SENIOR SECONDARY BIOLOGY

FORM FOUR NOTES

CHRISTOPHER Z.M. KANYIMBO

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages

TROPISM-------------------------------------------------------------- 3

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM---------------------------------- 11

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM--------------------------------------------- 21

COORDINATION------------------------------------------------------ 31

IMMUNITY-------------------------------------------------------------- 45

VARIATION AND MUTATION--------------------------------------- 53

EVOLUTION------------------------------------------------------------ 58

BIOTECHNOLOGY--------------------------------------------------- 63

INFECTIOUS DISEASES--------------------------------------------- 67

2
 TROPISMS
Tropisms are growth movements made by roots they inhibit or slow down cell
plants in response to external stimuli that is elongation and growth.
coming from one direction. The growth
movement can be towards or away from the External stimuli (light, gravity and water)
stimuli. The common stimuli in plants are affect the distribution of these auxins in
light, gravity and water. plants. They accumulate more in regions
close to gravity and water and accumulate
Types of Tropisms away from light.

1. Phototropism Auxins and Phototropism

This is the plant growth movement in
response to direction of source of light. The
response involving growth towards direction
of light is called positive phototropism. The
response involving growth away from
direction of light is called negative
phototropism.

2. Geotropism
This is the plant growth movement in
response to gravity. Growth movements
towards gravity are called positive
geotropism. Growth movements away from
gravity are called negative geotropism.

3. Hydrotropism
This is a growth response by roots towards
water in the soil.

In phototropism the stimulus is light. Auxins

produced in shoot tips migrate from the
AUXINS
illuminated side towards the darker side. This
Auxins are plant growth hormones. Auxins means the darker or shaded side contains
control growth of cells in small quantities. more auxins. This results in cells on the
The auxins are produced at tips of shoots and shaded side growing faster than those on the
roots. Auxins stimulate or induce cell illuminated side. This causes the shoot to
elongation and growth in shoots while in

3
bend towards light to show positive upper side of the radicle grows faster than
phototropism. the lower side causing the radicle to bend
downwards to show positive
Auxins and Geotropism in Shoots and geotropism.
Roots
Auxins and Hydrotropism

In geotropism the stimulus is gravity.

a. In shoots

When a potted plant is placed horizontally

gravity pulls at auxins produced at the shoot When there is unequal distribution of
tips and accumulate in the lower side of the water in the soil, auxins produced by root
shoot. This results in higher concentration of tips migrate and accumulate more close
auxins in the lower side hence cells elongate to the moist side (the side with high water
faster than those on the upper side. This content). Cell growth is inhibited in the
causes the shoot to bend upwards away from side with high auxins concentration
gravity (B) to show negative geotropism. causing the root to bend towards an area
of high water content
b. In roots
When a seedling is placed horizontally, INVESTIGATIONS ON TROPISMS
gravity pulls at auxins produced by a HYDROTROPISM
radicle tip. Auxins accumulate more on
the lower side of the radicle. Since auxins Activity: To investigate hydrotropism
in the radicle inhibit cell growth then the in radicles of germinating seeds.

4
 Materials  Two potted seedlings
 Two cardboard boxes
 Porous clay pot
 Clinostat
 Wide and shallow basin
Procedure
 Dry sand or fine saw dust
 8-10 soaked seeds 1. Water the seedlings.
 Match sticks or tooth picks 2. Place one seedling in a box with a
Procedure small hole at the level of the seedling.
3. Place the other seedling in identical
1. Place the porous pot at the centre of situation but on a slowly rotating
the basin or trough. clinostat.
2. Pour the sand or saw dust into the Result
basin so that it surrounds the clay
pot.
3. Sow the seeds about 3cm deep into
the dry sand or saw dust and 5cm
around the pot. Do not water the dry
sand or saw dust.
4. Fill the pot with water. Some of the
water will drain out into the
surrounding sand.
5. After 2-3 days carefully scoop out
the sand from around each
germinating seed and observe the
The shoot on the clinostat continues to grow
direction of growth of the radicles.
upwards. The shoot without clinostat changes
Expected result direction of growth and grows towards light.
The radicles will grow towards the wet
Conclusion
sand around the clay pot. This shows
positive geotropism. One sided-lighting causes shoots to bend
towards light.
Conclusion
NB: The shoot bends towards light in set up
Roots grow towards a water source.
without clinostat because auxins accumulate
PHOTOTROPISM on the shaded side causing cell elongation on
the side than on the illuminated side. This
Investigation 1: To Find the Effect Of causes the shoot to bend towards light. In the
One-Sided Lighting On Growing set up with clinostat, the shoot continues to
Shoots grow vertically because there is even
distribution of auxins due to the rotating
Materials
clinostat.

