced.
Examples on molecular formula (Mf) a. Determine the empirical formula of the
compound.
01) A compound has an empirical formula of CH3 and a b. If the relative molecular mass of the compound
relative molecular mass of 30, find the molecular is 60, what is its molecular formula? (C =12, O =
formula of the compound .(H = 1, C = 12). 16, H =1 )

Solution Solution

Molar mass of a compound in its Ef form = 1 x 3 + 1 x 12 Molecular mass of CO2 = 44g,

= 15 12
Mass of Carbon in CO2 = 𝑥 0.733 =
44
Relative molecular mass of the compound = 30 0.1999𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛.
30
n = 15 = 2, using the formula Mf = n(Ef) Molecular mass of H2O = 18g,
2
Mf = 2(CH3), Molecular formula = C2H6 Mass of hydrogen in H2O = 18 𝑥 0.300 =
0.0333𝑔 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛.
02) An organic compound consists of 84.90% Carbon
and 15.10% hydrogen. Its relative molecular mass is Mass of O2 = 0.5 – (0.1999 + 0.0333) = 0.2668g of
70, calculate the molecular formula of the oxygen
compound. (C = 12, H = 1).
The mass of oxygen is not obtained direct from the
Solution mass of carbon dioxide or water, because this oxygen
might have come from the air or from the compound
Atoms : C : H
itself.
Mass : 84.90 : 15.10
Atoms: C : H : O
84.90 15.10
Moles: 12
= 7.075 : 1
= 15.100 Mass: 0.1999 : 0.0333 : 0.2668
7.075 15.100
Divide by smallest:
7.075
= 1.000 :
7.075
= 2.134 Moles:𝟎.𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝟏𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟔 :
𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝟏
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟑 :
𝟎.𝟐𝟔𝟔𝟖
𝟏𝟔
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟖

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Divide by 01) Calculate the percentage by mass of hydrogen and
0.01666 0.0333 0.01668
oxygen in water. (H = 1, O = 16)
Smallest :0.01666 = 1.000: 0.01666
= 1.999:
0.01666
= 1.000
Solution
Mole ratio: 1 : 2 : 1
Molar mass of water = 18
Therefore, Empirical formula is CH2O.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
%H in H2O = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
× 100
b) Molecular mass of a compound = 60
2
Molecular mass of a compound in Ef form = 30 = 18 × 100 = 11.1% ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

60 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

n= 30 = 2, n= 2 %O in H2O = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
× 100

Therefore, Molecular formula = 2(CH2O) = C2H4O2. 16

= 18 × 100 = 88.9% 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
Work to do! 02) Deng collected a certain sample of ammonium
1. Crystalline barium Chloride has a formula
nitrate for use as a fertilizer in his field. What is the
BaCl2.xH2O. When 10g of it are heated, the residue
percentage composition of the fertilizer by mass of
of anhydrous barium chloride weighs 8.52g.
nitrogen? (N=14, H=1, 0=16).
Determine the value of x. (Ba = 137, Cl = 35.5, O =
Solution
16, H = 1 ).
The formula of ammonium nitrate is NH4NO3
2. An organic compound has 40% carbon, 6.7%
Mass of the NH4NO3 = 28 + 4 + 48 = 80
hydrogen and 53.3% oxygen. If its vapour density
Mass of nitrogen = 28.
(VD) is 45.04, what is its molecular formula? (H =1, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑅𝑀𝑀 %mass of N2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 x 100
C = 12, O =16, VD = ).
2 28
3. When 3g of a certain carbohydrate were burnt in = 80 × 100 = 35%
sufficient oxygen gas, 4.4g of carbon dioxide and
1.8g of water were produced. Work to do!
a) Calculate the empirical formula of the 01) Calculate the percentage by mass of calcium in
carbohydrate. calcium nitrate. (Ca = 40, N = 14, O = 16)
b) If the relative molecular mass of the 02) Calculate the percentage composition by mass of
carbohydrate is 180, find the molecular carbon in acetaminophen, C8H9NO2. (C = 12, H =1, O
formula. (C =12, H =1, O =16) = 16, N = 14)
03) Determine the percentage by mass of aspartame,
Percentage composition of the compounds C14H18N2O5. (C = 12, O = 16, H = 1, N = 14)
This is the percentage by mass of each element in a 04) What is the percentage by mass of aspirin, C9H8O4?
given compound. It is typically found using the molar
mass values for both the elements in a compound and Chemical equations and mole ratio
that of a compound. It is calculated using the formula Chemical reaction represents the change in which one
below. or more substances act alone or on each other to
produce one or more new substances. The substances
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
Percentage composition = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 x 100. which change are called reactants (always represented
on the left) and the new substances formed are called
Examples products (always represented on the right) of the

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equation. A chemical equation is a convenient means of A chemical equation, must be balanced, that is, there
representing a chemical reaction by using symbols and must be same number of atoms of each kind on each
formulae. A chemical equation is an expression, in side of the equation. In other words, the atoms of each
symbols, of the relative amounts of substances taking kind must be the same on both sides. For example, if in
part in reaction. the reactant side, there are 4 oxygen atoms, then we
must also have 4 oxygen atoms on the product side. If
The simplest form of an equation is to represent it by not, then we must balance the equation. So, balancing a
the names of the reactants and products. This is called chemical equation is the process of making the atoms of
word equation. For example, if we wish to represent a each kind equal on both sides in a chemical reaction.
reaction between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid to form
zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas, it is written as follows: Steps followed when writing and balancing
chemical equations.
Zinc + sulphuric acid → zinc sulphate + hydrogen gas
 Write down the unbalanced equation leaving
This reaction can be represented using chemical
spaces before each formulae or symbol in order
symbols and formulae to make it more convenient. This
to fix the numbers later.
is referred to as chemical equation.
 Write down the total number of the different
Ways of writing correct chemical equations atoms on each side of the equation.
 Check which atoms are not equal? Fix suitable
A correct chemical equation is written using: numbers in front of the symbol or formula to
make the atoms on both sides equal. Note that
 Correct names or symbols and formulae of
there are no fixed numbers for balancing. Try
substances involved in the reaction.
with the least number which is 2 until you
 Showing the physical state of each substance
confirm that the equation is balanced.
involved in the reaction.
 Include the state symbols after balancing to
 Amounts of reactants and products involved in
show the physical states of reactants and
the reaction.
products.
The following signs and symbols are used in writing
Examples on writing correct chemical equations
equations.
Let’s consider Sodium reacting with water to form
s – solid or precipitate
sodium hydroxide and liberating hydrogen gas.
l – liquid
In this reaction; Reactants are: sodium, Na and water,
g – gas H2O. Products are: sodium hydroxide, NaOH, and
hydrogen gas, H2.
aq – aqueous solution
Steps
+, on reactant side means reacts with and
i. Na + H2O → NaOH + H2 (Unbalanced because
+, on products side means and hydrogen atoms are not equal on both side)
→ Forms or produces (in the forward direction) ii. There can only be even number of hydrogen
atoms on each side, so we write 2 in front of
Balancing equations (Stoichiometry) NaOH e.g. Na + H2O → 2NaOH + H2

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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 iii. Now make sodium atoms equals by adding 2 in 6.54
Moles of zinc reacting = 65.4
= 0.1 moles
front of Na on the left hand side of the
equation, e.g. Mole ratios of Zn:HCl = 1:2 Therefore moles of HCl that
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2 Now the equation is reacted = 0.1 × 2 = 0.2 mole
balanced.
iv. Include the state symbols of the reactants and (ii) Mole ratios of Zn:H2 = 1:1 Therefore moles of
products hydrogen = 0.1 moles
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) Volume of hydrogen gas produced = 0.1 × 22.4 =
Calculation of the quantities of substances in 2.24dm3.
Chemical reactions 02) Calculate the amount of calcium carbonate that
When the chemical equation is well balanced, the would remain if 17g of calcium carbonate were
number used for balancing is called the amount of that reacted with 0.25moles of hydrochloric acid?
substance reacting. Mole ratio is the relative amount of (Ca=40, C=12, O=16).
any substance involved in a chemical reaction. The
numbers used for balancing are therefore considered to Solution
be the reacting mole ratios when calculating the
Equation for the reaction
amount of a substance in the reaction.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The following steps are followed when calculating the
quantities of substances in the reactions. From the equation above,

v. Write a balanced equation for the reaction. 2 moles of HCl react with 1 mole of CaCO3
vi. Find out the mole ratios of all the substances
involved. 0.25 moles of HCl will react with x moles of CaCO3
vii. Equate mole ratios and calculate the required 0.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 ×1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
quantity. X= 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
= 0.125 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

Worked example Therefore, 0.125 moles of CaCO3 will react.

01) 6.54g of zinc metal reacted completely with dilute Convert these moles to mass.
hydrochloric acid at standard temperature and
RFM of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16 x 3) = 100 g
pressure. Calculate:
a) The number of moles of hydrochloric acid that Mass = moles x RFM = 100 x 0.125 = 12.5 g CaCO3
reacted.
b) The volume of hydrogen gas produced. (Zn = Amount remaining = 17 – 12.5 = 4.5 g CaCO3
65.4, H = 1, Molar gas volume at s.t.p =
Work to do
22.4dm3)
01) 10 g of calcium carbonate were heated strongly
Solution until there was no any further change. Calculate the
mass of the solid left. (Ca=40, O=16, C=12)
i) The equation for the reaction is 02) Calculate the volume of oxygen gas at STP which
would be produced by heating 5g of potassium
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
chlorate. (K = 39, Cl = 35.5, O = 16, Volume of 1 mol
of a gas at STP = 22.4 dm3).

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03) What volume of ammonia gas would be produced Expected yield of Cu2S = 159 g × 0.0189 = 3.0051 g
at r.t.p if 5 g of hydrogen gas react with nitrogen 2.25
Percentage yield of Cu2S = × 100 = 74.87%
3.0051
gas? (H = 1, N = 14, Volume of 1 mol of a gas at r.t.p
= 24dm3) 02) In a certain aspirin synthesis, 104.8g of salicyclic
acid and 110.9g of acetic anhydride are combined
Percentage yield according to the following equation.
Percentage yield is the amount of the product obtained
from a chemical reaction. The percentage yield is C7H6O3 + C4H6O3 → C9H8O4 + HC2H3O2
Salicyclic acid Acetic anhydride Aspirin Acetic acid.
applied in
Calculate the percentage yield of the reaction if
i. Extraction of table salt 105.6g of aspirin are produced. (C = 12, H = 1, O
ii. Crude oil refinery =16)
iii. Extraction and purification of metals.
Solution
When calculating the percentage yield, the following
104.8
formula is used. Moles of salicyclic acid = = 0.759𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 C7H6O3
138

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 110.9

Percentage yield = × 100 Moles of Acetic anhydride = = 1.087𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑(𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) 102
C4H6O3
Examples
From the reaction above, the two reactants are in the
1) In an experiment, 2.4 g of copper metal were ratio of 1:1. Therefore, the reactant with the smallest
heated with excess sulphur to yield 2.25 g of number of moles is taken and compared with the aspirin
copper (I) sulphide. What is the percentage yield of so that we calculate the theoretical mass of aspirin. The
this reaction? (Cu = 63.5, S = 32). reactant with the smallest number of moles is called the
limiting reagent or limiting reactant. The limiting
Solution reactant is the reactant which is used up first in the
reaction. So, the limiting reactant for the reaction above
2Cu(s) + S (s) → Cu2S (s) ,
is salicyclic acid. Let’s begin comparing the limiting
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 reactant and the aspirin as follows.
Moles of copper that reacted =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
1 mol of salicyclic acid = 1 mol of Aspirin.
2.4
= 63.5
= 0.0378 moles
0.759 mol of Salicyclic acid = 0.759 mol of aspirin.
From the equation above,
Therefore, 0.759 moles of aspirin will be produced.
Mole ratio in the equation can be used to calculate the Convert these moles to mass.
expected number of moles of the product. Expected mass = 0.759 x 180 = 136.6g
Moles of Cu: Cu2S = 2: 1 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
%yield = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑(𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) × 100
1
Expected moles of Cu2S = 2 ×0.0378 = 0.0189 moles 105.6
= 136.6 × 100 = 77.3%
R.F.M of Cu2S = (2 × 63.5) + 32 = 159
Work to do
01) Diethyl ether is produced from ethanol according to
the following equation
P a g e 8 | 68

By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 2CH3CH2OH → CH3CH2OCH2CH3 + H2O Step 1: Find molar mass of CaCO3 = 100
Ethanol Diethyl ether
2240
Calculate the percentage yield if 68.6g of Step 2: Calculate moles of CO2 produced = 22400= 0.1
ethanol reacts to produce 16.1g of diethyl
ether. (C =12, H=1, O = 16) Mole of CaCO3 that reacted = mole of CO2 produced =
02) What is the percentage yield for the process in 0.1moles
which 10.4g of methanol reacts and 10.1g of carbon
Mass of CaCO3 that reacted = moles x molar mass
dioxide gas forms according to the following
equation? (C=12, H=1, O=16) = 0.1 × 100 = 10g
2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O
03) What mass of water is produced by the reaction of Because only 10g of calcium carbonate reacted out of
50g of methanol, CH3OH with an excess of oxygen the 30g of impure carbonate;
gas when the reaction yield is 53.2%? 10
%purity of CaCO3 used = 30 × 100 = 33.33%
2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O
(C = 12, H = 1, O = 12)
Ionic equations
Percentage purity Chemical reactions taking place in aqueous solutions
Percentage purity is the percentage of the material involve at least one ionic species either as reactants or
substance which is the actual desired chemical in products. When ionic solids are dissolved in water, the
amount of a product. The percentage purity can also be ions become separated and move freely in the solution.
used applied in the following: These ionic species can be used in writing equations,
called an ionic equation. The equation which does not
i. Extraction of table salt show the ions is called molecular equation since it only
ii. Refinery of crude oil shown atom in their chemical combinations.
iii. Purification of metals
During reactions involving ions or ionic compounds,
When calculating the percentage purity of the some of the ions may not take part in the reaction. Ions
substance, the formula below is used. which exists in a chemical reaction process but do not
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
take part are known as spectator ions. In other words,
Percentage purity = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 × 100 spectator ions are ions of the soluble substances and
they therefore exist in solution state. Spectator ions
Examples cancel out and are therefore not shown in ionic
1) 30g of impure calcium carbonate was reacted equation.
with an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid to
For example, consider the equation below
produce 2240 cm3 of carbon (IV) oxide gas at
standard temperature and pressure. Calculate HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
the percentage purity of calcium carbonate.
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
(Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16 Molar gas volume at
+ H2O(l)
STP = 22.4 dm3.)
Cl–(aq) and Na+(aq) ions are spectator ions (present in
Solution
both sides of the equation) and therefore cancel out
The equation for the reaction is from the equation. Therefore, the ionic equation is

CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) OH-(aq) + H+ → H2O(l)
P a g e 9 | 68

By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
This is referred to as net ionic equation because some ii). The reacting mole ratio of Ba(NO3)2: H2SO4 = 1:1,
of the ions are eliminated. therefore the mole of the acid reacted = 5 moles.

In writing ionic equations: 2) Solid copper (II) oxide and hydrochloric acid were
reacted completely to form soluble copper (II)
1) Balance the equation in terms of charges chloride and water. Write an ionic equation for this
or/and moles.
reaction.
2) Include state symbols of reactants and
products. Solution
3) Show formula unit of ionic solid.
4) Identify substances containing free ions and Molecular equation,
those that do not.
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
The species containing free ions can be aqueous
Ionic equation,
solutions of salts, acids and bases. Those that do not
contain free ions can be insoluble salts, gases, CuO(s) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
molecular substances, insoluble bases. So, when writing
ionic equations, consider whether the reaction has Net ionic equation,
some ions which are not free and these are the ones CuO(s) + H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l).
that appear in the ionic equation later and the free ions
become spectator ions and therefore cancel out. Work to do
Write the net ionic equation for each of the reactions
Examples on ionic equations
 AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)→AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
1) An aqueous solution of barium nitrate and sulphuric  2NaOH (aq) + CuCl2 (aq)→Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl (aq)
acid reacted to form barium sulphate precipitate  2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) →Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
and nitric acid.
i) Write an ionic equation for the reaction. The gas laws
ii) If 5moles of the nitrate were reacted Kinetic theory of gases states that the gas molecules
completely with the acid, how many moles of are very small, relative to the distance between
the acid were reacted? molecules. That the molecules are in constant, random
motion and frequently collide with each other and with
Solution
the walls of the container. Gases expand and contract
i). Molecular equation with changes of temperature and pressure.

