SG Chemistry Classes

Biomolecules
There are 5 types of biomolecules

i) Carbohydrates ii) Protein iii) Fats iv) Vitamins v) Nucleic acid

Carbohydrate
3 types

i) Monosaccharides ii) Oligosaccharides iii) Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides
General - Cx(H2O)y

x=6 y=6

C6(H2O)6 = C6H12O6
Ex - Glucose, Fructose, Galactose ,Ribose.

Exception -Rhamnose C6H12O5

Rhamnose is a monosaccharide but doesn’t satisfy the general formula Though acetic acid
satisfies the common formula it is not a carbohydrate.

x = 2 y = 2 C2H4O2

CH3 COOH (acetic acid)

Glucose (C6H12O6) and Fructose (C6H12O6)

 Chapterwise CBSE Solved Papers: CHEMISTRY

ed by 1.3 Disaccharides
ose Disaccharides on hydrolysis with dilute acids or
of the give molecules of
two
most enzymes
the monosaccharides. These molecules may be
either same or different monosaccharides.
The two monosaccharide units are joined
HSO. together by an oxide linkage formed by the loss
ate of a water molecule. Such a linkage between
two monosaccharide units through oxygen
atom is called glycosidic linkage. e.g.
ric forms, i.e.
th differs in CHOH
C-atom. H
H HOH2C
OH H HO
HO 2 CH2OH
Glycosidic H
H OH OH
dd linkage
a-D-glucose
Cyclic B-D-fructose
structure of Glucose resembles Pyran structure thus it is considered as
Haworth structure of sucrose
-5 Pyranose.
Pyran Hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in
the sign of rotation from dextro (+) to laevo ()
with and the product is named as invert sugar.
anology
gen atom and Maltose is composed of two o-D-glucose units
and
Theitcyclic
is a reducing
structure sugar.
Fructose resembles Furan structure so it is knows as Furanose.
Lactose is known as milk sugar because it is
found in milk and composed of B-D-galactose
hich is and B-D-glucose. It is known as reducing sugar.
 (CH05),, +nH,0- 393K; 2-3 atmnCH\,0, glucaric acid) on oxidation w
Starch or cellulose Glucose
COOH
Anomer - The position of OH group at C-1 carbon defines the alpha-glucose and beta-
Linear Structure
glucose ofdiffers
. Isomer which Glucosein the configuration of OH group at C-1 position Br, water
(CHOH)are called
(
anomer that is alpha-glucose and beta-glucose.
CHO CH,OH C
Gluconic Conc. HNO,
lucose was assigned the structure| (ÇHOH), |on acid

C
CH,OH
he basis of following evidences: (C
(i) lts molecular formula was found to be
Chemical properties of Glucose Sac
CH0
(i') Reaction
On prolonged
with HI heating with HI, it formns Formation of gluconic acid i
n-hexane, suggesting that all the six carbon carbonyl group is an aldehyd
On strong reduction of glucose in the presence of HI produces Hexane.
atoms are linked ina straight chain. Similarly, formation of sacch
CHO CH3 indicates the presence of a p
CH2 alcoholic (-OH) group in gl
HI, A
(CHOH), CH,CH,
CH2 CH CH, CH CH,
n- hexane
(v) Glucose on acetylation with
CH2 anhydride (CH ,CO,)0 in the
CH,OH CH2 pyridine gives glucose pentaa
Glucose CH3 CHO CHO
iit) The following reactions confirm the presence
The above reaction shows that the carbon atoms in glucose are linked(CHOH), anhydride ( H
in straight Acetic
chain. 0
carbonyl group
Nucleophilic Addition reaction =oin glucOs CH,OH CH-0
Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a molecule of hydrogen cyanide to
give cyanohydrin. These reactions confirm the presence of a carbonyl group (>C = 0) in glucose.

Oxidation with Br2

Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid) on reaction with a mild
oxidising agent like bromine water. This indicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehyde.
Oxidation with HNO3

On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose produces a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid. This indicates
the presence of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group in glucose.

HNO3

Glucose does not undergo the following reaction:

Though the aldehyde group is present in glucose does not react with Schiff's reagent and does not
form the hydrogen sulphite addition product with sodium bisulphite. (Which is generally shown by
aldehyde and ketone)

• The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the absence of free
-CHO group.