5
Investigation 2: To investigate the part of After some days the shoot with covered tip
a shoot that responds to light continues to grow upright. The shoot with
covered middle and the one which is not
Materials tampered with bend towards light.
 Three potted seedlings Conclusion
 Aluminium foil
 A cardboard with a small hole on one The tip of the shoot is the part that responds
side to light.
Procedure
Investigations 3: To investigate how
1. Cover the tip of one seedling with Auxins Influence Phototropism
aluminium foil.
Materials
2. Cover the middle of the seedling with
aluminium foil  Three seedlings in damp soil
3. Leave the third seedling untampered  Aluminium foil
with.  Cardboard
4. Put the seedlings in a cardboard . Procedure
5. Illuminate the seedlings from one side
6. Leave the apparatus for some days. 1. Cut the tip of one seedling and label it
A.
2. Cover the tip of the second seedling
with aluminium foil and label it B.
3. Leave the third seedling untampered
with and label it C.
4. Place the seedlings in a cardboard
with a hole on one side.
5. Leave the set up for few days.

Result

Results

6
Seedling labelled A does not change in terms
The shoot on the clinostat will still be
of growth since the auxin-producing cells are
growing horizontally. The other shoot will
eliminated. Seedling B elongates and bends
change direction of growth and grows
towards light because there is uneven
vertically upwards.
distribution of auxins due to light coming
from one side. Seedling C continues to grow Conclusion
upwards since the tip has uniform
distribution of auxins since it is not affected Shoots grow away from gravity to show
by light. negative geotropism.

GEOTROPISM Investigation 2: To Investigate the Effect

of Gravity on Roots

Investigation 1: To Investigate the Effect Materials

of Gravity on Shoots
 Bean seedlings with straight radicles.
Materials  Corks
 Jar
 Two potted seedlings  Clinostat
 Clinostat Procedure
Procedure
1. Pin the seedlings to two large corks.
1. Place one seedling horizontally. 2. Place the corks in the mouth of the
2. Place the second seedling jars.
horizontally and on a clinostat. 3. Leave one set up in horizontal
3. Ensure that all sides are equally position so that radicles are placed
exposed to pull of gravity. horizontally.
4. Make sure the lighting should be the 4. Place the other set up on a clinostat.
same for the shoots. 5. Place the set up in darkness to
Result eliminate phototropic responses.
6. Leave the set up for about two days

7
Results Conclusion

The tip of the radicle responds to gravity.

Importance of Tropisms

a. Enables shoots to grow towards light

and expose leaves for photosynthesis.
b. Tropisms ensure that flowers are
lifted in the positions where they are
most likely to receive pollen through
The radicles of seedlings on the clinostat
wind or insects.
continue to grow horizontally while those in
c. Enable plant roots to grow into the
the stationary jar grow downwards.
soil for absorption of water and
Conclusion mineral salts and support
d. Hydrotropism enables plants to grow
Gravity causes radicles to grow downwards. towards water and absorb water.
Practical uses of Auxins
Investigation 3: To Investigate Part of the
Radicle That Responds to Gravity 1. Weed Killers
Auxins work by making a plant grow so fast
Materials
that it quickly exhausts itself and dies. Weed
 Seedlings with straight radicles killers are selective, that is, they kill certain
 Petri dishes plants but leave others unharmed. Examples
 Indian ink of such weed killers are a group of auxins
Procedure known as phenoxyacetic which destroy and
kill weeds.
1. Mark the radicles with Indian ink
lines 2mm apart. 2. Rooting in cuttings
2. Place the seedlings between two The cut end of a stem is dipped into the auxin
strips of moist cotton wool in petri compound and then planted. The auxins
dishes. stimulate root growth so that they appear
3. Arrange the petri dishes with the sooner than in untreated cuttings.
seedlings placed horizontally. 3. Growth Inhibitors
4. Replace the lid and hold it in position Auxins can slow or inhibit growth. They can
with elastic rubber band. be sprayed on potatoes to prevent sprouting
5. Leave it to stand for few days during transport and storage. They can also
Results be sprayed on hedges to slow down their
The tip of the radicle bends towards gravity. growth.