Ba(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq) This theory is summarised in three gas laws namely

Ionic equation,  Boyle’s law

 Charles’ law
Ba2+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + H+(aq) + SO42- → BaSO4(s) + NO3-(aq) + H+(aq)
 Combined gas law
Cancel out the spectator ions and write the net ionic
Boyle’s law.
equation as below

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s). Boyle’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of a
gas is inversely proportional to the pressure applied
provided that the temperature remains constant.
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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
Mr.Robert Boyle came up with this statement in 1700’s and its new pressure increased to
after he had carried out a series of investigations about 20atms, what would be its new volume?
the relationship between volume of a gas and its solution
3
pressure. Here he did not change the mass and V1=200cm , P1=6atms, P2=20atms, V2=?
temperature of a gas. The statement was therefore V2=(P1V1)/P2
named after him. =(6atms x 200cm3)/20atms
When we say that the volume is inversely proportional =60cm3
to pressure, we mean that when pressure increases, the 03) A certain mass of a gas occupies 500cm3 at
volume decreases and the reverse is true. 100,000Pa. What will be its pressure at
Boyle’s law is expressed mathematically as 1000cm3 volume?
Solution
1 P1=100,000Pa, V1=500cm3, V2=1000cm3, P2=?
P α𝑉 or PV α Constant
𝑃1𝑉1
Removing ``α’’ (proportionality sign) and replacing it P2= 𝑉2
with equal sign (=) gives 100,000𝑃𝑎 𝑋 500𝑐𝑚3
= 1000𝑐𝑚3
=50,000Pa
PV=constant
Charles’ law.
If the initial volume and pressure of a gas are V1 and P1
respectively, then we have;
A Scientist called Jacques Charles investigated the
P1V1=constant...............................................(1) relationship between the volume of a gas and
temperature changes. He noted that the volume of a
If the final volume and pressure of a gas are V2 and P2 gas increases with increase in temperature. He
respectively, then we have; therefore expressed his results in a law named after
him.
P2V2=constant................................................(2)
Charles’ law states that at constant pressure, the
Combining the two expressions above gives volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature. Absolute temperature is
P1V1=P2V2.................................................Boyle’s law.
the temperature measured with respect to the absolute
Application of Boyle’s law zero on the Kelvin scale. When we say that the volume
is directly proportional to the temperature, it means
01) If 60cm3 of oxygen gas is compressed from that as T increases, V also increases and when T
20atms to 40atms, what is the new volume of a decreases, V also decreases.
gas at constant temperature?
Solution Charles’ law is expressed Mathematically as;
V1=60cm3, P1=20atms, P2=40atms, V2=?
𝑽
V α T or 𝑻
= Constant
From Boyle’s law, P1V1=P2V2
Therefore, if a fixed mass of a gas with volume V1 and
Make V2 a subject in order to have; temperature T1has its temperature and volume changed
V2=P1V1/P2
to T2 and V2 respectively at constant pressure, then this
= (20atms x 60cm3)/40atms
=30cm3 can be written as;
02) If a sample of a gas in a ballloon has a volume of
V1 V2
200cm3 and a pressure of 6atm is compressed =
T1 T2
P a g e 11 | 68

By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
NB: Solution

When applying Charles’ law in calculations, the value of T1=300C = 303K

temperature must be in Kelvin scale (K), a unit of
temperature on the absolute scale. The formula below V1 = 400cm3
gives the temperature in Kelvin. V2=?
K = 273 + 0C T2= 500C = 323K
Example From, V1T2 = V2T1 Make V2 a subject

Convert 300C to Kelvin. 𝑉1𝑇2

V2 = 𝑇1
Solution 323
= 400 x
303
K = 273 + 0C
= 426.4cm3
= 273 + 30
The combined gas law (the general gas
= 303K equation)
Therefore 300C equals 303K. Boyle’s law and Charles’ law can be combined into a
general gas equation.
Application of Charles’ law
Boyle’s law; P1V1 = constant
3 0
A gas occupies a volume of 100cm at 27 C. What will
𝑽𝟏
be the temperature of the gas if it occupies a volume of Charles’ law; 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
200cm3?
When the two equations are combined, the general gas
Solution equation is obtained. Thus,

V1=100cm3 𝑃1𝑉1
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇1
T1=270C=300K
When different conditions of a gas are related, then
3
V2=200cm
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
=
T2=? 𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑉1 𝑉2 Application of combined gas equation
From 𝑇1
= 𝑇2, Make T2 a subject

𝑉2𝑇1
A certain mass of a gas occupies 400cm3 at 250C and
So, T2= 𝑉1 760mm Hg. What will be its volume at 00C and 740mm
300
Hg ?
=200 x
100
Solution
= 600K
V1= 400cm3
The volume of a gas at 300C is 400cm3. What will be its
volume at 500C ? T1= 250C = 298K

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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
P1 = 760mm Hg In liquids, the particles have moderate forces of
attraction but the particles are free to move past each
V2 = ? other yet, they tend to stick together. They are also in
T2 = 00C = 273K constant random motion.

P2 = 740mm Hg In gases, the forces of attraction are negligible. This is

why gas particles are far apart and free to move faster
𝑉1 𝑃2
From, P1.𝑇1 = 𝑉2. 𝑇2 Make V2 a subject in random motion. Consequently, have a lot of kinetic
energy.
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2
V2 = . .
1 𝑃2 𝑇1 Rate of diffusion
=( 760 x 400 x 273 ) ÷ ( 740 x 298 )
The rate of diffusion of a gas is the measure of the
= 376.3cm3 quantity of a gas that passes through a space after a
particular period of time.
Work to do
In a class experiment, it was found that a gas occupied Graham’s law of diffusion
48dm3 at 250C and 2 atms. What volume will it occupy
It states that at a constant temperature and pressure,
at s.t.p ?
the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to
Graham’s law of diffusion the square root of its density.
Diffusion of a gas is the movement of molecules from 1
Mathematically, Rate α
regions where they are more concentrated to regions √𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
where they are less concentrated until equilibrium is 1
reached. On the other hands, effusion is the movement R= Where R= rate of diffusion, ρ= density
√𝜌
of gas through a small opening (small pore).
If the rates of diffusion of two gases, 1 and 2 are
Graham’s law is therefore applied to both diffusion and compared, then
effusion of a gas.
𝑅1 𝜌2
𝑅2
= √𝜌1 Where R1=rate of diffusion of first gas
Diffusion in terms of kinetic theory.

The kinetic theory explains the forces between R2=rate of diffusion of second gas
molecules and the energy that they possess. The theory
Ρ1=density of first gas and ρ2=density of second gas.
has two basic assumptions as follows;
But the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely
→ Matter is composed of small particles. 1
proportional to time of diffusion, R α 𝑡 and the density
→ The particles are in constant random motion of a gas is directly proportional to its molecular mass,
(movement).
ραM
In solids, the particles are held close to each other by
strong forces of attraction operating between particles. So t α M
They are held in fixed positions in a regular
If two gases are compared, then
arrangement. They vibrate within the same positions.

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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 32 𝑋 39.69
𝑡1 𝑀1
= √𝑀2 Where t1= time of diffusion of first gas, M1 = , M1 = 40.5
31.36
𝑡2
t2= time of diffusion of second gas, M1= molecular mass Therefore, the molecular mass of unknown gas is 40.5g.
of first gas and M2= molecular mass of second gas.
Work to do
Example 01) The relative molecular masses of ammonia and
hydrogen chloride gases are 17 and 36.5
If 10cm3 of an unknown gas take 6.3 sec to pass through
respectively. If the two gases are subjected to the
a small orifice while 1cm3 of oxygen gas takes 5.6 sec
same conditions of temperature and pressure, find
through the same orifice under similar conditions. What
the rate at which ammonia will diffuse faster than
will be the molecular mass of the unknown gas ? ( O =
hydrogen chloride.
16 )
02) If the pressure of a gas is 3 atms and the volume is
Solution increased four times. What would be its final
pressure?
T1 = 6.3 s, T2 = 5.6 s, M1 (unknown gas ) = ?, M2= 16 x 2 =
32 ( O2 )

𝑇1 𝑀1 6.3 2 𝑀1 2 𝑀1 6.3 2
From =√ , ( ) = (√ ) , ( = ),
𝑇2 𝑀2 5.6 32 32 5.6

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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 Unit 2: Volumetric analysis and identification of gases
Introduction concentration or simply “molarity”. Molarity is the
Volumetric analysis is a quantitative analytical number of moles in one liter of a solution.
method of determining unknown concentration of a 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑔/𝑙(1000𝑐𝑚3)
Molarity = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
substance using another substance whose (𝑅𝐹𝑀)

concentration is known. This is usually done in a

chemical reaction for which the equation is known. Examples on molarity and concentration
The process involves measuring accurately the 01) What is the molarity of a solution containing 4.5g/l
volumes of two solutions which react with each of sodium hydroxide?(Na=23,O= 16,H=1)
other. One standard solution is reacted with another
solution of unknown concentration to determine the Solution
reacting volumes. This process is also called
2M means 2 moles in 1000cm3 of solution so,
titrimetric analysis or titration. This is because it is
based on the measurement of exact volumes. The 2 mol = 1000cm3
standard solution is called titrant. A known volume
of titrant reacts with a solution of unknown Y mol = 100cm3 cross-multiply so,
concentration (analyte) to determine its 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 100
Y= 1000
= 0.2𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙.
concentration. The point in titration at which all the
analyte has reacted is called the end point. This is Solution
indicated by the colour change of the indicator. The
moles of acid are equivalent to the moles of base Concentration = 4.5g/l, Rfm of NaOH = 40g
reacting, according to the reaction equation. 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔/𝑙 4.5
Molarity = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 40
= 0.1125𝑀
Volumetric analysis is the application used in most
chemical laboratories to determine the concentration 02) 2g of sodium hydroxide were dissolved in water to
and molarity of substances. The substance may make 200cm3 of solution. Calculate the molarity of
include; acids, bases, cleaning detergents, soft the solution formed. (Na=23, O=16, H=1).
drinks and water analysis. This helps to determine
Solution
their components and purity levels for safe usage.
Rmm of NaOH= 23+16+1=40g, mass=2g
Standard solution
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔 2
Standard solution is solution whose concentration Moles = = = 0.05𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠.
𝑅𝑚𝑚 40
is known. Concentration is the amount of a substance
dissolved in a definite volume of solution. The 200cm3 = 0.05moles
concentration of a solution is expressed as the number
1000cm3= x moles cross-multiply,
of grams of a substance in one liter (1dm3) of solution.
It can also be expressed in moles per liter of solution X=
1000𝑐𝑚3 𝑋 0.05𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
= 0.25
200𝑐𝑚3
(mol/dm3). A standard solution can be made by
dissolving moles or mass of a solute in distill water. If it Thus, the molarity of solution is 0.25mol/L.
is the moles dissolved, the concentration is called molar

P a g e 15 | 68

By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
03) How many moles of sodium chloride are there in Work to do.
100cm3 of a 2M solution? 1. What mass of sodium hydroxide will be
required to prepare 250cm3 of 1M NaOH.
Solution
(Na = 23, O = 16, H = 1)
2M means 2 moles in 1000cm3 of solution so, 2. Calculate the mass of Potassium nitrate
required to prepare 500cm3 of a 0.1M solution.
2 mol = 1000cm3 (K = 39. N = 14, O = 16).
Y mol = 100cm3 cross-multiply so,
Molar solutions
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 100 A molar solution is a solution containing 1mole of a
Y= 1000
= 0.2𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙.
substance made up to one litre. It is the solution
Making standard solution (Preparation) containing one mole of a substance in its litre.
When one mole of a solid is dissolved in water and
We are going to prepare 1M (1mol/dm3) of sodium the volume of the solution is made to one litre, the
hydroxide solution. When preparing standard solutions, resulting solution is a molar solution and the
the apparatus needed are standard volumetric flask molarity is 1M. Two moles in a litre give 2 molar
graduated with volume required for the standard solution.
solution in this case a 1dm3, 25cm3 beaker, funnel,
pipette and the conical flak. When preparing molar solutions, the steps given in the
previous page for the standard solutions are followed.
The following steps are usually followed when
preparing the standard solutions e.g 1M NaOH solution. Calculations of molarity of ions in molar solutions.

 Calculate the mass of sodium hydroxide to be When calculating the molarity of ions in molar
weighed. solutions, the chemical species is first ionized to
 Weigh the mass of sodium hydroxide know the ions in it. The equation for the
obtained from your calculation in step above dissociation is balanced well. The moles ratios are
and put into the used to calculate the molarity of each ion.
 Put the weighed mass of sodium hydroxide
in a beaker. Examples
 Using a funnel and a wash bottle containing 01) Calculate the molarity of calcium, Ca2+ ions
distilled water, transfer quantitatively all the and chloride, Cl- ions in 2M CaCl2 solution.
solid into 1dm3 volumetric flask.
 Close the flask tightly, swirl and shake the Solution
contents.
CaCl2(aq)  Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
 Carefully add distilled water to a level
slightly below the graduated mark. 1 mol 1 mol 2 mol
 Now use a teat pipette to add distilled water
drop by drop to the mark. 2 mol 2 mol 4 mol
 Shake well and label the flask with the
Since the mole ratio of Ca2+ : 2Cl- is 1:2
concentration.
The molarity of Ca2+ = 2M and that of Cl- is 4M

P a g e 16 | 68

By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
Work to do Work to do
3
What is the concentration (in g/dm ) of calcium ions 01) 250 cm3 of 2M NaOH is diluted to 2000cm3.
and chloride ions in 2M CaCl2? (Ca=40, Cl=35.5) Calculate the new concentration of the
solution.
Dilution of standard solutions 02) How much water must be added to 5cm3 of
6M HCl to dilute it to 0.1M?
Most solutions are often purchased when already
prepared in high concentration. The highly Titration apparatus and their
concentrated solutions are known as stock
solutions. These solutions need to be diluted to
handling.
The apparatus for titration are usually the pipette
lower the concentration by adding solvent e.g.
and burette. Burettes and pipettes are expensive
water. The process is called dilution. Dilution is a
apparatus and must be handled with a lot of care to
common practice in laboratories. Dilution is the
avoid breakage.
process of adding water to the highly concentrated
solution to lower the concentration. Filling a pipette
During the dilution, the amount of solute remains  Wash the pipette thoroughly with water and
the same while the volume of the solution increases. then rinse it with the solution given i.e. the
The concentration of the new solution is calculated one you are supposed to fill the pipette with.
using the dilution law as follows;  Suck the standard solution up the pipette
well above the calibration mark, from a
C1V1 = C2V2
tilted conical flask.
Where  If you have a pipette filler, use it to fill a
pipette instead of sucking.
C1 = initial concentration of the solution  Hold the pipette up right and read below the
C2 = final concentration of the solution
meniscus.
 Transfer the solution into the conical flask.
V1 = initial volume of the solution  Do not force out the little amount of solution
left in the pipette as the pipette is graduated
V2 = final volume of the solution.
with this allowance.
Examples
01) Calculate the volume of 0.5M H2SO4
solution that will be required to make
1000cm3 of 0.05M H2SO4 acid.

Solution

C1= 0.5M, C2= 0.05M, V1= ?, V2 = 1000cm3

From C1V1 = C2V2

𝐶2𝑉2 0.05 ×1000
V1 = = = 100cm3
𝐶1 0.5

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Filling a burette 5. Adjust the level of the burette so that the tip
is almost inside the mouth of the conical
A burette is calibrated from top downwards i.e. flask.
0cm3 at the top and 50cm3 at the bottom near the 6. Carefully estimate and record the initial
tap. Examine the burette and note that the divisions burette reading.
are 1cm3. 7. With the neck of the flask in one hand use
 Wash the burette with water, then rinse it the other hand to operate the tap to drain the
with the given acid solution or the solution acid from the burette in small volumes until
to be added to the burette. the new colour begins to show and
 Clamp the burette to the stand in an upright disappears. This shows that the end point is
position. near.
 Using a filter funnel and a beaker fill the 8. Now add the liquid from the burette drop
burette with the non-standard solution to wise until a single drop permanently
above the 0cm3 graduation mark. changes the colour.
 Remove the funnel and then take the initial 9. Carefully estimate and record the final
reading of the burette. burette reading.
10. Use a white tile, if necessary, to make the
meniscus more readable.
11. Carry out two more titrations and average
any two consistent volumes to get the
volume of an acid which reacts with the
pipette alkali.

Reading and treatment of the titration data.

The titration data is recorded in the table like the one

shown below.

Volume of the pipette used cm3

Burette reading 1 2 3
Final reading
Understanding titration process. Initial reading
1. Clean the burette and rinse it with the Volume of solution used
solution it is going to contain (titrant).
2. Fill the burette with the given reagent to the
After titration, the average titre is obtained using the
zero mark.
formula below.
3. Pipette any stated volume of the alkali into a
conical flask. 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 =
4. Add one or two drops of the indicator to the 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔

alkali in the conical flask and note the The volume got in this way is the volume of the solution
colour. Flush out air bubbles from the jet of used.
the burette.