(Pentaacetate form of glucose)

 a-D-glucose B -D-glucose.
the orientation of-OH group at C-atom.
H
N.B->
Cyclic Structure of Glucose HO
OH H
2
GlucoseCHO
exists as a cyclic hemiacetal CHOH Glycos
OH
structure in which-OH groups may add linka
O a-D-glucose
to-CHO group and forms a O
H O C CH3
HC O H ring in which-OH
six-membered at C-5 HC O Haworth
C CH struc 3
O
is involved in ring formation.
H O CH H O C CH3
Pyran Hydrolysis of Osucrose br
HC sign O
the C CH3 from
of rotation
The six membered cyclic
+
structure of
O in anology with and the product is name
is called pyranose structure
glucose CH O
O H H O C CH3
pyran, a cyclic compound with one oxygen
atom and Maltose
HC Ois composed
C CH3 o
O ——————>
five carbon atoms in ring. O
and it is a reducing suga
HC O H H O C CH3
HLactose
2C Ois known
C CH3as m
O
Fructose
CH2O H H O C CH3
found in milkOand comp
Fructose is an important ketohexose which is and
CH2B-D-glucose.
O C CH It is kn
3
obtained along with glucose by the hydrolysis of
disaccharides like sucrose. It is also known as fruit (Pentaacetate form of glucose)
and is
1.4 Polysacch
sugar. It is a laevorotatory compound
Oligosaccharids
appropriately written as form
Polysaccharides are

2 - 10 monosaccharides CH,OH of monosaccharides mo

with elimination of wat
Disaccharides (2 Monosaccharides)
2C=O Starch is the main stor
Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose -H
HO-
plants, it is a polymer o
H- -HO of two components: am
Lactose = Galactose + Glucose
H HO and amylopectin (wat
Maltose = Glucose + GlucoseCH,OH is a long unbranched ch
D-fructose
(+)- glucose units held b
It Fructose
exist as=five
Fruitmembered
Sugar Sucrose
ring and=named
Cane sugar
as Maltose = Grape sugar
linkage. Amyiopectin is
Lactose = Milk sugar
furanose. polymer of a-D-glucose
Sucrose on hydrolysis with acids or enzyme gives formed by C- C4 glycos
Invert sugar - Sucrose is made up of D(+)glucose
-glucose and and D(-)fructose onebranching
of its component is in by C
occurs
cquimolar mixture of D (+)
inverted form. So Sucrose is known as invert sugar.
D - fructose. Cellulose is a straight c
CH,0tH,0-- C, H120, + CH,0, polymer of B-D-glucose
Sucrose
D(+)-glucose D(-) -fructose wall of plant cells.
Polysaccharides
It is a chain of large no. of monosaccharides Ex: Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen
It is also known as non-sugar because it does not taste sweet.

Monosaccharides are attached with each other through Glycosidic bond.

Cellulose - It is made up of glucose, plant cell wall is made up of cellulose.

Glycogen - It is also known as animal starch. It is also made up of glucose.

Starch - Starch is a polymer of glucose. It is used to store food in plant. Starch is made up
of two sub units Amylose and Amylopectin.

(i) Amylose – Straight chain - Water soluble

(ii) Amylopectin - Branched chain - Water insoluble

Starch Glycogen
Alpha D-glucose Alpha D-glucose
Amylose(Straight Chain) + Branched chain
Amylopectin(Branched chain)
Used for food storage in Plants. Used for food storage in Animals.

Carbohydrates can also be classified as i) Reducing Sugar ii) Non reducing Sugar

Reducing Sugar :
In reducing sugar the aldehyde and ketone group are free thus can reduce Fehling’s solution
and Tollen’s reagent. Example - All monosaccharide, Maltose & Lactose (Disaccharide)
Non-Reducing Sugar

The sugar of which aldehyde and ketone group are not free thus can’t reduce Fehling’s
solution and Tollen’s reagent. i.e. the reducing group is bonded is known as non-reducing
sugar.

Example : Sucrose

How starch is different from Cellulose structurally?

Cellulose consist of only straight chain whereas starch consist of both straight chain
(Amylose) and branched chain (Amylopectin).
Cellulose consist of β D glucose where as starch consist of only α D glucose.
Vitamin
The organic compounds which are required in the diet in small amount for normal maintenance or
optimum growth and health of body.
2 Types :
Fat soluble ——> (water insoluble) ——> Can be stored ——> Vit A, D, E, K
Fat insoluble ——> (water soluble) ——> Can’t be stored ——> Vit B, C
Exception - Vit B12 - Though it is fat insoluble, it can be stored in body.
E. Coli bacteria helps Vit B12 to get stored.

Vitamin Deficiency
A Xeropthalmia , Night blindness

B1 Beri Beri

B2 Cheilosis

B6 Convulsions

B12 Pernicious Anaemia

C Scurvy

D Rickets and Osteomalacia

E Fragility of RBC and Muscle weakness

K Delay in Blood clotting

Protein -
It is made up of amino acids.

H+

R O R
R
H 2N C C O H H3 +N C COO-
H2N C COOH
H H
H
Zwitterionic form

R O R O R O
H HN C C O H H HN C C O H H HN C C O H
H H +
H -
H+ OH- H OH
H+ OH-
 R O R O R O R O
HN C C HN C C HN C C ————>
HN C C
n
H H H H

Polymer of Amino acid is known as Protein.