4. Fruit setting

8
Auxins can cause fruits to appear without b. The Venus flytrap
pollination a process called parthenocarpy. Its an example of an insectivorous plant (a
The fruits so produced have no seeds since plant that eats insects). It has hairs which are
there is no pollination. sensitive to touch. When an insect lands on
the leaf blade, it is sensed by hairs causing the
NASTIC RESPONSES leaves to rapidly fold. This encloses the
These are responses that occur when plants insect inside the leaf and kills it. As the insect
move some parts of their body due to the decomposes, the leaves secrete enzymes
presence of a particular stimulus. which digest the insect.

The response does not depend on the c. Sleeping movement in Plants

direction of the stimulus. This is a response to changes in light intensity
during day. It is common in leguminous
Examples of Nastic Responses plants. During day time the leaves open flat
to make sure that the sun rays are horizontal
a. Mimosa Pudica
to their surface. At night the leaves fold or
The plant folds its leaves when touched.
close.
Under normal circumstances the leaves of the
plant are well spread along the mid rib. When In hot weather, the leaves droop to minimise
touched, the leaves fold rapidly as a way to water loss through transpiration.
prevent damage to the leaves. This is a nastic
response called haptonasty or thigmonasty.

REVISION EXERCISE

1. The figure shows a response in a plant that was placed horizontally. Use it to answer
questions that follow.

a. What was the stimulus in this experiment?

b. Describe the response in B.
c. Explain how the response in B is brought about.
2. a. what are auxins?
b.How do auxins affect the growth of the following parts of the plants?
i. Shoots
ii. Roots

9
3. The figure below diagrams A and B. Diagram A shows the results of what happened when
a shoot was illuminated from one side for 48 hours. Diagram B shows cells P and Q which
were taken from parts of the shoot in diagram A.

a. Which side of the shoot in diagram A was illuminated?

b. Which cell was taken from the part marked M? Explain your answer.
4. The figure below shows three seedlings X,Y,Z placed in a box painted black and with a
hole on one side. The seedlings were treated differently. Use it to answer questions that
follow.

a. Why was the box painted black inside?

b. Draw a diagram to show the results at the end of the experiment.

5. The diagram below shows a seedling that was placed horizontally in the dark for 48
hours. Use it to answer questions that follow.

a. Draw a diagram of the seedling to show the results after 48 hours.

b. Explain how the results indicated by your diagram came about.
6. Describe an experiment that you can carry out to find the effect of one sided
illumination on a growing shoot.
7. Describe an experiment that you can carry out find the part of a shoot that responds to
gravity
8. Describe an experiment you can carry out to find the part of a shoot that responds to
light.

10
THE HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Excretion is the removal of waste - It regulates the level of water in the
substances produced by metabolism from body.
the body. Main Excretory Organs in Humans

Metabolism is the sum total of chemical Kidneys- remove urea, uric acid, excess
reactions taking place in a cell. There are water and excess salts
two types of metabolism: catabolism which
refers to chemical reactions that involve Liver- removes drugs, excess amino acids
breaking down complex substances into Lungs- remove carbon dioxide
simpler ones and anabolism which refers to
chemical reactions that involve building of Skin: removes excess water and mineral
complex substances from smaller ones. salts through sweat.

Secretion: release of useful substances in All these organs and their associated tissues
the body such as hormones by glands. form the excretory system.

Egestion: the expulsion of undigested food The kidney is one of the main excretory
material from the gut. organs in the body. It is part of what is
called the urinary system.
Homeostasis: the maintenance of the
internal environment of the body. The Urinary System

Examples of Metabolic Wastes Produced

by Cells

- Carbon dioxide produced by

respiration
- Nitrogenous wastes produced by
protein metabolism such as urea,
ammonia and uric acid
- Excess water
- Wastes of chemical substances such
as drugs and hormones after their
function
- Bile pigments produced after
breakdown of red blood cells.
Importance of Excretion

- It removes waste substances which

are toxic to cell.
Aorta: carries the blood from the heart and
- It controls the pH of blood by
branches into renal arteries.
monitoring the levels of hydrogen
ions (H+) in the blood. Renal arteries: lead the blood from the
aorta to into the kidney.