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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 Choice of indicators on titration ii) Standardize solution B using solution A i.e
find its molarity. (Na=23, O=16, C=12.H=1,
In Form 1, you learnt about indicators and their Cl=35.5)
uses. Different acid-base indicators are used in
Procedure.
titration of strong and weak acids and bases. The
choice of indicator depends on the pH at end point  Fill the burette with dilute hydrochloric acid
and the pH range over which the indicator changes provided.
colour.  Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution A and transfer into the
conical flask. Add 2-3 drops of methyl orange
The table below gives guidelines on how to choose
indicator and observe the colour change.
an indicator to use in different titrations.
 Titrate until you get the end point. How would you
Reactions Indicator Example tell that the end-point has been reached?
Strong acid
+ strong Methyl orange,
 Repeat the titration 2 to 3 times to consistent
base phenolphthalein HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + values.
or litmus H2O(l)
 Record your results in the table as shown below.
Strong acid
+ weak base
Burette reading 1 2 3
Methyl orange HCl(aq) + NH4OH(aq) Final burette reading
NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
Initial burette reading
Volume of solution B
Weak acid + used.
strong base
Phenolphthalein CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)
CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
Specimen results.
Weak acid +
weak base Volume of pipette used= 25.0cm3
No indicator CH3COOH(aq)+ NH4OH(aq) 
CH3COONH4(aq)+ H2O(l)
Burette readings 1 2 3
Final burette reading 22.5 44.4 21.8
Initial burette reading 0.0 22.5 0.0
Volume of solution B 22.5 21.9 21.8
Types of titration used
 Acid-base titration
 Back titration
 Redox titration. i) Calculate the average volume of the solution B
used by taking the consistent volumes i.e
General calculations involving titration volumes nearer to each other.
01) You are provided with solution A, which was made 21.9+21.8
Average volume= = 21.85𝑐𝑚3
by dissolving 5.3g/dm3 of sodium carbonate. 2
Solution B which is hydrochloric acid in 1dm3
ii) Write the equation for the reaction.
solution.
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g).
You are required to; 1mole : 2moles
Begin Calculation:
i) Calculate the molarity of solution A.

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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 5.3 reacting mole ratio of base to Acid is 1:2, hence moles
a) Molarity of Sodium carbonate = 106 = 0.05𝑚𝑜𝑙/
𝑑𝑚3 of the acid reacted = 2 x 0.00125 = 0.0025mole HCl
b) Standardizing solution B using solution A. c) 23.03cm3 contain 0.0025moles HCl
1000cm3 of Na2CO3 = 0.05moles 1000cm3 contain x moles HCl
1000𝑐𝑚3 ×0.0025 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
so, X = 23.03𝑐𝑚3
= 0.12 Mol/dm3HCl
3
25cm of Na2CO3 = y moles, cross-multiply
03) 5.3g of anhydrous metal carbonate X2CO3 was
25𝑐𝑚3 𝑋 0.05𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 dissolved in 250cm3distill water. 25cm3 of this
Y= 1000𝑐𝑚3
= 1.25 x 10-3 moles.
solution requires 21.85cm3 of 0.5M HCl for
From the reacting mole ratio, Na2CO3:HCl complete neutralization. (C=12, O=16).
1:2 a) Write ionic equation for the reaction.
So reacting moles of HCl = 2 x 1.25 x 10-3 = 2.5 x 10-3 b) Calculate the concentration (Molarity) of the
moles metal carbonate in
i) Mol per dm3
21.85cm3 of HCL = 2.5 x 10-3 moles ii) g/dm3
1000cm3 of HCl = y moles , cross-multiply c) Determine the relative atomic mass of metal X.

1000𝑐𝑚3 Solution
Y= 21.85𝑐𝑚3 x 2.5 x 10-3 moles = 0.114
a) Ionic equation: CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq)→ H2O(l) +CO2(g)
Therefore, the molarity of HCl is 0.114M. b)
2) 25cm3 of sodium carbonate whose i) to get the molarity of a carbonate, we need to
concentration is 5.8g/dm3 was reacted with begin with acid (standard solution) by getting
23.03cm3 of hydrochloric acid using the reacting moles of acid.
phenolphthalein indicator.
1000cm3 of HCl = 0.5moles
(Na= 23, C = 12, O = 16,)
a) What is the molarity of the base? 21.85cm3 of HCl = y moles cross-multiply
b) Calculate the mole of an acid that reacted.
21.85𝑐𝑚3 𝑥 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
c) Calculate the concentration of an acid in Y= = 0.01moles of HCl.
1000𝑐𝑚3
mol/dm3.
So, 0.01 moles of HCl are needed to react with the
Solution carbonate.

a) Rfm of Na2CO3 = 106, Conc = 5.8g/dm3 From the mole ratio, X2CO3:HCl, number of moles
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑔/𝑙(1000𝑐𝑚3) of the carbonate reacting is half that of an acid,
Molarity =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑅𝐹𝑀)

5.8 Therefore, reacting moles of the carbonate =

= = 0.05𝑀 Na2CO3 1
106
2
𝑥 0.01 = 5.0 x 10-3 moles
b) 1000cm3 Na2CO3 contain 0.05moles
25cm3 of X2CO3 = 0.005moles
25cm3Na2CO3 contain y moles
25𝑐𝑚3 ×0.05 𝑚𝑜𝑙
So, Y = = 0.00125moles Na2CO3 1000cm3 of X2CO3 = y moles, cross-multiply
1000𝑐𝑚3
reacted. 1000𝑐𝑚3 𝑥 0.005𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
Equation for the reaction Y= 25𝑐𝑚3
= 0.2𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 ii) 5.3g were dissolved in 250cm3 1000cm3 of Na2CO3 = y moles.
xg will be dissolved in 1000cm3 1000 ×0.025
Y= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 0.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
25
5.3𝑔 ×1000𝑐𝑚3 Molarity = 0.1mol/L Na2CO3.
Therefore, x = = 21.2𝑔/𝑑𝑚3
250𝑐𝑚3 iii) 250cm3 of Na2CO3 contain 7.15g of
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑔/𝑑𝑚3 hydrated carbonate.
c) From Molarity = making
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 1000cm3 of Na2CO3 contain x grams
Relative Formula Mass a subject becomes 1000 ×7.15
X= 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 = 28.6𝑔/𝐿
250
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒈/𝒅𝒎𝟑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 = From Molarity = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝟐𝟏.𝟐
Relative Formula Mass =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 𝟎.𝟐
= 𝟏𝟎𝟔 28.6
RFM = = 286
0.1
X2CO3 = 106, 2x + 12 + (16 x 3) = 106 Thus, RFM of Na2CO3.nH2O = 286g.
iv) (23x 2) + 12 + (16 x 3) + 18n = 286
2x = 106 – 60, 2x = 46, x = 23
18n = 286 – 106 = 180
Therefore, the relative atomic mass of Metal x = 23 n = 10
05) The molarity of the acid HnX is 0.05M. 12.5cm3
04) Washing soda has a formula Na2CO3.nH2O. of this acid required 25cm3 of 0.05M NaOH for
7.15g of hydrated sodium carbonate was complete neutralization. Find the value of n.
dissolved in water to make 250cm3 of solution.
25cm3 of this solution was titrated with 0.25M Solution
HCl using methyl orange indicator. The end
To get the value of n which is the basicity of the acid,
point was reached when exactly 20cm3 of the
we calculate the reacting moles of each solution
acid were added.
separately and express them as ratios.
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g).
For the acid,
i) Find the number of moles of hydrochloric acid
1000cm3 = 0.05moles
that reacted.
ii) Calculate the concentration of sodium 12.5cm3 = y moles.
carbonate in mole per litre
12.5 ×0.05
iii) Calculate the formula mass of hydrated salt Y= 1000
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 0.000625 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠.
(Na2CO3.nH2O).
iv) Determine the value of n. For the base,

Solution 1000cm3 = 0.05moles

i) 1000cm3 of acid contain 0.25moles of the 25cm3 = x moles

acid, 20cm3 of the acid will contain 25 ×0.05
0.25 × 20 X= 1000
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 0.00125moles
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 0.005 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
1000
ii) Reacting mole ratio of Na2CO3:HCl = 1:2 Express them as ratios
Moles of Na2CO3 reacted = 0.005 moles x ½ NaOH : HnX
= 0.025 moles Na2CO3
25cm3 of Na2CO3 = 0.025 moles 0.00125 : 0.000625
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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
2 : 1 concentrations of chemicals of interest in
blood and urine. Pharmacists also use
2 moles of NaOH need 1 mole of HnX, therefore n = 2,
titration to achieve a desired mix of
the basicity of the acid.
compound drugs.
06) 3.2g of impure Na2CO3 was dissolved in water to ii. Food Industry: Titration may also be used
make 500cm3 of solution. 25cm3 of this solution to determine the amount of a certain
require exactly 24cm3 of 0.1M HCl. Calculate chemical in food substances. Often titration
a. Molarity of the carbonate is used to determine fat content, water
b. Percentage purity of the original sample content, and concentrations of vitamins.
Titration is also used to tell if cheeses and
Solution.
wines have aged enough for distribution to
a. Reacting moles of acid. supermarkets and shops.
1000cm3 = 0.1 moles iii. Bioscience: Titration can be employed in
24cm3 = y moles biology labs, where it is used to determine
Y=
24 ×0.1
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 0.0024 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 the proper concentration of chemicals to
1000
anesthecitize test animals.
Write the equation for the reaction
iv. Education: In high school chemistry
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) classes, titration is often used as a test of
students’ practical aptitude. It is a standard
Reacting mole ratio is Na2CO3:HCl = 1:2 procedure for determining unknown
So, moles of Na2CO3 = 0.0024 x 0.5 = 0.0012 moles. concentration.

25cm3 of Na2CO3 = 0.0012 moles Qualitative test (identification) of

gases.
1000cm3 of Na2CO3 = x moles
Qualitative analysis is a method by which
1000 ×0.0012 constituent parts of a substance are identified. Here
X= 25
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 0.048𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
the changes that take place and products formed are
Thus, molarity of Na2CO3 = 0.048M. observed closely without making precise
measurements as in titration. There are common
b. 1000cm3 of Na2CO3 = 0.048 moles
laboratory tests for identifying gases. The general
500cm3 of Na2CO3 = y moles
500 ×0.048
guiding principles include:
Y= 1000
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 0.024 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
But molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106g/mol i) Basic gas tests - look for colour, smell,
Mass = 106 x 0.024 = 2.544g effect on litmus solutions or papers
and effect on splints (glowing and burning).
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
%purity = × 100 Ammonia gas is the only known alkaline
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
gas; it turns damp red litmus paper blue.
2.544
= × 100 = 79.5% ii) Acidic gases (SO2, HCl, H2S, HBr, HI) are
3.2
evolved when dilute mineral acids or
Application of titration concentrated sulphuric acid reacts with SO32-
i. Medical Uses: Titration is used in medical , Cl–, S2–, Br–, I– respectively. The gases turn
laboratories to determine unknown damp blue litmus red. Carbon (IV) oxide
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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 from CO32- is a weak acid in aqueous
solution and usually does not affect blue
litmus papers. Nitrogen dioxide is brown
and turns blue litmus red.
iii) All other gases including oxygen and
hydrogen are colourless. These gases
do not affect litmus papers. Nitrogen (I)
oxide and carbon (II) oxide are also
neutral gases.

Guide to the identification of gases

The table below gives guidelines on how to identify
the various gases.

Gas Appearance Test

A lighted wooden
Hydrogen Colourless
splint goes off pop
A glowing splint
Oxygen Colourless
relights
Forms a white
Carbon
Colourless precipitate with lime
(IV) oxide
water
Forms dense white
Ammonia Colourless fumes with hydrogen
chloride gas
Damp blue litmus
Chlorine Green yellow paper turns red then
white

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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 Unit 3: Properties of elements in period 3 and group II and VII.
Period 3 elements The elements of period 3 vary in appearance,
The following are the elements in period 3 of the showing metallic and non-metallic properties from
periodic table. the extreme ends of the period respectively.

i. Sodium i) Sodium, magnesium and aluminium show

ii. Magnesium the bright lustre typical of metals when
iii. Aluminium freshly cut.
iv. Silicon ii) Silicon which is much harder than
v. Phosphorus magnesium and aluminium shows both
vi. Sulphur metallic and non-metallic properties.
vii. Chlorine Element that shows both metallic and non-
viii. Argon. metallic properties is called semi-metal.
Therefore, silicon is a semi-metal.
Uses of period 3 elements iii) Phosphorus is a waxy solid with distinctly
a. Aluminium is heavily used in the making of nonmetallic appearance. White phosphorus
power transmission cables is yellowish while red phosphorus is red in
b. Aluminium is also used as major aircraft colour.
components due to its light weight. iv) Chlorine and argon are gases.
c. Chlorine is used in water treatment and making
of bleaching reagents. Melting and boiling point.
d. Magnesium is a major constituent of chlorophyll
i. Sodium, magnesium and aluminum have
in plants.
giant metallic structures which are
e. Sulphur and nitrogen have both wide industrial
maintained by strong metallic bonds.
applications as well as a major nutritional
requirement in most crops and livestock. The metallic bond becomes stronger due to
Electron arrangement of period 3 elements. a. Increase in the number of valence electrons
per atom.
Atomic Electronic
Element Symbol b. The increase in the overall nuclear charge
Number Configuration
Sodium Na 11 2:8:1 pulling strongly the valence electrons.
Magnesium Mg 12 2:8:2
That explains why sodium with one valence
Aluminium Al 13 2:8:3
Silicon S 14 2:8:4 electron has a lower boiling and melting points
Phosphorous P 15 2:8:5 while aluminum with three valence electrons has
Sulphur S 16 2:8:6 much higher melting and boiling points.
Chlorine Cl 17 2:8:7
Argon Ar 18 2:8:8 ii. Each silicon atom is covalently bonded to
Trend in physical properties of period 3 four other silicon atoms as shown below.
elements.
Physical appearance.

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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
 These covalent bonds are very strong giving the
silicon crystals giant atomic structure. A lot of
energy is required to break this structure hence
it has a very high melting and boiling point.

iii. Phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine are made In moving from one element to the next across the
up of simple molecular structure. The atoms period, electrons are being added to the same energy
of these elements are joined together by level. At the same time, number of protons increases
strong covalent bonds to form discrete leading to increase in nuclear charge. Therefore, the
molecules which are held together by weak electrons are attracted and pulled towards the nucleus
Van der Waal’s forces, therefore resulting
into their general lower melting points and
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
boiling points. Sulphur has a higher melting Atomic 0.157 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.110 0.104 0.099 0.094
radii
point and boiling point than the rest of non-
and so, the atomic radius decreases.
metals, in period 3. This is because sulphur
exists as S8 molecules while phosphorus The table below shows the atomic radii of the period 3
exists as P4 molecules, chlorine exist as Cl2 elements.
molecules while argon exists as individual
atoms. The strength of the van der Waal’s Ionization energy
forces decrease as the size of the molecules
Ionization energy is the energy or work required to
decreases.
remove an electron from gaseous atom. The
ionization energy of the Period 3 elements generally
increases across the period from left to right. This is
due to the fact that nuclear charge increases across
the period causing a decrease in the atomic radius
and thus the decrease in the distance of the outer
electrons from the nucleus. However, there are
exceptions or interruption in the trend as shown in
the table.
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Atomic radii Ionization 496 740 584 793 1017 1006 1257 1520
(Kj/mol
The atomic radii generally decrease from left to right
across the period as shown in the graph below.
The energy required to remove the first electron at the
outermost quantum shell of a gaseous atom is called
the first ionization energy. The few irregularities in

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By Gai Samuel Pandak Deng (B.Sc. Chemistry, Dr. Garang University), Tel: 0925599881
the general trend are related to the extra stabilities accounting for small noticeable electrical
shown by sub energy levels that are either empty or conductivity in silicon. Phosphorus, sulphur,
half-filled. This is the case with aluminum having chlorine, and argon are non-conductors.
lower first ionization energy than magnesium.

Factors affecting ionization energy

i) The charge in the nucleus.

ii) The distance of the outer electrons from the
nucleus.
iii) The amount of screening by inner electrons.
iv) Whether the electron is alone in a sub
energy level (orbital) or in pair.

The trend in the ionisation energy is broken by falls The following table shows the general trend in
between magnesium and aluminum and between physical properties of period 3 elements.
phosphorus and sulphur.

Valency
Valency is the combining power of an element. It is
determined by the number of electrons to be lost or
gained when an element reacts. Electrons in the
outermost energy level of an atom are referred to as
valence electrons. The number of valency electrons
increases from sodium to aluminium metals. The
metallic bond becomes stronger as the number of
valency electrons in the metals increases, which in Oxides and chlorides of period 3 elements.
turn increases the ionization energy of these metals Chlorides.
across the period.
The chloride is a compound formed when one
Electrical conductivity element reacts with chlorine gas. Some of the
elements in period 3, when ignited and lowered into
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium are good a gas jar of chlorine would react with chlorine to
conductors of electricity, the conductivity form chloride compounds. For example,
increasing from sodium to aluminium. The valency
electrons in sodium, magnesium and aluminium Mg(s) + Cl2(g)  MgCl2(s)
metals are free to move throughout the metallic
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g)  2AlCl3(s)
surface (delocalised) and thus responsible for ease
of conduction of heat and electricity. Silicon is a Properties of the chlorides.
semi-conductor. The valence electrons in silicon are
not free to move throughout the solid. But a few of i) Sodium and magnesium form neutral
the valence electrons acquire enough energy to chloride compounds.
break from covalent bonds and move freely
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 ii) The chlorides of aluminum, silicon, Bonding in compounds of period 3 elements
phosphorus and sulphur react with water
The bond types of period 3 compounds vary across
exothermically forming acidic solutions.
the period. Sodium, magnesium and aluminum
This explains why these chlorides fume in
compounds have strong ionic bonds that require a
moist air.
lot of energy to break. This explains why their
Oxides of period 3 elements compounds have high melting and boiling points.