N.B- Both +ve and –ve - Zwitterionic

Both acid and base - Amphoteric

Amino acid acts as amphoteric substances due to presence of both basic (NH2) and acidic (-
COOH) group in it.
Amino acids can be classified into two types
i) Essential Amino Acid ii) Non Essential Amino acid
Essential Amino Acid- The Amino acid which can’t be formed in our body and we need to consume
from Nutrition is known as Essential Amino Acid.There are 9 Essential Amino Acid. E.g
Hystidine , Lysine, Arginine.
Non Essential Amino acid- The Amino acid which can be formed in our body and we don’t need to
consume from Nutrition is known as Non Essential Amino Acid.There are 11 Non Essential Amino
Acid. E.g. - Glycine , Alanine, Glutamic acid.
Biocatalyst or Enzyme - Those are the proteins which can catalyse a biochemical reaction in our
body.
Proteins are arranged in the form of helical structure known as alpha-helix. In between alpha
helix hydrogen bond is present between NH2 and COOH group which gives rise to helical
structure and stabilises the protein.
Protein can remain in the form of alpha or primary or 10 helix.

They coiled further to form 20, 30 helix.

When we apply heat energy or change the pH , due to breakage of hydrogen bond between
them.This is known as protein denaturation.

Ex-Boiling of egg, Cuddling of milk

• Primary Structure of Protein - Primary Structure of Protein is based on the sequence of amino
acid in the protein chain.Any change in this primary structure i.e., the sequence of amino acids
creates a different protein.
• Secondary structure of Proteins - The secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in
which a long polypeptide chain can exist. They are found to exist in two different types of
structures viz. α-helix and β-pleated sheet structure.
 α-helix β-pleated
Here the size of R-group is large. Here the size of R-group is small.

Intramolecular H-bonds are formed Intermolecular H-bonds are formed

It is formed by the folding of a single polypeptide It is formed by the folding in more than one polypeptide
chain due to hydrogen bonding. chain due to hydrogen bonding.

On the basis Structure, Tertiary Structure of Protein can be classified into two types
i) Globular Protein ii) Fibrous Protein
GLOBULAR PROTEINS
• When the chains of polypeptide, coil around to give spherical structure it is called as globular
protein.
• Ex-Albumin, Insulin
• Globular proteins are soluble in water.
FIBROUS PROTEIN
• When polypeptide chain are parallaly arranged and held together by hydrogen and disulphide
bond it is known as fibrous protein.
• Ex- Myosin, Keratin
Fibrous protein are water insoluble.
Polypeptide - When more than to amino acid are joined together by peptide bond is known as
polypeptide.

Nucleic Acid
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid - 4 Oxygen
RNA = Ribonucleic acid -5 Oxygen
Pentose Sugar + Nitrogenous Base

Nucleoside + Phosphate group

Nucleotide + Nucleotide + Nucleotide

= Nucleic Acid
Pentose Sugar -
DNA - Deoxyribose Sugar RNA - Ribose Sugar
Nitrogenous base -
Purine Pyrimidine

Adenine Cytosine

Guanine Thiamine , Uracil

 RNA consist of uracil in place of Thiamine.

Adenine makes double hydrogen bond with Thiamine and uracil and vice versa. A=T

Guanine makes triple hydrogen bond with cytosine and vice versa. G=C

Polymer of Nucleotide is known as Nucleic Acid.

RNA is of 3 types-

mRNA –messenger RNA

rRNA- ribosomal RNA

tRNA- transfer RNA

• Two DNA strand run anti parallel to each other i.e. one is 5’ to 3’ another is from 3’ to 5’.
Fat
Fat is composed of fatty acid and Glycerol.

Glycerol

Trihydroxy propane

Fatty acid

Long chain of carboxylic acid

Arachdnoic acid

In fats fatty acid are esterified with glycerol.

O
O H H 2C O C H 2C CH3
OH- 2
H+
H O C C CH3 16
H 2C O H 16
O
H+ OH- O H
HC O H 2 HC O C H 2C CH3
H O C C CH3 16
16
H 2C O H O H
H+ OH- 2
H O C C CH3 H 2C O C H 2C CH3
16 16
O
HORMONES
Hormones are molecules that are produced by endocrine glands which are transported by blood.
Glucagon increases the blood glucose level ;insulin decreases the blood glucose level.

Different Bonds between Biomolecules

• Carbohydrate - Glycosidic linkage
• Protein - Peptide linkage
• Fat - Triester linkage
• Nucleic acid - Phophoester linkage
• In every linkage of different biomolecules H2O is released.