11
Kidney: removes waste products from Medulla: This is the light coloured inner
blood. region of the kidney. The medulla extends
into the pelvis in triangular projections
Renal veins: carry blood from the kidneys called pyramids.
to the vena cava.
Pelvis: This is the widening end of the
Vena cava: carries blood to the heart. ureter which enters the kidney.
Ureter: leads urine to the urine bladder. Ureter: It leads urine to the urinary bladder
Urine bladder: stores urine before it is Nephron: This is the functional unit of the
expelled from the body. kidney. It performs the functions of the
Sphincter: ring of muscles that regulate kidney.
flow of urine into the urethra. Renal artery: It receives blood from the
Urethra: leads urine to outside the body. aorta. Blood in the renal artery has high
concentration of metabolic wastes such as
PARTS OF A KIDNEY urea and uric acid. It also has high
concentration of useful substances such as
oxygen.

Renal Vein: It leads blood from the kidneys

to the vena cava. Blood in renal vein has
high concentration of carbon dioxide but
low concentration of urea. The blood also
contains reabsorbed substances.

How the Kidney Functions

Each kidney contains thousands of long

tubes called nephrons that filter substances
Cortex: This is darker outermost part of the from blood. To explain the how the kidney
kidney. It contains glomerulus where ultra- functions we have to look at the working of
filtration takes place. the nephrons. This is because the nephron is
the functional unit of the kidney.

The Nephron

12
 Excretion in the kidney involves two
Arteriole (branch from renal artery): It processes: ultra-filtration and re-absorption
brings blood full of waste to the
glomerulus. Ultra-filtration

Glomerulus: It is a network of blood This takes place in the glomerulus under

capillaries where filtration of blood takes very high pressure. The pressure forces
place. small substances such as water, glucose,
amino acids, urea, salts and vitamins into
Bowman’s capsule: It’s a cup where the Bowman’s capsule. Larger molecules
glomerular filtrate collects after being such as blood proteins, blood cells and
formed. platelets remain in the blood. The
glomerular filtrate moves down the
Proximal convoluted tubule: leads the nephron.
glomerular filtrate down the medulla. There
is selective re-absorption of glucose, amino Selective Re-absorption
acids and ions.
As the glomerular filtrate moves down the
Loop of Henle: This is a U-shaped tube. It nephron useful substances are reabsorbed
is the main site of water re-absorption. into the blood capillaries.

Distal convoluted tubule: This is where Amino acids, glucose and salts are
hormones, vitamins and salts are re- reabsorbed through active transport. Water
absorbed from the glomerular filtrate. is reabsorbed by osmosis. By the time the
glomerular filtrate moves down the nephron
Collecting duct: water is reabsorbed in the it has high concentration of urea, some salts
collecting duct. It also leads the remaining and water. The filtrate is now called urine.
fluid (urine) to the pelvis.

13
Substances That Are Excreted By Good Habits That Promote Proper
Kidneys Functioning of Kidneys

- Urea, uric acid, toxic substances, - Taking adequate amount of water

excess water and excess salts. daily
Comparison of Composition of Blood - Minimising salt intake in food
Plasma and Urine - Reducing intake of food rich in
proteins
Substances Blood Urine - Taking a lot of vegetables which
Plasma (%)
(%) provide vitamins essential to the
Water 92 95 functioning of the kidneys.
Proteins 7 0 - Taking fruits in diet
Glucose 0.1 0 Effects of Water and Salts in Urine
Urea 0.03 2 Production
Function of Kidneys
Water
a. They remove metabolic wastes
from the body. When a person takes a lot fluids the amount
b. They control or regulate water of water in the blood increases. This causes
levels in the body. less water to be reabsorbed in the kidneys
c. They regulate pH levels in the body resulting into productions of large amounts
by controlling levels of hydrogen of dilute urine. The urine is also light in
ions in the blood. colour.
d. They also control chemical
When a person takes less fluid the amount
composition of the blood.
of water in the blood decreases. This causes
Effects of Eating and Drinking habits on
more water to be reabsorbed in the kidneys
Kidneys
resulting into production of small amounts
- Excessive consumption of salt may of concentrated urine. The urine is usually
result into disorders such kidney brown in colour.
stones
Salts
- Excessive protein intake may lead
to kidney stones. Deamination of When a person takes in food with a lot of
excessive proteins form urea and salt the blood solute level becomes higher
uric acid. Uric acid and other and this causes more water to be reabsorbed
chemicals are deposited in the in the kidneys to maintain normal blood
pelvis as kidney stones solute level resulting into low urine output.
- Excessive intake of carbonated The urine is concentrated and brown in
drinks and foods make some colour.
chemical substances to accumulate
in the kidneys causing kidney When the blood has low salt concentration
damage the kidneys absorb less water resulting into
production of large amounts of dilute urine.
- Taking alcohol can cause damage to
The urine is normally light coloured.
the liver and kidneys.