Oxide is a compound formed when an element is burned Group II elements

in air. All elements across period 3 except chlorine These elements are also known as alkaline earth
and argon burn in oxygen to form their oxides. For metals. They include
example,
i. Beryllium
P4(s) + 5O2(g)  2P2O5(g) ii. Magnesium
iii. Calcium
iv. Strontium
Properties of the oxides v. Barium
vi. Radium.
i) Sodium oxide and magnesium oxide are
ionic compounds that dissolves in water For our study at this level, only first three elements
with evolution of heat to give an alkaline of the group will be considered. Trends in the
solution. properties of the elements in a group are influenced
by their atomic sizes. The similarities in chemical
MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq)
properties and behaviours of elements are
ii) Both white aluminum oxide powder and determined by the valence electrons. For instance, it
silicon (IV) oxide do not dissolve in water. is expected that magnesium and calcium will share
iii) Silicon (IV) oxide is a giant atomic structure a lot of similarity than with elements in the adjacent
with a high melting and boiling point due to groups.
the large network of strong covalent bonds.
Electronic configuration of Group II elements
iv) Oxides of phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine
exhibit covalent bonds with weak Group II elements all have two electrons in their
intermolecular forces between the molecules outermost energy level. That is, they have two
that is why they have lower melting and valence electrons. They attain stability by losing the
boiling points. two outermost electrons to form a cation with a
v) Sulphur (IV) oxide gas dissolves in water charge of +2.
forming sulphurous acid

SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)

vi) Phosphorus (V) oxide dissolves readily in

water to form a solution of phosphoric (V)
acid.

P2O5(s) + 3H2O(l) → 2H3PO4(aq)

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Trend in physical properties of group II by losing the first electron and then the second
elements electron in their outermost energy level. The
Atomic radius amount of energy required to remove the first
electron is called first ionization energy while the
Atomic radius is the distance between the centre of energy required to remove a second electron is
the nucleus and the outermost energy level of an called the second ionization energy.
atom. Of the first three alkaline earth metals,
beryllium has the smallest atomic radius followed Element 1st Ionization 2nd Ionization
by magnesium and then calcium. The atomic radius Energy energy
increases down the group. This is due to the Beryllium 900 1800
Magnesium 740 1450
increase in the energy levels down the group.
Calcium 590 1150

Chemical properties of group II elements

Reaction with air

The group II metals react with oxygen gas to form

metal oxide of a formula MO where M is a group II
metal.
Ionic radius
Magnesium and calcium burn with a brilliant white
The group II elements have smaller ionic radius flame forming Magnesium and calcium oxide
than atomic radius. This is because they react by respectively.
losing outer electrons. During ion formation the
group two elements lose the two electrons in their Mg(s) + O2(g)  MgO(s)
outer most energy level, making the ion to have Ca(s) + O2(g)  CaO(s).
more protons than electrons. The resulting ion has
effective increased positive nucleus charge that Beryllium does not readily oxidize in air even at
strongly pulls inward the remaining electrons. 6000C. However, the powdered beryllium metal
Hence the smaller ionic sizes compared to the burns in air giving beryllium oxide.
atomic sizes. Ionic radius of the group II elements
Be(s) + O2(g)  BeO(s).
increase down the group.
The group II metal oxides apart from BeO sparingly
dissolve in water forming alkaline solution of metal
hydroxides.

MgO(s) + H2O(l)  Mg(OH)2(aq).

CaO(s) + H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2(aq)

Ionization energy Note

Ionization is the removal of an electron from an i. It might not be very clear to see the trend of
atom in gaseous state. Alkaline earth metals ionize reactivity of alkaline earth metals with air
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 due to the oxide coating on the metal ii. The solution is alkaline; hence it turns a red
surface. litmus paper blue.
ii. However, the reactivity increases as you go
down the group due to increasing ease of Mg(s) + 2H2O(l)  Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
removing the electrons in the outermost iii. When water is heated to boiling point, the
energy level. reaction proceeds much faster, but not
iii. Due to their reactive nature, group II enough to displace all the water in the
elements react with air to form a dull oxide boiling tube.
coating on their surfaces. This oxide coating iv. Magnesium metal reacts with steam to give
prevents the elements from any further magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas.
reaction. v. The magnesium oxide appears as a
iv. The coat is removed by polishing the surface suspension in the beaker as the reaction
of an alkaline earth metal. A polished metal progresses.
has a shiny metallic lustre.
Mg(s) + H2O(g)  MgO(s) + H2(g).
Reaction of group II with water
vi. Magnesium react with excess steam to form
Group II metals except beryllium can react with magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
water. Even if water is heated, beryllium does not vii. The resulting solution turns red litmus paper
react. to blue, showing it is alkaline.
Calcium metal. Mg(s) + 2H2O(g)  Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
i. When dropped into a beaker of water, Reaction of group II metals with chlorine gas
calcium remains at the bottom of the beaker,
because it is denser than water. Group II metals except beryllium readily burn with
ii. A stream of colourless gas displaced the bright light in chlorine to form white metal
water inside the boiling tube. chlorides.
iii. The gas collected can produce a “pop”
i. Calcium reacts less vigorously with chlorine
sound when a burning splint is introduced at
while magnesium reacts vigorously with
the mouth of the tube, confirming it is
chlorine.
hydrogen gas.
iv. The resulting calcium hydroxide solution Ca(s) + Cl2(g)  CaCl2(s)
turns red litmus to blue, showing it is an
alkaline solution. Mg(s) + Cl2(g)  MgCl2(s)

Ca(s) + 2H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) ii. Beryllium needs very high temperatures to
react with chlorine gas. This forms
Magnesium metal. beryllium chloride.

i. Reaction of magnesium with water is slow Be(s) + Cl2(g)  BeCl2(s).

but forms hydroxide which is sparingly
soluble.

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 iii. Reactivity of group II elements with In writing reaction equations involving dilute acids,
chlorine increases as you go down the they are indicated as aqueous (aq). The concentrated
group. acids are indicated as liquid (l).
iv. It may be seen that magnesium is more
reactive than calcium but this is not true. Group VII elements
v. Calcium is the more reactive one only that a These elements are also called halogens. They
coat of calcium chloride forms very fast include
such that the inner silvery calcium metal i. Fluorine
cannot be easily reached by the chlorine. ii. Chlorine
iii. Bromine
Reaction of group II metals with dilute acids
iv. Iodine
i. Group II metals except beryllium readily v. Astatine.
react with dilute acids such as hydrochloric
acid, nitric acid and sulphuric acid liberating Electronic configuration of halogens
hydrogen gas. Group VII elements all have 7 electrons in their
ii. Magnesium reacts vigorously with the dilute outermost energy level. They gain an electron to
acids and produces a lot of effervescence. form stable anions with a charge of –1.
The effervescence is as a result of hydrogen
gas evolution. Element Symbol Electron Arangement
Fluorine F 2,7
Mg(s) + 2HCl  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) Chlorine Cl 2,8,7
Bromine Br 2,8,18,7
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) Iodine I 2,8,18,18,7
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
Trend in physical properties of halogens
iii. Calcium reacts very vigorously with dilute
Electronegativity.
nitric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid to
form a compound of the respective salt and i. This is the ability of an atom to attract
hydrogen gas. electrons from another atom in which they
iv. Effervescence is seen due to production of are in chemical bonding.
the hydrogen gas. ii. Halogens are highly reactive elements.
v. Calcium metal reaction with dilute sulphuric iii. They have the highest electron affinity as
acid at the start and quickly stops. This is compared to the other elements in the
because an insoluble calcium sulphate periodic table. This is because they readily
coating formed on the surface of calcium gain electrons.
metal prevents any further reaction with the iv. The larger atom in the halogen family tends
acid. to have less attractive affinity for electrons
than their smaller counterpart.
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
v. Electron affinity decreases down the group
Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g) from fluorine to iodine, thus the reactivity
decrease down the group.
Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CaSO4(s) + H2(g)
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Oxidising power Boiling points and melting points

i. Because halogens react by gaining an i. The melting and boiling points of halogens
electron, it means they themselves get increase down the group.
reduced as they oxidize other elements. ii. This is due to the increasing strength of Van
ii. They are good oxidising agents. Because the der Waals forces as the size and relative
reactivity of halogens decreases down the mass of the atoms increases.
group, the oxidising power also decreases iii. The Van der waal’s forces are responsible
down the group. for trend in the changes of physical state
iii. Therefore, fluorine and chlorine are very from fluorine (gas) to iodine (solid).
powerful oxidizing agents among the
halogens.
iv. Fluorine is the smallest halogen, and the
most reactive of all the non-metal elements.

Fluorine gas is rarely found occurring in free state.

Fluorine is so dangerous to be used in school, but its
properties are predicted by looking at those of the
other halogens. Astatine is a solid, you would
expect it to be the least reactive halogen, but its
properties have not been studied because it is highly Chemical properties of halogens
radioactive and decays quickly. Reaction of halogens with water.

Atomic radii of halogens Chlorine

i. Atomic radii of halogens increase down the i. Chlorine gas dissolves in water to form a
group. green-yellow solution called chlorine water
ii. This is because of successful addition of an Cl2(g) + H2O(l)  HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
extra energy level down the group.
ii. The acidic solution contains hydrochloric
acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl). It
therefore turns blue litmus paper red.
iii. The hypochlorous acid has bleaching
properties.
iv. It bleaches both red and blue litmus papers.
v. The solution first turns blue paper red then
bleaches it (turns white).
Ionic radii of halogens Dye + HOCl(aq)  HCl(aq) + {dye + O}
i. Ionic radius of halogens is larger than the Coloured colourless
corresponding atomic radius.
ii. There is general increase in ionic radii vi. When chlorine water is placed outdoor or near
moving down the group. the window, the bubbles of colourless gas are
seen.
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vii. The colourless gas is oxygen gas. Reaction of chlorine with iron
2HOCl(aq) → 2HCl(aq) + O2(g)

viii. This is because the light energy breaks the weak

acid into strong hydrochloric acid and oxygen
gas.
ix. The gas is confirmed by using a glowing splint
which the gas relights (rekindles).

Bromine

i. Bromine liquid dissolves in water, to form

hydrobromic acid (HBr) and hypobromous
acid.

Br2(l) + H2O(l)  HOBr(aq) + HBr(aq)

ii. The resulting mixture is orange-yellow and

has both acidic and bleaching properties.

Fluorine also gives the same products. Iodine is

almost insoluble in water.
3Cl2(g) + 2Fe(s)  2FeCl3(s)
Reaction of halogens with alkaline solutions
Reaction of bromine with iron
i. Chlorine reacts with cold dilute sodium
hydroxide solution to form a yellow
solution of sodium hypochlorite and sodium
chloride.

2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g)  NaOCl(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

ii. Sodium hypochlorite has bleaching

properties.
iii. Chlorine reacts with hot concentrated
sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium
3Br2(g) + 2Fe(s)  2FeBr3(s)
chlorate and sodium chloride solutions.
iv. Sodium chlorate has bleaching properties. Reaction of iodine with iron
6NaOH(aq) + 3Cl2(g)  NaClO3(aq) + 5NaCl(aq) + 3H2O(l)

Reaction of halogens with iron

The halogens react with hot iron to form iron (III)
halide except Iodine which forms iron (II) iodide
due to being weaker oxidizing agent.

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 Nitrogen and its compounds.
Introduction
Nitrogen is the first element in group v, period 2 of the
periodic table. Nitrogen has atomic number of 7 hence
its electron arrangement is 2,5. It occupies about 78% of
the air in the atmosphere. Nitrogen is one of the most
essential nutrients required for plant growth. It is found
in animals and plants proteins and also in compounds
known as nitrates.
I2(g) + Fe(s)  FeI2(s)
Laboratory isolation of nitrogen from air.
Iodine crystals sublime to give a purple vapour of
iodine, which reacts slowly with the heated iron Air is a mixture of gases which include nitrogen, oxygen,
wool. carbon dioxide, noble gases and water vapour. To
obtain nitrogen gas from air, the apparatus can be set
Displacement reaction of halogens
up as shown in the diagram below.
The halogen higher in the group displaces the one
below it in its salt or compound. Fluorine will
displace chlorine, bromine and iodine ions from
their halide solutions. Bromine displaces iodine
from its aqueous solution. The figure below shows
the displacement of bromine from its bromide
solution by chlorine.

When the water is run into an aspirator, air is pushed

through the apparatus. When air reaches the bottle
containing sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide
solution, carbon dioxide gas is removed in the air as
shown in the equation below.

2NaOH + CO2(g) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

or

2KOH + CO2(g) → K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

The part of the air remaining goes to the combustion

tube where oxygen gas is removed by hot copper
Cl2(g) + 2Br-(aq)  2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
turnings.

2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)

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When the carbon dioxide gas and oxygen gas are  It is lighter than air.
removed as shown in the equations, the remaining air is  Insoluble in water.
strictly nitrogen gas with some impurities of noble gases  It does not support combustion.
making it denser than the nitrogen gas collected by
laboratory preparation. It is then collected over water Chemical properties of nitrogen.
as shown above. If it is needed dry, it is passed through
i) Nitrogen is relatively unreactive i.e it is an inert
a U-tube containing concentrated sulphuric acid.
gas because of its strong triple bond. However,
Laboratory preparation of nitrogen gas. reacts with hydrogen gas to form ammonia gas
in Haber process.
In the laboratory, nitrogen gas is prepared by reacting N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
sodium nitrite (NaNO2) and ammonium chloride to yield ii) It does not with other elements at room
ammonium nitrite which is then heated to produce temperature. When a burning magnesium is
nitrogen gas. lowered into a gas jar containing nitrogen gas, it
reacts with nitrogen forming magnesium nitrite.
NaNO2(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NaCl + NH4NO2(aq)
Mg(s) + N2(g) → Mg3N2(s)
Heat
NH4NO2(aq) N2(g) + 2H2O(L) Magnesium nitrite reacts with water forming an alkaline
solution and ammonia gas.
Overall equation,
Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) → 3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)
NaNO2(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) Heat NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) + N2(g)
iii) However, when a burning sulphur is introduced
The diagram below shows the apparatus used during into a gas jar of nitrogen, no reaction is
the laboratory preparation of nitrogen gas. observed. This is so because the heat produced
from a burning is not sufficient to break the
triple covalent bonds (N≡N) of the nitrogen
molecules N2. It is therefore inert at room
temperatures.

Uses of nitrogen gas.

 It is used in the manufacture of ammonia gas.

 It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers e.g
urea and ammonium sulphate.
 It is used in the manufacture of nitric acid.
 It is used in shielding industrial components
If the gas is needed dry, it is passed through a which are readily affected by the atmospheric
concentrated sulphuric acid to remove water vapour. It oxygen.
is then collected in a syringe or by upward delivery.
Compounds of nitrogen
Physical properties of nitrogen gas.
 Oxides of nitrogen
 Colourless and odourless gas.  Ammonia
 It has a boiling point of -196C(77.4K).  Nitric acids

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  Nitrates a) Combustion. Nitrogen dioxide gas does not burn
nor support combustion, hence it puts off a glowing
Oxides of Nitrogen splint.
b) Reaction with water. Nitrogen dioxide gas reacts
The following are the common oxides of nitrogen:
with water forming nitric acid and nitrous acid.
 Nitrogen (I) oxide, N2O (dinitrogen
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) → HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
monoxide or nitrous oxide)
 Nitrogen (II) oxide, NO (nitric oxide) The gas is acidic, the solution formed turns wet blue
 Nitrogen (IV) oxide NO2(nitrogen dioxide) litmus paper red.

For the purposes of our study in this unit, we shall c) Effect on burning elements.
discuss in details nitrogen (IV) oxide only. i) Burning magnesium continues to burn in
nitrogen dioxide forming magnesium oxide and
Nitrogen (IV) oxide (NO2) nitrogen.
Laboratory preparation of nitrogen dioxide gas. 4Mg(s) + 2NO2(g) → 4MgO(s) + N2(g).
The nitrogen dioxide gas is prepared by reacting a very The heat from burning magnesium decomposes the gas
concentrated nitric acid with copper turnings. This into nitrogen and oxygen. This oxygen supports the
yields nitrogen dioxide, copper (II) nitrate and water. burning of magnesium.
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g) The same reaction takes place if vigorously burning
phosphorus and sulphur burn in nitrogen dioxide.
The gas is collected by the downward delivery as shown
in the figure below. 8P(s) + 10NO2(g) → 4P2O5(g) + 5N2(g)

2S(s) + 2NO2(g) → 2SO2(g) + N2(g)

a) Reaction with sodium hydroxide. Nitrogen

dioxide gas reacts with sodium hydroxide to
form two salts i.e sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and
sodium nitrite (NaNO2). These two salts are
formed because nitrogen dioxide forms two
acids; nitric acid and nitrous acid when
dissolved in water.

2NO2(g) + H2O(l) → HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)

Then, NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Physical properties of nitrogen dioxide gas.
NaOH(aq) + HNO2(aq) → NaNO2(aq) + H2O(l)
i) It is a red-brown gas.
ii) It has an irritating smell. The overall equation for the reaction above is shown
iii) It is denser than air. below.
iv) It is soluble in water.
2NaOH(aq) + 2NO(g) → NaNO3(aq) + NaNO2(aq) + H2O(l)
Chemical properties of nitrogen dioxide gas.
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Uses of nitrogen (IV) oxide gas. Physical properties of ammonia.

i) It is used in the manufacture of nitric acid. iii) It is a colourless gas.

ii) It is used in the manufacture of explosives, iv) It has a pungent chocking smell.
plastics and nylon materials. v) It is less denser than air.
vi) It is soluble in water.
Ammonia vii) It changes wet red litmus paper blue.
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. At Chemical properties of ammonia
room temperature and pressure, it is gaseous. Very
small traces of ammonia gas are found in the air. 01) Reaction with air. Ammonia burns in air forming
Bacteria in the soil break down nitrogen compounds in nitrogen and water.
manure to form ammonia. The smell of ammonia is
always noticeable around barns and stables where farm 4NH3(g) + 3O2(g) → 2N2(g) + 6H2O(l)
animals are housed. When a catalyst is used, ammonia burns to give
nitrogen (II) oxide gas and water. The Platinum or
Laboratory preparation of ammonia gas
rhodium catalyst can be used.
Ammonia is prepared in the laboratory by reacting a
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
mixture of any ammonium salt and an alkali. The
commonly method used is by heating a mixture of 02) Reaction with hydrogen chloride gas. Ammonia
ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide as shown in reacts with hydrogen chloride gas liberating
the figure below. nitrogen gas and a white fume of ammonium
chloride.

NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

03) Reaction with chlorine gas. Ammonia reacts with

chlorine gas liberating nitrogen gas, and a white
fume of ammonium chloride is formed.

8NH3(g) + Cl2(g) → 6NH4Cl(s) + N2(g)

04) Reaction with copper (II) oxide. Ammonia gas

reduces hot copper (II) oxide ,to brown copper
metal and nitrogen gas and water are formed.
The equation for the reaction that takes place in the
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) → Cu(s) + 3H2O(l) + N2(g)
round-bottomed flask is;
The diagram below shows this reduction process.
Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) → CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l)

The gas cannot be collected over water because it is

very soluble. The drying agent used is quick lime (CaO).
All other drying agents react with ammonia, so they are
not used.

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05) Reaction with metallic salts. Aqueous ammonia
precipitates insoluble metallic hydroxides when
mixed with metal salt solutions.

2NH4OH(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Pb(OH)2(s) + 2NH4NO3(aq)

2NH4OH(aq) + CuCl2(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq)

2NH4OH(aq) + ZnSO4(aq) → Zn(OH)2(s) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) Uses of ammonia gas

06) Reaction with acids. Ammonia solution neutralizes  It is used to soften water for laundry work in
acids forming ammonium salts’ form of ammonia solution.
 Ammonia is used in the manufacture of nitric
2NH4OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) acid and nylons.
 It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers e.g
Solubility of ammonia in water.
ammonium sulphate.
Ammonia gas is very soluble in water forming aqueous  Ammonia solution has stimulating effects;
ammonia (ammonia solution). hence it is used in odorous salts.
 Liquid ammonia is used as a refrigerant.
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH3(aq)  It is also used in the manufacture of sodium
carbonate (soda ash)’
A little aqueous ammonia reacts with water forming
ammonium ions and hydroxide ions. Manufacture of ammonia by Haber process.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) During the Haber process for the manufacture of
The figure below shows the high solubility of ammonia ammonia, the raw materials required are nitrogen and
gas in water. It is called the fountain experiment. hydrogen gases. Nitrogen is obtained from fractional
distillation of liquid air and hydrogen is obtained from
natural gas (methane) or crude oil.

Nitrogen and hydrogen in the ratio of 1:3 respectively

are mixed and passed over a finely divided iron catalyst
with some traces of aluminium oxide. The aluminium
oxide improves the performance of the catalyst by
making it more porous thus providing higher surface
area for the reaction. The temperatures are maintained

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between 4000C to 5000C and a pressure of about 250 KNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → KHSO4(aq) + HNO3(g)
atms to 500 atms. The ammonia is then yielded.
The nitric acid in vapour form is cooled with tap water
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) forming aqueous nitric acid.

Ammonia is then removed from the mixture of gases by Brown fume of nitrogen dioxide gas is produced due to
cooling the mixture with a freezing mixture. The the decomposition of nitric acid in by heat in the flask.
diagram below shows the Haber process.
4HNO3(g) → 2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g).

Due to this decomposition, nitric acid is kept in dark

bottle so that it cannot be decomposed by the light.

Large scale manufacture of nitric acid.

This is manufactured by the catalytic oxidation of

ammonia by a process called Ostwald process Ostwald
process. The flow chart below shows the Ostwald
Nitric acid (HNO3). process.

Nitric acid is a familiar mineral acid in the school

laboratory. It is an acid which has been known for many
years by scientists. Nitric acid is a powerful oxidizing
agent.

Laboratory preparation of nitric acid.

Nitric acid can be prepared by gently heating a mixture

of potassium nitrate and concentrated sulphuric acid.
During heating, the potassium nitrate crystals slowly The following are the major steps during the Ostwald
dissolve and effervescence occurs giving off nitric acid process for the manufacture of nitric acid.
fumes which can then be cooled in another flask in a
sink of tap water as shown below. Step1: Oxidation of ammonia.

Here, a mixture of ammonia gas and excess air is passed

over a heated platinum- Rhodium catalyst at a
temperature of about 8000C to 9000C forming nitrogen
monoxide gas. The reaction is exothermic.

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l).

Step 2: Converting nitrogen monoxide to nitrogen

dioxide gas.

The nitrogen monoxide is then cooled and reacted with

excess air forming nitrogen dioxide gas, a brown fume.

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 2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g) 2) Reaction with metallic oxides forming
corresponding metal nitrate and water only.
Step 3: Dissolution.
CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Nitrogen dioxide together with excess air are dissolved
in hot water forming nitric acid. 3) Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen
4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 4HNO3(aq) carbonates to form metal nitrate, carbon
dioxide and water.
Properties of fuming nitric acid
Na2CO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  2NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
1) Concentrated nitric acid reacts with copper
forming brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide, 4) Reaction with metals. Dilute nitric acid
copper nitrate and water. reacts with magnesium only, liberating
hydrogen gas. Because of its oxidizing
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(l)  Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l).
properties, nitric acid does not usually give
2) Concentrated nitric acid reacts with sulphur off hydrogen with other metals. The
forming nitrogen dioxide, water and sulphuric hydrogen produced is immediately oxidised
acid. to form water.

S(s) + 6HNO3(l)  H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)

3) Concentrated nitric acid reacts with charcoal Pollution effects of nitrogen compounds on the
forming brown nitrogen dioxide gas, carbon environment
dioxide and water.
a) Oxides of nitrogen. Nitrogen (II) oxide
C(s) + 4HNO3(l)  CO2(g) + 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to
form nitrogen (IV) oxide. Nitrogen (IV) oxide is
4) Nitric acid oxidises green iron (II) salts to also found in the atmosphere as a result of
brown iron (III) salts and itself reduced to nitric industrial processes or automobile exhaust
oxide. Nitric oxide is readily oxidised to gases. Nitrogen (IV) oxide is toxic and cause
nitrogen dioxide. Water is formed as a by- respiratory diseases. Nitrogen (IV) oxide also
product. reacts with water vapour in the air and or rain
6FeSO4(aq) + 3H2SO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)  3Fe2(SO4)3(aq)+ 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l) water to form dilute nitric acid. Rain
containing this acid or other acids is called
2NO(g) + O2(g)  2NO2(g)
“acid rain”.
Properties of dilute nitric acid. i). Acid rain causes chemical imbalance of
aquatic bodies which may adversely affect
1) Reaction with alkaline solutions such as aquatic animals and plants. The plants and
sodium hydroxide. This gives nitrates and animals may die.
water only. ii). The acid rain lowers the pH of soil and
water making it difficult for some
NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq)  NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) organisms to survive.
iii). Acid rain also attacks most metallic
objects and building surfaces corroding
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 iron sheet roofs, car bodies and painted i) A hole of about 30cm in diameter is dug into the
surfaces. soil.
b) Nitrate fertilizers. Prolonged and excessive use ii) Three concentric pipes are sunk into the bed of
of large quantities of nitrate fertilisers pollute sulphur.
the environment. This is because excess nitrates iii) In the outermost tube, a supper heated water at a
in the soil are washed down into rivers, lakes temperature of 1700C and a pressure of 10 atms to
and other water bodies. This causes water living keep it in liquid state is sent down to the bed of
things to die. sulphur. This melts the sulphur and therefore,
sulphur flows into the reservoir at the base of the
i). Due to large masses of dead plants and
pump.
animals, the penetration of light in water
iv) The hot compressed air at a pressure of 15 atms is
decreases thereby affecting photosynthesis
sent down through the innermost pipe. This pushes
in aquatic plants.
the molten sulphur and water up through the
ii). If nitrates are consumed in drinking water,
middle tube and it is collected in containers.
they are converted by bacteria in the
v) Water is then evaporated off and about 99% pure
intestines to more toxic nitrites. After
sulphur is obtained. The figure below shows the
absorption into the blood stream, the nitrites
Frasch process for the extraction of sulphur.
combine with haemoglobin forming
metahaemoglobin. As a result, the oxygen The diagram below shows the Frasch process for the
carrying capacity of blood is reduced. extraction of sulphur.
Babies suffering from excess intake of
nitrates have been known to go “blue” due
to lack of oxygen in their blood, a condition
referred to as ‘blue babies’.

Sulphur and its compounds

Introduction.

Sulphur is in group vi, period 3 of the period table. Its

atomic number is 16 and the electron arrangement is
2,8,6. Sulphur is a yellow solid. It is a non-metal.

Occurrence of sulphur.

Sulphur occurs naturally in volcanic regions or regions

where volcanoes were formally active. It can occur as a
free element or combined in compounds such as
hydrogen sulphides in petroleum, metal sulphides like
Allotropes of sulphur.
zinc blende (ZnS) and metal sulphates like gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O). The diagram below shows the allotropes of carbon.

Extraction of sulphur by Frasch process.

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  Sulphur is a yellow solid
 It is insoluble in water and soluble in organic
solvents like methylbenzene.
 It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.

Chemical properties of sulphur.

01) Combustion. Sulphur burns in air forming an acidic

oxide. It burns with a blue flame.
Rhombic sulphur.
S(s) + O2(g)→ SO2(g)
It is a yellow crystalline solid with an octahedral shape.
02) Reaction with metals. Sulphur readily combines
This allotrope of sulphur is stable below a temperature
with many metals to form sulphides and
of 960C. Above this temperature, it slowly turns into
disulphides. For example,
monoclinic sulphur. A temperature of 960C is called a
transition temperature. Transition temperature is the 2Cu(s) + S(s)→ Cu2S(s) (Copper(I)sulphide)
temperature at which the change from one form of (Black)
sulphur to another form takes place. Rhombic sulphur is Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s) (Iron ii sulphide)
also called alpha sulphur. (Black)
Fe(s) + 2S(s)→ FeS2(s) (Iron ii disulphide).
Monoclinic sulphur.
03) Reaction with non-metals. Sulphur reacts with most
It is also a yellow crystalline solid formed by allowing non-metals at high temperatures e.g,
molten sulphur to solidify. It is stable above a
temperature of 960C. Below this temperature, it S(s) + H2(g)→H2S(g) (Hydrogen sulphide)
gradually changes into rhombic sulphur. It is also called C(s) + 2S(s)→ CS2(s) (Carbon disulphide)
Beta sulphur.
S(s) + 3F2(g)→ SF6(g) (Sulphur hexafluoride).
The transition of the allotropes of sulphur from one
form to another is shown below. 04) Action of acids on sulphur. Sulphur does not react
with dilute acids but reacts with some hot
concentrated acids. For example,

Hot concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes sulphur to

sulphur dioxide gas.
The other allotrope of sulphur is amorphous
2H2SO4(aq) + S(s)→ 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
sulphur. It is non-crystalline and colloidal in
appearance. It is finely divided and therefore Hot concentrated nitric acid oxidizes sulphur to
difficult to filter. It is insoluble in carbon sulphuric acid in the presence of bromine catalyst. Nitric
disulphide. In water, it forms a colloidal solution acid itself is reduced to nitrogen dioxide gas.
called ‘milk of sulphur’.
S(s) + 6HNO3(aq) Br(l) H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Physical properties of sulphur.

 Sulphur is a non-metal.

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 Action of heat on sulphur in the absence of air.

When a yellow sulphur is heated, it melts at 1130C to a

clear amber liquid which flows easily like water. Sulphur
is made up of small rings of atoms (S8). The liquid flows
with ease because the 8 rings have been separated. On
further heating, at about 1600C, sulphur becomes
brown and viscous. It flows slowly because the small
rings of 8 atoms break and longer chains are formed.
These chains twist together and do not flow readily over
one another. On further heating, the liquid becomes
very dark reddish brown in colour and mobile again i.e.
becomes less viscous. The chains break and become
shorter which can flow more readily. Sulphur boils at Figure 4.4; preparation of hydrogen sulphide gas.
4440C and forms a brown vapour. On cold surfaces, the
vapour condenses directly into a yellow sublimate. Hydrogen sulphide gas is poisonous hence should be
prepared in a fume-cupboard. The gas is collected by
Uses of sulphur. downward delivery as shown above because it is denser
01) Sulphur is used in the manufacture of sulphuric than air. It can also be collected over warm water since
acid. it is fairly soluble in cold water. If the gas is required dry,
02) It is used in the manufacture of fungicides, it is passed through anhydrous calcium chloride.
insecticides and other sulphur chemicals. Physical properties of hydrogen sulphide
03) It is used in making bleaching agents like
calcium hydrogen carbonate used for bleaching  It is a colourless gas.
wood pulp used in paper industry.  It has a repulsive rotten egg smell.
04) It is added to rubber to make it hard in a  It is denser than air.
process called vulcanization.  It is fairly soluble in cold water.
05) It is used in making dyes, fire woods and match  It is poisonous.
heads.
06) It is used in making ointments for treating some Chemical properties of hydrogen sulphide.
skin diseases such as ring worm.
01) Burning in air forming water and sulphur if in
Hydrogen sulphide gas (H2S) limited air. If in excess air, it gives water and sulphur
dioxide gas.
Laboratory preparation

Hydrogen sulphide is prepared by the action of dilute 2H2S(g) + O2(g)→ 2S(s) + 2H2O(l).
(Limited)
hydrochloric acid on Iron (II) sulphide.
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g)→ 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l).
(Excess)
FeS(s) + 2HCl(aq)→ FeCl2(aq) + H2S9g)
02) Reducing action of hydrogen sulphide.

It reduces nitric acid into nitrogen dioxide gas as

shown below

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 H2S(g) + 2HNO3(aq) → S(s) + NO2(g) + 2H2O(l). Hydrogen sulphide is tested by a strip of filter paper
soaked in lead (II) ethanoate solution. The paper
It also reduces manganate (VII) ions to manganese (II)
turns black. The colour change is caused by
ions. The solution is decolourized.
precipitation of black lead (II) sulphide.
2MnO4-(aq) + 5H2S(g)+ 6H+(aq)→ 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5S(l).
Pb(C2H3O2)2(aq) + H2S(g)  PbS(s) + 2C2H4O2(aq).
For solution containing dichromate (VI) ions (orange), it
Sulphur dioxide gas (SO2)
changes to green.

Cr2O7-(aq) + 3H2S(g) + 8H+(aq)→ 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) 3S(s).

Laboratory preparation.

It also reduces bromine water to bromide ion and itself Sulphur dioxide gas is prepared in the laboratory by one
gets oxidized to sulphur. of the following ways.

Br2(aq) + H2S(g) → 2HBr(aq) + S(s) 1) Action of concentrated sulphuric acid on copper

turnings. Concentrated sulphuric acid is used
It reduces Chlorine water to chloride ion and itself gets and not dilute sulphuric acid because dilute
oxidized to sulphur. sulphuric acid does not react with copper, since
copper is lower in the reactivity series than
Cl2(aq) + H2S(g) → 2HCl(aq) + S(s)
hydrogen. The mixture is heated in the flask as
It reduces yellow iron (III) to green iron (II) ions. shown in the set-up below.

2FeCl3(aq) + H2S(g) → 2FeCl2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) + S(s)

It reduces hydrogen peroxide to water as shown below

H2O2(aq) + H2S(g) → 2H2O(l) + S(s)

03) Action on metallic salts. It precipitates metal

sulphides from the salts of copper and lead but not
all metals.

PbSO4(aq) + H2S(g)→PbS(s) + H2SO4(aq).

Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2S(g)→CuS(s) + 2HNO3(aq).

The following is the equation for the reaction taking
04) Action on hydroxides. Here, hydrogen sulphide gas place in the flask above.
acts as a weak dibasic acid.
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) Heat CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)
H2S(aq)→ 2H+(aq) + S2-(aq)
Sulphur dioxide gas is very soluble in water, so heating
2NaOH(aq) + H2S(g)→ Na2S(aq) + 2H2O(l) is required to reduce its solubility.
little

NaOH(aq) + H2S(g)→NaHS(aq) + H2O(l) 2) Action of dilute sulphuric acid on sodium sulphite.

Excess
Dilute sulphuric acid and sodium sulphite can be
Test for hydrogen sulphide gas. used in preparing sulphur dioxide gas.