14
Activity: Investigating the Effects of surrounding the kidney tubules. This results
Water on Quantity and Colour of Urine in production of urine which is little,
coloured and very concentrated.
Materials

 Measuring cylinders
 Test tubes When the level of water is high in the blood
 clean and safe water the hypothalamus detects this and
Procedure suppresses the production of ADH by the
pituitary gland. Since ADH is not produced
1. Drink a litre of water. This increases the kidney tubules are less permeable to
water levels in the blood. water and less water is reabsorbed. This
2. Fifteen minutes later urinate in a results in production of large amounts of
measuring cylinder and record the urine which is dilute and light coloured.
volume.
3. Fill a test tube with a sample of the The role of aldosterone in osmo-
urine and throw the rest away. regulation
4. Repeat procedure 2 and 3 three
Aldosterone is a hormone produced in the
times at 15 minute interval
adrenal glands. When the blood has low salt
5. Observe the results
concentration it tends to reabsorb less
Expected Results
water. This can lower blood volume
In the first urination the urine quantity is because the great part of blood is water.
large and the urine is light coloured. The
In case of low salt concentration
urine becomes less in quantity and more
aldosterone is secreted by adrenal glands
brown in colour as water levels in the body
and travels to the kidneys. It stimulates the
decrease with time.
kidneys to reabsorb more salts back into the
Conclusion blood stream. This causes more water to be
reabsorbed to the blood and the blood
Water affects urine quantity and colour. volume is increased.
Osmo-regulation In case of excess water less aldosterone is
produced and salts are not reabsorbed and
This is the control of water levels in the
are lost through urine. This results into
body. This aims to maintain balance of
elimination of excess water through urine.
water in the body. The control of water
levels in the body is affected by a hormone Problems of the Kidneys
called Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH).
When the level of water in the body is low, 1. Proteinuria
the hypothalamus in the brain detects this This condition is indicated by presence of
and sends a message to the pituitary gland protein in urine. This occurs when
to produce ADH. The ADH travels to the capillaries in the glomerulus lose ability to
kidney and makes the kidney tubules more be selectively permeable. They allow large
permeable to water. More water is protein molecules to pass through and enter
reabsorbed by blood capillaries the kidney tubules. These protein molecules

15
are not reabsorbed and are passed out in kidneys are not working properly and urea
urine. accumulates in the blood.

2. Kidney Failure Uremia may cause convulsions, coma,

This is decline in kidney performance due vomiting, diarrhoea and difficulty in
to disease or injury. It can also be failure of breathing.
the kidney to function due to disease or
injury. It is also called renal failure. i. Gout
This is a disorder caused by the absorption
The kidney fails to purify or clean the blood of uric acid salts in the blood. Uric acid salts
by removing the wastes. The toxic wastes forming crystals in kidneys. It is caused by
accumulate in the blood and poison body a diet that has too much organ meat such as
cells and this can lead to death. kidneys and organ meat. Patients are given
medications that break up the uric acid into
Causes of Kidney failure harmless compound.
a. Inflammation of the Kidney j. Diabetes Insipidus
This is caused by bacterial infection or This is a condition in which the kidney fails
blockage of the ureter. to reabsorb the water in the glomerular
b. Inflammation of the Glomerulus filtrate leading to too much water in the
(Glomerular nephritis ) urine. This is caused by failure to produce
It is caused by antibodies that are anti-diuretic hormone by the pituitary gland
trapped in the glomerulus. It can also be leading to failure by the kidney to reabsorb
caused by rupturing of the glomerulus. adequate water.

c. Kidney Stones k. Pyelonephritis

These are small crystallised substances This is a bacterial infection of the renal
such as calcium. They block and cause pelvis. The bacteria invade the kidneys
ulcers in kidneys. from other sites of infection in the body.
The kidney becomes swollen and filled
d. Birth defects with pus. This can be treated with
Some people are born with abnormal antibiotics.
kidneys.
Prevention of Kidney Failure
e. Physical Damage
This occurs through due to accidents. - Treating infections to avoid
infection of kidneys
f. Drop in blood pressure due to heart - Proper diet. Avoid excess proteins
failure, haemorrhage or shock to prevent gout
g. Low blood pressure leading to - Avoid foods that contain toxic such
failure to form urine and the kidney as arsenic and carbon tetrachloride
stops working. - Avoid or reduce alcohol intake
h. Uremia manage other diseases such as
Uremia is a condition in which there is diabetes mellitus and hypertension
excess urea in the blood. It occurs when the Treatment for Kidney Failure