Na2SO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)→ Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)

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3) Action of dilute hydrochloric acid on sodium 04) Action on alkalis. Alkalis absorbs sulphur (IV) oxide
sulphite. and the salt form depends on the amount of the gas
used. A small amount of sulphur (IV) oxide gas
forms a sulphite and water. Excess sulphur (IV)
oxide forms only hydrogen sulphite. For example,

2NaOH(aq) + SO2(g)→ Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l).

NaOH(aq) + SO2(g)→ NaHSO3(aq)

(Excess)
5) Bleaching action of sulphur (IV) oxide gas. The
coloured flowers placed in a gas jar of
sulphur (IV) oxide are bleached (they are
turned colourless). The wet blue and red
litmus papers are also bleached but there
The equation for the reaction is, would be no effect on the dry blue and red
litmus papers. For bleaching to take place,
Na2SO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g).
there must be presence of water. Sulphur
Physical properties of sulphur (iv) oxide. (IV) oxide first reacts with water to form
sulphurous acid. The sulphurous acid
 It is a colourless gas. formed then reduces the dye by removing an
 It has an irritating choking smell. oxygen atom hence the dye is bleached.
Sulphurous acid bleaches by reduction.
 It is readily soluble in water forming sulphurous
acid. Dye + H2SO3(aq)  {Dye - O} + H2SO4(aq)
 It is denser than air; about twice denser.
Tests for sulphur (IV) oxide gas.
Chemical properties of sulphur (IV) oxide.
 Sulphur (IV) oxide is a colourless gas which
01) Action on air. When a mixture of sulphur (IV) oxide bleaches moist litmus papers.
and air is passed over heated vanadium (V) oxide  Sulphur (IV) oxide decolourises an acidified
that acts as a catalyst, sulphur (VI) oxide gas is solution of potassium manganate(VII).
produced as shown in the equation below.  Sulphur (IV) oxide changes the colour of
2SO2(g) + O2(g)→ 2SO3(g) acidified solution of potassium dichromate
(VI) from orange to green.
02) Action on water. Sulphur (IV) oxide is a soluble gas  Sulphur (IV) oxide changes the colour of a
that dissolves in water forming a weak sulphurous solution of iron (III) chloride from brown to
acid. green. It reduces iron (III) chloride (yellow)
to iron (II) chloride (green).
SO2(g) + H2O(l)→ H2SO3(aq)

03) Reaction as a reducing agent. Sulphur (iv) oxide Uses of sulphur (IV) oxide
reduces dichromate (vi) ions to chromium(III) ions
a) It is used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
b) It is used as a bleaching agent in the paper
Cr2O72-(aq) + 3SO2(g) + 2H+(aq)→ 2Cr3+(aq) + 3SO42-(aq) + H2O(l) industry.
Orange green

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 c) It is used as a preservative of some liquids such vigorous. It occurs with hissing sound forming
as orange juice where it acts with oxygen and sulphuric acid.
prevent oxidation of the liquids.
d) It is used for fumigation of houses since it is SO3(g) + H2O(l)→H2SO4(aq).
poisonous and kills microorganisms. 02) Reaction with basic oxides forming sulphates
eg.
Sulphur (VI) oxide.
CaO(s) + SO3(g)→ CaSO4(s)
Laboratory preparation
Uses of sulphur (VI) oxide.
Sulphur (VI) oxide gas is prepared by passing sulphur
(IV) oxide gas and oxygen gas over heated vanadium (V) It is used in the industrial manufacture of sulphuric acid.
oxide or platinum catalyst. The gas is then solidified in a
Manufacture of sulphuric acid by contact process.
freezing mixture as shown in the diagram below.
The following steps are followed when manufacturing
sulphuric acid by contact process.

1) Production of sulphur (IV) oxide gas. The

process involves burning sulphur in air to
produce sulphur dioxide gas.

S(s) + O2(g)→ SO2(g)

2) Purification and drying of sulphur (IV) oxide

Figure 4.3: Laboratory preparation of sulphur trioxide gas. gas. The gas produced above may be impure i.e
it contains some impurities that may make the
2SO2(g) + O2(g)→ 2SO3(g) catalyst ineffective. Such impurities like arsenic
compounds are first removed and the pure gas
The anhydrous calcium chloride is used to protect the is dried.
solidified gas from the atmospheric moisture. 3) Conversion of sulphur (IV) to sulphur (VI)
Physical properties of sulphur (VI) oxide gas. oxide. The pure sulphur dioxide is mixed with
air and passed along heated pipes containing
 It is a colourless gas. pellets of vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) at a
 It exists as a white solid at low temperature. temperature of about 4500C to 5000C under a
 It produces white fumes when in the presence pressure of 200 atms. The sulphur trioxide is
of water vapour. formed.
 It is highly hygroscopic.
2SO2(g) + O2(g)→ 2SO3(g)
 It is readily soluble in water forming sulphuric
acid. Any sulphur (IV) oxide, (SO2), not converted to
sulphur (VI) oxide, SO3, might be released to the
Chemical properties of sulphur (VI) oxide gas
atmosphere. This causes pollution of the
01) Reaction with water. This reaction is very atmosphere. Hence all measures must be taken to
dangerous if not handled with care because it is make sure that no sulphur (IV) oxide (SO2) or very
little if any gas goes into the atmosphere. This is
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done by reacting the unreacted sulphur (IV) oxide,  It is colourless.
SO2, being with calcium hydroxide in the chimneys  It viscous
forming salt and water. This process is called  It is dense oily liquid of about 1.84g/cm3.
scrubbing of the gas.  It is soluble in water
 It is hygroscopic.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + SO2(g)  CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
 It has a high boiling point of 3380C.
4) Dissolution of sulphur (VI) in concentrated  It is a non-volatile acid.
sulphuric acid. The sulphur trioxide gas formed
Chemical properties of concentrated sulphuric acid.
is then dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid
to form a fuming liquid called oleum. 01) High affinity for water. When concentrated
acid is mixed with water, it produces a lot of
SO3(g) + H2SO4(aq)→ H2S2O7(l)
heat. That is why when you touch the sides
5) Dilution of oleum with a known amount of of the test tubes, it feels hot. When diluting
water. The oleum is diluted with a known concentrated sulphuric acid never add water
amount of water to give concentrated sulphuric to the acid. The acid should be added to a
acid. large volume of water carefully and slowly
down the sides of the container.
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)→ 2H2SO4(aq)
02) Acting as a dehydrating agent. It removes water
The diagram below shows the contact process. molecules from other substances eg,

The flow chart below shows the contact process. CuSO4.5H2O(s)conc.H2SO4CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

C12H22O11(s)conc.H2SO4 12C(s) + 11H2O(l)

sucrose
03) Oxidizing action. Hot concentrated sulphuric
acid oxidizes some metals and non-metals eg,

Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l)→ CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)

C(s) + H2SO4(l)→ CO2(g) + 2SO2(g) +2H2O(l)

S(s) + 2H2SO4(l)→ 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

04) Displacement reactions. Concentrated

sulphuric acid has a higher boiling point
than concentrated solutions of nitric acid and
Optimum conditions for contact process. hydrochloric acid. It is therefore a non-
volatile acid. Hydrochloric and nitric acid
 Catalyst, vanadium (V) oxide. are more volatile than sulphuric acid. They
 Temperature of 450 0C -500 0C are displaced from the reaction mixture as
 Pressure of about 2-3 atmospheres. vapour more easily. Concentrated sulphuric
acid therefore displaces more volatile acids
The physical properties of concentrated sulphuric acid.
such as nitric and hydrochloric acids from

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 their salts. The vapour turns blue litmus to 3) Reaction of dilute sulphuric acid with
red. Usually an acid salt is formed. oxides and hydroxides. Basic oxides and
hydroxides react with dilute sulphuric acid
KCl(s) + H2SO4(aq)→ KHSO4(s) + HCl(g)
to form neutral solutions of salt and water.
NaNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → NaHSO4(s) + HNO3(g) The reactions are known as neutralization
reactions.
Properties of dilute sulphuric acid.
CuO(s) + H2SO4 (aq)  CuSO4 (aq) + H2O(l)
Physical properties of dilute sulphuric acid 2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

 It has a sour taste. Uses of sulphuric acid

 It turns blue litmus red.
 It is a colourless solution. 1) Manufacture fertilisers like ammonium
sulphate.
Chemical properties of dilute sulphuric acid 2) In production of synthetic fibres.
1) Reaction of dilute sulphuric acid with 3) In petroleum refining.
metals. Dilute sulphuric acid will react with 4) In car batteries (lead acid accumulators).
most metals to produce hydrogen gas and a 5) In cleaning of metals.
salt. As you go down the reactivity series the 6) To make soaps and detergents.
reaction is less vigorous. Metals like copper, 7) To make dyes, drugs, paints, explosives and
silver and gold do not react with dilute many other compounds.
sulphuric acid.
Test for sulphites and sulphates.
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
01) Sulphites.
2) Reaction of dilute sulphuric acid with i) Effects of heat on sulphites. When sulphites are
carbonates and hydrogen carbonates. heated they decompose and sulphur dioxide is
Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with metal evolved. For example,
carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form
CuSO3(s) Heat CuO(s) + SO2(g)
a salt, carbon (IV) oxide and water.
White black
K2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  K2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l).

2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l). ii) Action on acids. Sulphites evolve sulphur
When dilute sulphuric acid reacts with calcium dioxide gas when reacted with some acids
egHCl
carbonate, the reaction starts and soon stops. This is
evident by the evolution of carbon (IV) oxide for NaSO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)→ 2NaCl(aq) + SO2(g) +H2O(l)
some time. The calcium sulphate produced is a
slightly soluble salt which forms an impervious 02) Sulphates
coating on the surface of the unreacted calcium i) Effects of heat on sulphates. Some sulphates
carbonate. This prevents any further reaction from decompose when heated liberating sulphur
taking place. dioxide and sulphur trioxide gases.

2FeSO4(s)→ Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)

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 ii) Action of barium nitrate or barium chloride. A factories, due to sulphur (IV)oxide released to the
white precipitate is formed when barium nitrate atmosphere.
or barium chloride is added to an acidified
sulphate solution. On coating in vehicles
Acid rain damages coating in vehicles so that their
SO42-(aq) + Ba2+(aq)→ BaSO4(s) surfaces appear as irregularly shaped and
White ppt permanently etched. It occurs after evaporation of
Sulphites also form a white precipitate with solution
moisture droplet. Usually the damage is permanent;
containing barium ions.
SO32-(aq) + Ba2+(aq)→ BaSO3(s) once it has occurred, the only solution is to repaint
White ppt the vehicle.

The pollution of the environment by sulphur Aluminium compounds in the soil

compounds.
The action of acid rain on insoluble aluminium
The pollution of the environment is caused by the compounds in the soil makes them soluble.
sulphur (IV) oxide and hydrogen sulphide only. When Insoluble aluminium compounds are fairly harmless
fuel containing sulphur is burned, sulphur dioxide is to plants and animals, but with increased acidity, the
emitted into the air. Sulphur dioxide is also released compounds become soluble and seep into the soil.
into the air during the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Plants then absorb the aluminium ions through the
Once in the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide is oxidized to roots, become poisoned and die. Plant roots are also
sulphur trioxide. weakened and trees often fall. Acid rain can pass
through the soil and end up in rivers and lakes. Fish
2SO2(g) + O2(g)→ 2SO3(g)
living in such kind of water die or become poorly
Sulphur trioxide gas reacts with water in the developed. Hydrogen sulphide is a poisonous gas , in
atmosphere forming sulphuric acid making acid rain. high concentrations, it kills many living organisms.
The acid rain causes the following;
Control measures
On human health
a) Recycling of unreacted sulphur (IV) oxide
The pollutants that cause acid rain e.g. sulphur (IV) back to the catalyst chambers.
oxide and sulphur (VI) oxide are harmful to human b) Solid calcium hydroxide or calcium
health. These gases can be transported long distance carbonate can be used to neutralize sulphur
by wind. When inhaled into people’s lungs, the (IV) oxide before it leaves the factory
effect is increased illness and can even result in chimney. In the process calcium sulphate is
death from lung disorders such as asthma and formed which can be used in the building
bronchitis. industry to make plaster.
c) Burn less fossil fuels that contain sulphur by
On useful materials
using energy more efficiently. Pollutants
Acid rain contributes to the corrosion of metals and like sulphur should be removed from fuels
deterioration of paint and stone. These effects before they are burned. We should use
seriously reduce the value of building, bridges, alternative forms energy.
statues, cultural objects and cars. This can be
observed in towns that are near sulphuric acid
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Chlorine and its compounds. this reaction, hydrogen chloride gas is
produced and then oxidised by manganese
Laboratory preparation of Chlorine gas.
(IV) oxide to chlorine.
Chlorine gas is prepared in the laboratory by heating a
H2SO4 (l) + NaCl (aq)  HCl (g) + NaHSO4(aq)
mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and
manganese (IV) oxide. The apparatus shown below can 4HCl (g) + MnO2(s)  MnCl2 (aq) + 2 H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
be used.
Physical properties of Chlorine gas.

- It is a yellow-green gas.
- It has an unpleasant pungent and irritating
smell.
- It is fairly soluble in water.
- It is denser than air.
- It can be liquefied easily under pressure.

Chemical properties of Chlorine gas.

01) Reaction with hydrogen. Chlorine reacts with

hydrogen to form hydrogen chloride gas.

Figure 5.1: Laboratory preparation of Chlorine gas.

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

02) Reaction with metals. Chlorine reacts with burning

The equation for the reaction that occurs in the flask is, magnesium and hot Iron to magnesium chloride and
Iron (III) chloride respectively.
4HCl(aq) + MnO4(s) Heat MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) → MgCl2(s)
Chlorine gas can also be prepared by reacting
concentrated hydrochloric acid and potassium per 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(s)
manganate (KmnO4). Here, heating is not required and
the same apparatus above can be used. 03) Reaction with non-metals. Chlorine reacts with
non-metals e.g. burning phosphorous to form a mixture
HCl(aq) + KMnO4(s) → 2KCl(aq) + 2MnCl(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5Cl2(g) of two phosphorus chloride.

Other ways of preparing chlorine gas. 4P(s) + 6Cl2(g) → 4PCl3(s)

 Using bleaching powder with dilute acids. 4P(s) + 10Cl2(g) → 4PCl5(s)

Calcium hypochlorite can be used with acids
04) Oxidation property of Chlorine. Chlorine is an
such as nitric and hydrochloric acids.
oxidizing agent. For example, it oxidizes sulphite ions to
CaOCl2 (s) + 2HCl (aq)  Cl2 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) sulphate ions. The reaction occurs in aqueous medium
as shown below.
CaOCl2 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq)  Cl2 (g) + Ca (NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Na2SO3(s) + Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
 Heating sodium chloride with concentrated
sulphuric acid and manganese (IV) oxide. In

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05) Reaction with water. Chlorine reacts with water Test for chloride ions in Solid forms
forming two acids; hydrochloric acid and hypochlorus
acid. React concentrated sulphuric acid with a solid
substance suspected to contain chloride ions. If the
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq) chloride ion is present in the solid, hydrogen
chloride will be formed. The gas forms white fumes
Hypochlorus acid is unstable acid and the light energy
of ammonium chloride when ammonia solution on
from the sun (whichever intensity) decomposes it to
the glass rod is brought near the mouth of the test
form hydrochloric acid and oxygen gas. The mixture of
tube containing gas. Hydrogen chloride gas also
chlorine and water (HOCl) is called chlorine water and it
forms a white precipitate with acidified silver
is yellow-green.
nitrate solution on the glass rod. This is the test for
2HOCl(aq) → 2HCl(aq) + O2(g) chloride ions in solid substances.

06) Reaction with alkalis. Chlorine reacts with dilute H+(aq) + Cl-(s) → HCl(g)
alkalis e.g. Sodium hydroxide to form sodium
hypochlorus and sodium chloride. This mixture is HCl(g) + NH4OH(aq) → NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
formed due to the fact that chlorine forms two acids in
Test for chloride ions in aqueous solutions
water. The mixture is yellow in colour.
To about 5cm3 of the solution suspected to contain
2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) → NaOCl(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
chloride ions, add an equal volume of dilute nitric
If the alkali is hot concentrated, chlorine reacts with it acid and then a few drops of silver nitrate solution.
forming chlorate and chloride salts. Silver nitrate should be acidified with dilute nitric
acid. A precipitate of silver chloride can be
6NaOH(aq) + 3Cl2(g) → NaClO3(aq) + 5NaCl(aq) + 3H2O(l) confused with that of silver carbonate. When the
07) Displacement reaction of chlorine. Chlorine in
acid is present, silver carbonate reacts with it and
halogen family being more reactive, displaces iodide or therefore no precipitate will be observed. A white
bromide ions from their salt solutions. precipitate is formed when acidified aqueous silver
nitrate is added to any soluble chloride.
2KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(l)
The ionic equation below shows how white
2KI(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(g) precipitate of silver chloride is formed.
08) Bleaching action of chlorine. Coloured materials like Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)  AgCl(s)
flowers and litmus papers contain dyes and can be
bleached by chlorine. The hypochlorus acid formed by When lead (II) nitrate solution is added to a chloride
the reaction between chlorine and water gives its in aqueous solution, a white precipitate which is
oxygen to the dye molecules. In the process, the soluble on heating is formed.
coloured material is bleached.
Pb2+(aq) + Cl-(aq)  PbCl2(s)
H2O(l) + Cl2(g) → HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
Therefore, all chlorides in solution form a white
HOCl(aq) + dye → HCl(aq) + (dye + [O] ) precipitate with acidified silver nitrate solution. But
Colourless lead (II) chloride is soluble in hot water.

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 Uses of chlorine gas.

01) Sterilization of drinking water or swimming

pool.
02) In the manufacture of antiseptics, insecticides,
herbicides bleaching agents e.t.c
03) It is used in the fire extinguishers such as
pyrene.
04) Chlorine is used as a bleaching agent.
05) In the manufacture of herbicides, such as
sodium and potassium chlorates.
06) Manufacture of plastics like
polychloroethene (polyvinyl chloride, PVC).
07) In the manufacture of anaesthetic such as
trichloromethane(CHCl3). Physical properties of hydrogen chloride gas.
08) In the manufacture of dry cleaning solvents
such as carbon (IV) chloride. - It is a colourless gas.
09) Chlorine compounds as nutrients help in - It is very soluble in water.
digestion of food in our bodies and - It is denser than air.
maintenance of water balance in body cells.
Chemical properties of hydrogen chloride gas.
They are found in, table salt and foods such
as meat, milk and eggs. 01). Combustion. Hydrogen chloride gas does not burn
neither does it support burning.
Hydrogen chloride gas (HCl)
02). Effects on litmus paper. It turns moist blue litmus
Hydrogen chloride gas is a compound of hydrogen and
paper red. Hence it is acidic gas.
chlorine. When dissolved in water, it forms hydrochloric
acid. 03). Reaction with ammonia solution or ammonia gas
to form a white fume.
Laboratory preparation of hydrogen chloride gas.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)
Hydrogen chloride gas is prepared in the laboratory by
heating a mixture of a solid chloride salt e.g sodium NH3(aq) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(aq)
chloride and concentrated sulphuric acid.
04). Reaction with silver nitrate solution. It reacts with
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) → NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g) acidified silver nitrate forming a white precipitate of
silver chloride.
The set-up below is used.
AgNO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)

05). Effect of water on the properties of hydrogen

chloride. When dissolved in water, hydrogen
chloride gas forms hydrochloric acid which ionises
to form hydrogen ions (H+) and chloride ions Cl-.

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These hydrogen ions give the aqueous solution its 5) In the manufacture of photographic
acidic properties. materials.
6) In school and research laboratories.
Properties of hydrochloric acid.
Uses of hydrochloric acid.
1) Has sour taste and turns blue litmus paper
red. 01) It is used in the extraction of some metals.
2) Reacts with some metals to give salt and 02) It is used in cleaning metal surfaces (pickling)
hydrogen gas. 03) It is used in making dyes and drugs.
04) It is used in making photographic materials like
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) silver chloride.
05) It is used in treating water for drinking
3) Reacts with carbonates and hydrogen
06) It is also used for the treatment of sewage.
carbonates to give salt, water and carbon
(IV) oxide. Pollution of the environment by chlorine and its
compounds.
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
01) The chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFCs), used as
4) Reacts with strong oxidising agents like
aerosol spray has become dangerous as it
manganese (IV) oxide to give off chlorine
destroys the ozone layer when released into the
gas. Chlorine gas is the one that bleaches
atmosphere. The ozone layer protects us from the
moist litmus papers.
harmful effects of the ultra-violet light.
4HCl(aq) + MnO4(s) Heat MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g) 02) Chlorine based insecticides like
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), used for
5) Neutralises alkalis (soluble bases) to form a the control of malaria as it kills mosquitoes has
salt and water only. become harmful to the humans and other
animals.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) 03) Chlorine itself when released into the
atmosphere, combines with the rain water giving
Like in the preparation of aqueous ammonia, a filter
acidic rain containing hydrochloric acid. This acid
funnel is used when dissolving hydrogen chloride
is very corrosive and it kills aquatic animals.
gas in water. This is to prevent “sucking back” of
water from the beaker to the preparation flask. This
preparation flask is hot and contains hot
concentrated sulphuric acid. Water can react
explosively with the hot acid.

Uses of hydrogen chloride gas

1) The major use of this gas is in the
manufacture of hydrochloric acid.
2) To standardize pH of beers and wines.
3) In the pickling of metals.
4) In the manufacture of dyes, drugs.

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 Unit 4: Transition elements

Introduction lanthanides while those with 89 to 103 are called

Between group 2 and group 3 of the periodic table the actinides. Transition elements are shown below.
are found sub group of elements arranged without
Element Symbol Atomic number
assigned universal group numbers. The first row of Scandium Sc 21
these elements is found in period 4 and has 10 Titanium Ti 22
elements. The elements are scandium(Sc), Vanadium V 23
titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), Chromium Cr 24
Manganese Mn 25
manganese(Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel
Iron Fe 26
(Ni), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn). Each of these ten Cobalt Co 27
elements heads a sub group which consists of other Nickel Ni 28
elements below it. These elements are usually Copper Cu 29
referred to as the transition elements because Zinc Zn 30
chemists once believed that some elements behaved Properties of transition elements
in a way intermediate between the extremes 01) They are hard and have high densities.
represented by the elements in the left and right 02) They have high melting and boiling points.
sides of the periodic table. The elements with
atomic numbers from 57 to 71 are called the
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03) They form compounds which are often Abundance of transition elements in the earth
paramagnetic. crust
04) They show variable oxidation states. All elements in the first transition row are relatively
05) They form coloured ions and compounds. scarce except iron which is very abundant, and
06) They form compounds with catalytic titanium which is moderately abundant.
characteristics.
07) They form stable complexes. Trend in physical properties
Table 4.2 Trend in physical properties of
transition elements

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Atomic 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
number
Ionization 637 663 657 659 723 766 765 743 751 912
energy
kj/mol
Melting P 1540 1670 1900 1890 1250 1540 1490 1450 1083 419
(0C)
Boiling P 2730 3260 3450 2642 2100 3000 2900 2730 2600 909
(0C)
Density 3.0 4.5 5.8 7.19 7.43 7.86 8.9 8.9 8.96 7.14
g/cm3 at
200C
Atomic 0.161 0.145 0.131 0.129 0.137 0.124 0.125 0.125 0.128 0.133
radius
(nm)
Ionic M2+ 0.090 0.088 0.084 0.081 0.076 0.074 0.073 0.070 0.074
radius
(nm) M3+ 0.081 0.076 0.074 0.069 0.065 0.065 0.064 0.064
Common 3 2,3,4 2,3,4,5 2,3,6 2,3,4,6,7 2,3 2,3 2 1,2 2
oxidation
state
The second has s and p orbitals. The subshells have
different energies and different maximum number of
Subshells and the electron arrangements electrons they can accommodate.

We know that electrons are arranged in the regions When arranging electrons in an atom, electrons are put
called energy levels or energy quantum shells. These into these subshells, beginning with the one having
shells can be 1st, 2nd, 3rd, up to 7th depending on the lower energy up to the one having higher energy.
period to which a given element belongs. Each energy
level (shell) apart from 1st energy level has been divided The table below shows the sub-shells, their maximum
into subshells called subatomic orbitals. These subshells number of electrons accommodated and their levels in
are s, p, d and f. The first energy level has only s orbital. terms of energy.

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 Electrons arrangement

The 1s orbital at the bottom of the diagram is the Hydrogen = 1S1

orbital with electrons of lowest energy. The energy
increases as we move up to the 2s and then 2p, 3s, and Helium (He) = 1S2
3p orbitals. The 3d orbital is higher in energy than the
4s orbital. Such overlaps continue to occur frequently as Lithium (Li) = 1S22S1
we move up the chart.
Beryllium (Be) = 1S22S2
The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom
is called the electron configuration of the atom. We Boron (B) = 1S22S22p1
describe an electron configuration with a symbol that
contains three pieces of information. Carbon (C) = 1S22S22p2

1. The number of the energy quantum shell.

Nitrogen (N) = 1s22s22p3
2. The letter that designates the subshell.
3. A superscript number that designates the
Oxygen (O) = 1s22s22p4
number of electrons in that particular subshell.

For example, the notation 2p4 (read "two–p–four") Fluorine (F) = 1s22s22p5
indicates four electrons in a p subshell in second energy
Neon (Ne) = 1s22s22p6
level (Second quantum shell). The notation 3S2 (reads
"three–S–two") indicates 2 electrons in the S subshell in The electron arrangement above is called expanded
the third energy level (third quantum shell). electron arrangement.
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For sodium and other elements following it, you will Scandium, Sc = [Ar]4s23d1
find that the electron arrangement will be that of neon
with addition of either 3s subshell only or both 3s Here, 3d is filled first before 4p because 3d is lower in
subshell and p subshell. For example, energy as shown in the previous table. Because of last
electrons being added to the d subshell, we called these
Sodium (Na) = 1s22s22p63s1 elements d-block elements.

Titanium, Ti = [Ar]4s23d2

Neon electron arrangement.

Vanadium, V = [Ar]4s23d3
Therefore, this can be rearranged as Na = [Ne]3s1. This
Chromium, Cr = [Ar]4s13d5
is called condensed electron arrangement.

Magnesium has two electrons at 3s subshell, so its Manganese, Mn = [Ar]4s23d5

electrons arrangement is Mg = [Ne]3s2

Iron, Fe = [Ar]4s23d6

Aluminium has electrons arrangement, Al = [Ne]3s23p1.

Cobalt, Co = [Ar]4s23d7
The arrangement continues up to the next noble gas.
Nickel, Ni = [Ar]4s23d8
Silicon, Si = [Ne]3s23p2

2 3 Copper, Cu = [Ar]4s13d10
Phosphorous, P = [Ne]3s 3p
Zinc, Zn = [Ar]4s23d10
Sulphur, S = [Ne]3s23p4
Atomic mass
Chlorine, Cl = [Ne]3s23p5
The atomic masses, of transition metals increases
Argon, Ar = [Ne]3s23p6 gradually across the fourth row with exception for
cobalt and nickel, see table 4.2 above. The reason
The next elements will have an electron arrangement of
for this change is due to how naturally occurring
Argon with addition of subshells being 4s, 3d, 4p and so
on based on the number of electrons. For example
isotopes of the two elements are distributed. Natural
59
cobalt consists of 27𝐶𝑜 in greater proportion of the
Potassium, K = [Ar]4s1 isotopes while natural nickel consists of the isotopes
58 60
28𝑁𝑖 and 28𝑁𝑖 where the 58 – isotopes is about 3
Calcium, Ca = [Ar]4s2 times as abundant as the 60-Ni isotopes. Hence
natural nickel though coming after cobalt has
That is the list of the first 20 elements in the periodic
smaller atomic mass.
table.

For the first ten transition metals that is from element

Melting and boiling points
21 to 30. The electron arrangement is the argon The first transition row elements have quite high
electron arrangement followed by the other subshells melting and boiling points except for zinc. These
based on the number of electrons presence. could be attributed to the elements having a large
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number of valence electrons and a large number of the first fourth sub energy level. After manganese
unfilled up units (orbitals) in the valence sub energy the highest oxidation state becomes lower and less
level. For zinc, it has all sub energy levels (orbitals) stable as more protons in the nucleus result in
filled up causing drop in the melting points. The higher positive charge attracting electrons strongly.
first row of transition elements have strong metallic
bonds due to ability of the elements to release Atomic radii
electrons from inner third sub energy levels and
The metallic radii show a decrease moving from
outer fourth sub energy level to form bonds. Zinc
scandium to copper. The decrease is steeped up to
has lower melting point because only the electrons
vanadium then levels out. The decrease is due to the
in outer fourth sub energy level are used in metallic
very poor screening (shielding) of the electrons in
bonding. The electrons in third energy level of zinc
fourth sub energy level by the inner third sub
are not involved in bonding because the energy
energy level which allows the outer electrons to be
level is full.
strongly pulled closer to the nucleus. But the
Density successive filling up of third sub energy level
electrons shields electrons in fourth sub energy
There is a steady increase in densities across the level from the much nucleus pull. This makes the
fourth row of transition elements but the trend difference in metallic radius from one metal to the
changes from iron onwards. This trend is closely other relatively small. It is the increased shielding of
related to the almost constant size of the atoms such electrons in the outer fourth sub energy level as the
that the main effect producing density change is the third energy level continues to be filled up that
increasing nuclear mass. Variation in the densities is leads to small increase in the metallic radius of the
caused by decreasing atomic volume and increasing copper atoms and a larger increase for the zinc
atomic mass moving from scandium to copper. The atoms.
forces between transition metals ions in the metal
lattice are strong and the ions are packed closely. Ionic radius
This gives the metals high densities, and high
Ionic radii across the row do not show significant
melting and boiling points.
change. The electrons added in the third sub energy
Ionization energy levels repel each other which counter the effect of
increased nuclear charge hence the increased size.
Transition elements do not show much difference in Ions of the same element with a higher oxidation
the ionization energy. They neither have very high state are smaller than those with a lower oxidation
nor very low ionisation energy. This is because state. This is because nuclear charge is constant
even though there is general increase in the nucleus while removal of one additional electron from inner
charge which should cause an increase in ionization third sub energy level reduces repulsion between the
energy, such effect is neutralized by increased remaining electrons thus are pulled much closer to
screening of the nucleus by the added electrons. the nucleus.
Successful ionisation energy increases from
scandium to manganese, after which it decreases
again. This is because from scandium to manganese
the highest oxidation state is simply sum of
electrons in the last third sub energy level, and in
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Oxidation state Transition metals can be drawn into wires and
beaten into sheets of metals.
Valences of the first row transition elements are
variable and their ions undergo oxidation or Appearance
reduction readily. This change makes them good
catalysts. From titanium to copper, the metals show Except copper, the rest of the row 4 transition
two or more oxidation states in their compounds. metals are silvery with bright lustre.
This is due to the third sub energy level and the
Catalytic properties
fourth sub energy levels being very close in their
energies and their electrons are available for bond The transition metals and their compounds show
formation. There is a small increase in ionisation catalytic activity in a variety of chemical processes.
energies as electrons are removed from these sub This important activity is assumed on their ability to
energy levels. The elements toward the centre of the show multiple oxidation states and to form
row show more oxidation states than those toward complexes, alloys and interstitial compounds.
both ends. The stability of particular oxidation state Transition metals whose third energy level have
depends on ability of electrons in the inner energy empty lower sub energy levels may accept electrons
levels to screen the bonding electrons from the to fill the empty sub energy levels, and by accepting
nucleus charges. electrons form temporary bonds between catalysts
and reactants, thus bringing reactants particles
Electrical conductivity closer enough to result in successful reactions or
The transition metals show high electrical collisions. One such common days is the
conductivity attributed to the delocalization of the heterogeneous catalyst used in car exhausts which
sub energy levels electrons similar to what occurs in contains a platinum/rhodium alloy that converts the
alkaline earth metals. Those with filled up third mixture of oxygen, carbon (II) oxide, nitrogen
energy level and with a single electron in the fourth oxides and hydrocarbons in the exhaust gases to
energy level are better conductors than those with form water, carbon (IV) oxide and nitrogen. Other
two electrons in the fourth energy level with filled examples are the use of V2O5 in Contact process for
up third energy level or half-filled sub energy manufacture of sulphuric acid, finely divided iron in
levels. Thus copper is better conductor of electricity Haber’s process for manufacture of ammonia gas
than zinc, and chromium is better conductor than and use of nickel in hydrogenation of oils.
manganese.
Coloured ion formation
Hardness The energy absorbed by transition atom move
Unlike alkaline earth metals, transition metals are electrons from a lower sub energy level to a higher
hard, brittle and have fairly high melting points. sub energy level within an energy level. That
This is because they are relatively small sized energy corresponds to the frequency which
atoms. They have strong interatomic bonding giving generally lies in the visible region of light. Thus
them high tensile strength. colour observed corresponds to the complementary
colour of the light absorbed. When light interacts
Ductility and malleability with a substance giving rise to colour, there is
absorption of part of spectrum. E.g, if the blue

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portion of white light is absorbed, then the The frequency of light absorbed is determined by
remainder appears red, likewise if red frequencies the nature of ions or molecules (ligands), that bond
are absorbed, the substance appears blue. A to the metal ion. Electrons may exist in pairs. It is
substance appears white when light falls on it is the unpaired electrons in the higher energy level of
totally reflected. It appears black when the light is the transition ions that cause the absorption of light.
totally absorbed. Coloured substances absorb Where the higher sub energy levels are either
certain wavelengths of light and reflect others. The completely empty (e.g. Sc3+) or completely full (e.g.
reflected wavelengths give rise to colour of the Zn2+, Cu+) their compounds are not coloured. The
substance. Therefore, most transition elements are unpaired electrons absorb light energy by becoming
coloured because they use some of the visible light promoted from their normal low energy levels to
energy to move electrons from lower sub energy higher energy levels.
level to higher sub energy levels in an energy level.

Table 4.3 shows colours for some aqua species of the first row transition metal ions bonded with water in their
oxidation states of +2 and +3.

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Some transition elements’ compounds / ions and Name of complex ion Formula of Colour of the
their colours complex ion solution
Tetraaminezinc (II) ion [Zn(NH3)4]2+ colourless
 TiO2 white Tetraaminecopper (II) [Cu(NH3)4]2+ Deep blue
 [Ti(H2O)6]3+ violet ion
 Fe3O3 brown
 FeO, black
 [Fe(CN)6]4- , yellow Uses of complex ions
 [Fe(CN)6]2- , green
 KMnO4 purple 1) Detection of metal ion by the colour of its
 MnO2, black complex, e.g. Fe3+ in [Fe (SCN)] 2+ appears
 K2Cr2O7 orange blood red, Cu2+ in [Cu(NH3)4]2+ appears deep
 [V (H2O)6]3+ , green blue. The complex must have an intense and
 [V(H2O)6]2+ ,violet characteristic colour so that the metal ion
 [Ni(H2O)6]2+ green can be readily identified.
 CoCl2.6H2O blue 2) Extraction of metals Aluminium and silver
 ZnCO3 white are extracted from their formation of soluble
 CuSO4.5H2O, blue complexes, AF63- and Al (CN)2.
 CuO, black 3) Softening of hard water When hard water,
 [Cu(H2O)6]2+ colourless containing Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, is mixed
with soap, it reacts with the anions in these
Most of the hydrated compounds above are salts, producing insoluble compounds which
complexes. Transition metals and some group three we see as ‘scum’ on the surface of water.
elements (e.g. aluminium and boron) have the Various ligands form complex salts with
ability to form complex ions. Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, thus preventing them
from reacting with the anions in soap and
Formation of complex ions thus the water is said to be ‘softened’.
4) Formation of essential biological
Complex ions are composed of a central metal ion
macromolecules, e.g. chlorophyll (complex
surrounded by anions or molecules called ligands.
of Mg2+) and haemoglobin (complex of
Lone-pair electrons on the ligand form co-ordinate
Fe2+).
bonds (dative covalent bonds) with the central metal
ion which provides the empty sub energy levels to Chemical properties
accommodate these electron pairs.
The small, highly charged cations cause greater
01) Complex ions formed with excess NaOH
polarization of associated anions, resulting in the
Name of Formula of Colour in following chemical properties of transition metal
complex ion complex ion solution compounds.
Zincate ion [Zn(OH)4]2- colourless
Plumbate ion [Pb(OH)4]2- colourless 1) Their oxides and hydroxides in oxidation
state +2 and +3 are less basic and less
02) Complex ions formed with excess NH4OH soluble.

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 2) Their salts are less ionic and less thermally 7) Vanadium (V) oxide catalyst is used in
stable. contact process to produce sulphuric acid.
3) Their salts and aqueous ions are more 8) Manganese (IV) oxide used in laboratory
hydrated and more readily hydrolyzed preparation of importance substances gases
forming acidic solutions. like chlorine and oxygen.
4) Their ions are more easily reduced than
main group metal ions.
5) Most transition metals react slowly with
dilute acids, as compared with the main
group metals, because:
 They are less electropositive than the
main group metals.
 The presence of a thin, unreactive
layer of oxide protects the metal
from chemical attack (similar to the
case of aluminium).
 The variety of oxidation states
causing successive ionization
energies.

Uses of transition metals

1) Some transition metals and their compounds
are used as catalysts in many industrial and
chemical reactions such as Haber process
and contact process.
2) Iron and its alloys are heavily used in
building and construction industry for
bridges, roofing, locomotive rails and
automobile parts; making of many cutting
tools such as panga, knife, axes e.t.c.
3) Copper is used in domestic water system
since it is effective at stopping growth of
many micro-organisms. It is also used in
making of pipes, electrical cables and
radiators.
4) Zinc is used in dry cells and roofing
cladding.
5) Iron catalyst used in Haber process in
industrial manufacture of ammonia.
6) Platinum catalyst used in Oswald process
(industrial manufacture of nitric acid)
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 Unit 5: Acids, bases, amphoteric oxides and hydroxides and solubility of salts.

Definition of acids and bases some substances are added to water.

There are several definitions of acids and bases Therefore, Acids are substances which increase the
commonly in use. It is important to know that there concentration of hydrogen ions, while bases are
has never been one universally adopted standard those substances which increase the concentration
definition i.e. which definition is regarded as most of hydroxide ions. For example,
useful. It is therefore necessary for a chemist to be
Carbon (IV) oxide is an acid gas because its
familiar with all these several definitions. The
addition to water increases the hydrogen ions
examples of such definition are Arrhenius and
concentration so that the resulting solution has
Bronsted-Lowry definitions.
acidic properties.
Arrhenius definition of acids and bases.
CO2 (g) + H2O(l)  H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
According to Arrhenius, acid is any substance which
Similarly, ammonia is a base because its dissolution
when dissolved in water, gives hydrogen ion as the
in water increases the hydroxide ion concentration.
only positively charged ion. According to this definition,
acid has a general formula HX which then ionizes in NH3 (g) + H2O(l)  NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
water as follows;
Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and
HX(aq) → H+(aq) + X-(aq)
bases.
For examples, HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
According to the theory, acid is any substance that
On the other hands, Arrhenius base is any substance donates one or more protons to another substance. It
that gives hydroxide ions (OH-) as the only negatively is a proton donor. Base is any substance that accepts
charged ion. According to Mr. Arrhenius, base has a one or more protons from an acid. It is a proton
general formula MOH, which then ionizes in water as acceptor. This means, Bronsted and Lowry stated that
follows; acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor.

MOH(aq) → M+(aq) + OH-(aq) For example, not only is hydroxyl ion (OH-) a base
but so is water (H2O) since it can accept a proton to
For examples, NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
form hydroxonium ion (H3O+). Similarly, ammonia
Arrhenius definition system was further modified (NH3) is base because it can accept a proton to form
by chemists since it was established that solvents ammonium ion (NH4+).
also dissociate into positive and negative ions. For
HX (aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+ + X-
example, water can also dissociate as follows.
H2O (l) + NH3(g)  NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
H2O(l)  H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Generally, every substance that donates a proton
From the above equation it shows that water
gives a substance that can accept a proton back, to
molecules dissociate giving equal concentration of
the original substance.
hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions. This equilibrium
of hydrogen ion to hydroxide ions is changed when
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Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides  Reaction with acid. Here, the oxide and
An oxide is a binary compound of oxygen and other hydroxide act as bases showing all the basic
elements. It is formed when an element burns in properties.
sufficient air (or oxygen). For example, magnesium PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
and carbon if burnt in sufficient air forms
magnesium oxide and carbon dioxide respectively. Pb(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Types of oxides  Reaction with alkali. Here, the oxide and

hydroxide act as acids showing all the acidic
There are four common types of oxides properties.

1) Acidic oxides PbO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) → Na2Pb(OH)4(aq)

2) Basic oxides (sodium plumbate).
3) Neutral oxides Pb(OH)2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2Pb(OH)4(aq).
4) Amphoteric oxides Reaction of aluminium oxide and aluminium hydroxide
An amphoteric oxide is a metallic oxide which reacts with acid and base.
with both bases and acids. An amphoteric hydroxide is a) Reaction with acid. Here, the oxide or hydroxide
the metallic hydroxide that reacts with both acids and acts as a base showing all the basic properties.
bases. The metallic oxides like zinc oxide, lead (II) oxide
and aluminium oxide are amphoteric oxides and their Al2O3(s) + 6HNO3(aq) → 2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
corresponding hydroxides are also amphoteric
hydroxides. This means that they react with both acids Al(OH)3(s) + 3HNO3(aq) → 2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
and bases to form salts and water. b) Reaction with bases. Here, the oxide or
Reaction of zinc oxide and zinc hydroxide with acid and hydroxide acts as acid showing all the acidic
alkali. properties.

a) Reaction with acid. Here, the oxide and Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2NaAl(OH)4(aq)
(sodium aluminate).
hydroxide react as bases when in acidic
Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq) → NaAl(OH)4(aq)
environment.
Solubility of salt.
ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Solubility is the maximum mass in grams of solute that
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
will dissolve in 100g (100cm3) of solvent at a given
b) Reaction with alkali. Here, the oxide and temperature. There is a limit as to how much a solute
hydroxide act as acids showing all the acidic can be dissolved in a solvent at a particular
properties. temperature. When a point is reached where there is
no more solute will dissolve, the solution is said to be
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) → Na2Zn(OH)4(aq) saturated. A saturated solution is one which will not
(sodium zincate) dissolve any more solute at a particular temperature in
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2Zn(OH)4(aq) the presence of the solute particles. If more solute is
Reaction of lead (II) oxide and lead (II) hydroxide with added to the solution at this point, it will just settle at
acid and base. the bottom of the solution undissolved. But when

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temperatures are increased by heating the saturated Solution
solution, some more solute dissolve. The solubility of
some solutes is often found to increase with an increase Volume of a solvent = 40cm3, Mass of solute = 5g
in temperature.
From,
Water is considered a universal solvent because it is 100𝑐𝑚3
Solubility = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 × Mass of Solute
known to dissolve most of the substances in the
world. Substances that do not dissolve completely 100𝑐𝑚3
form suspension. A solid is said to be in suspension = × 5g = 12.5g
40𝑐𝑚3
in a liquid when small particles of it remain in the
Therefore, the solubility of KNO3 is 12.5g/100g
liquid undissolved. If the mixture is left undisturbed
of water at 80C.
the solid particles will slowly settle to the bottom of
the containing vessel, leaving the pure liquid above
them.
100𝑐𝑚3
Solubility = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 × Mass of Solute

The mass of solute should be in grams.

Examples
1. Calculate the solubility of potassium chlorate if
5grams of it saturates 10cm3 of water at 90°C.
(Density of water =1g/cm3)

Solution

Volume of Solvent = 10cm3, Mass of Solute = 5g

From,
100𝑐𝑚3
Solubility = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 × Mass of Solute

100𝑐𝑚3
= × 5g = 50g
10𝑐𝑚3

Therefore, the solubility of KClO3 is 50g/100g of

water at 900C.

2. Calculate the solubility of potassium nitrate if

5grams of it saturate 40 cm3 of water at 80C.

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 Solubility curves
These are graphs that show how the solubility of salts vary with temperature. The figure below shows the
solubility curves.

Getting the information from the solubility curves 4. At what temperature will 60g of sodium sulphate
dissolve in 100g of water?
You can see that the solubility of three of the four solids
increases with increasing temperature. In addition to Solution
general trends in the solubility of a substance, you can
also get detailed facts from a solubility graph. For 1. Looking at the solubility graph below, you draw a
example, we can see that at 300C, 95g of sodium nitrate line up (vertically) from 300C until it hits the NaNO3
(NaNO3) will dissolve, but at 600C, 120g will dissolve in line. Following this, carry the line over (horizontally)
100g of water. At these same two temperatures, only to find the amount of NaNO3 that dissolves.
50g of Na2SO4 and 113g of potassium nitrate (KNO3) will Therefore, approximately 95g of NaNO3 will dissolve
dissolve in 100g of water. in 100g of water at 300C.
2. The highest line at 600C is the line of NaNO3,
Example therefore it is the most soluble at 600C.
3. The lowest line at 400C is the line of NaCl, therefore
Answer the following questions using the solubility
is the least soluble at 400C.
graph above.
4. Looking at the solubility graph below, you draw a
1. How much sodium nitrate will dissolve at 300C? line over (horizontally) from 60g until it hits the
2. Which solid is most soluble at 600C? Na2SO4 line. Following this, carry the line down
3. Which solid is least soluble at 400C? (vertically) to find the temperature at which 60g of
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 Na2SO4 will dissolve. Therefore, 60g of Na2SO4 will contains no dissolved solid impurities. They lather
dissolve in 100g of water at 500C. easily with soap.

Fractional crystallisation How water becomes hard

The separation of different salts dissolved in the Rain dissolves carbon(IV) dioxide as it falls to form
same solution is made possible by use of the carbonic acid. Therefore, rain water is very dilute
differences in their solubility, a method known as carbonic acid.
fractional crystallisation. A mixture of soluble
H2O(l) + CO2(g)  H2CO3(aq)
solids can be separated by dissolving them in
suitable hot solvent and then lowering the If this water passes through rocks containing
temperature slowly. The least soluble component calcium and Magnesium carbonates, some of it
will crystallise out first, leaving the other dissolves to form respective hydrogen carbonates
components in the solution. By controlling the and the water is said to be hard because the
temperature, it is sometimes possible to remove
hydrogen carbonates (HCO3–) reacts with soap to
each component in turn. Conserve a mixture of two
salts which contains 20g of potassium chlorate and form a complex.
30g of potassium nitrate in 100g of water at 500C, CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq)  Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
separation of the two salts can
MgCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq)  Mg(HCO3)2(aq)
Uses of solubility curves
When rain-water passes through rocks containing
i) Know the effect of temperature on the sulphates of magnesium and calcium (CaSO4.2H2O,
solubility of salts. gypsum), portions of the rocks dissolve into the rain
water. Thus the water contains sulphate ions. These
ii) Know how to separate a mixture of salts ions react with the ions in soap forming white
in solid or solution form using insoluble substances called scum.
differences in solubilities of the salts in
the mixture. Types of water hardness
iii) Determine the mass of crystals that
would be obtained by cooling a given There are two types of water hardness namely
volume of hot saturated solution from temporary and permanent hardness.
one known temperature to another.
i. Temporary water hardness. It is caused by
Water hardness the presence of soluble hydrogen carbonates
Soft water is the one which readily forms lather of calcium or magnesium or both hydrogen
with soap while hard water is the one which does carbonates in water. Water which exhibits
not readily form lather with soap. Distilled or rain such hardness include well and some
water forms lather very easily with soap. Tap water, borehole water depending on the location. It
is called temporary hardness because it can
water from wells, river, lake and sea waters will
be removed by boiling.
vary in the amount of soap used depending on the ii. Permanent water hardness. It is caused by
location of your school. Solutions containing the presence of dissolved calcium sulphate
sulphates of calcium and magnesium ions do not and magnesium sulphate. This occurs when
produce lather easily. Distilled water or rain water water dissolves small amounts of calcium
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 and magnesium sulphate from ground rocks v. Addition of aqueous ammonia. This
as it seeps on its way to reservoirs, lakes, removes temporary hardness as shown
rivers or to the sea. This type of hardness below.
cannot be removed by boiling. It can
however be removed through chemical Ca(HCO3)(aq) + NH4OH(aq) → CaCO3(s) + NH4HCO3(aq)
treatment or distillation.
Removal of Temporary water hardness Removal of permanent water hardness

i) Boiling. Boiling decomposes the soluble Permanent water hardness can be removed by;
hydrogen carbonates to insoluble
1. Addition of sodium carbonate. Addition of
carbonates, carbon (IV) oxide and water.
sodium carbonate causes the precipitation of
Ca(HCO3)2(aq)  CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) calcium and magnesium ions as insoluble
carbonates.
Mg(HCO3)2(aq)  MgCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CaSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)  CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
The insoluble carbonates formed remove the
MgSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)  MgCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
calcium and magnesium ions from the water hence
the water becomes soft. 2. Distillation. This method removes both
permanent and temporary hardness because it
ii) Addition of calcium hydroxide. The
removes all the dissolved solids. However, it is
method of removing temporary hardness by
expensive to use it to soften large amounts of
boiling is too expensive to be used on a
water. It can, however be used in the laboratory
large scale. Temporary water hardness
to make distilled water for analytical work or for
removal can be done on large scale
batteries.
inexpensively by adding calculated amounts
3. Use of ion exchange method This method
of calcium hydroxide. This causes
involves use of a resin made of an insoluble
precipitation of calcium and magnesium
complex of a sodium salt known as sodium
ions as carbonates.
permutit. This method is also referred to as
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)  2CaCO3(s) + 2 H2O(l) permutit process. Permutit releases sodium
ions which exchange with the calcium and
iii. Addition of washing soda (Na2CO3). This
magnesium ions in the hard water. Calcium and
removes water hardness by reacting with
magnesium ions now become part of the
hydrogen carbonate to form insoluble carbonate
as follows. insoluble complex compound. The diagram
below shows how the ion exchanger is used.
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2NaHCO3(aq)

The sodium ions from sodium hydrogen carbonate

present in water as seen in the above equation do
not cause water hardness.

iv. Distillation. This removes all the solid

materials in water. However, the method is
too expensive.

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 i. Formation of teeth and bones usually from
calcium.
ii. Making animals cells for example, the shell
of an egg which contains calcium carbonate.

Disadvantages of hard water

i. It wastes soap
ii. It forms fur and boiler scale in boiling
kettles and boilers. This is fur and boiler
scale are in form of calcium carbonate.
Which is an insulator of heat.

Sodium ions (Na+) in water do not cause water

hardness. When all the sodium ions on the permutit
column have been exchanged with calcium or
magnesium ions. i.e. resin contains ions of calcium
and magnesium, it is said to be discharged. The
permutit, can be “regenerated” or “recharged” by
passing concentrated sodium chloride solution
(brine) through it. Another ion-exchange process
takes place. The calcium or magnesium ions are
washed away or leaving the permutit now full of
sodium ready for use again as shown below.

Advantages of hard water.

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