16
 - Kidney transplants: a healthy - Exercise to dislodge the stones from
kidney from one person to a person the ureter as one urinates
who needs it. - Control diet to reduce intake of
- Dialysis treatment: it is used to concerned minerals
clean the blood of a person. - Dialysis treatment
3. Kidney Cancer - Increase water intake
Kidney cancer is common in males. The Dialysis Machine
Nicotine in cigarettes increases chances of
kidney cancer. Dialysis is a process by which wastes,
excess water and excess salts are removed
Symptoms of kidney cancer in an artificial way from the body.

- Swelling of the renal vein of the

kidney. The cancerous cells may
spread to the blood
- Secondary development of tumours
in the lungs and bones
- In children it affects the renal
vessels and spreads to the lungs.
Treatment can be through radiotherapy and
chemotherapy.

4. Blockage of the Ureters How the Dialysis Machine Works

This is also called renal colic.
The patient is connected to machine by
Causes inserting a catheter into an artery. This is
connected to a flexible tube leading to the
- It is caused by deposits of mineral machine and to a vein. In the machine
salts in the ureter. The minerals may wastes and excess water and salts are
later block the ureters removed. Blood flows in a tube or tubes
Symptoms of renal colic which are semi-permeable and are
surrounded by special fluid called dialysis
- Sudden extreme pain with vomiting
fluid. The dialysis fluid and blood flow in
when they into the ureter
opposite directions (counter-current
- Signs of shock and patient may
system) which maximises diffusion
collapse
gradient. The dialysis fluid has no
- Blood stains in urine
concentration of wastes; therefore, wastes
- Passing frequent small amounts of
diffuse from blood into dialysis fluid.
urine as the ureter is partially
Excess water, excess water, excess amino
blocked.
acids and urea diffuse out of the blood into
- Urination may stop completely
the dialysis fluid.. The dialysis fluid has the
Treatment
same concentration of useful substances
- Administer pain killers such as glucose, glycerol, and ions to that of
- Surgery to remove to remove blood. This prevents loss of nutrients
deposited minerals through diffusion. The dialysis may branch

17
into smaller tubes to increase surface area - Both purify the blood of wastes
of diffusion. - Both use diffusion and osmosis
principles
Notes
Differences between Dialysis
- Heparin is added to prevent blood Machine and Kidneys
clotting in the dialyser.
- Dialysis machine is used for a short
- The pump draws blood from the period of time while a kidney works
artery and increases the blood
continuously.
pressure.
- Ultrafiltration does not take place in
- The bubble traps trap traps or
dialysis machine but occurs in
removes air bubbles from blood.
kidneys
This prevents gas embolism where
- The dialysis machine does not
air may get into the body of a
respond to hormones such as ADH
patient. The air may block blood
while the kidney responds
supply to vital organs such as brain
- In kidneys selective reabsorption
or heart resulting into death.
occurs while in dialysis machine it
Similarities between a Kidney and
does not occur.
Dialysis Machine

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Kidney Transplant And Dialysis

Advantages Disadvantages
Dialysis  No major surgery  Diet needs to be
needed carefully controlled
 Sometimes there is  Restricts normal life as
no waiting list-it the patient is treated for
prevents people about 8 to 10 hours
from dying under treatment
Kidney Transplant  No need for dialysis  Major surgery has many
 The recipient can risks
lead a relatively  There is possibility of
normal life organ rejection
 Diet does not need  Immunosuppressant
to be controlled drugs need to be taken
for life
REVISION EXERCISE

1. a. What is the difference between secretion and excretion?

b. Briefly describe the following processes involved in excretion in kidneys
i. Ultra-filtration
ii. Selective re-absorption
iii. Osmo-regulation
2. The table below shows composition of blood and urine. Use it to answer questions that
follow.

18
a. Give one substance that is present in blood but completely absent in urine.
b. Apart from urea and water mention other two substances that are more concentrated in
urine than in blood.
c. Mention the hormone that regulates blood water levels.
d. Why is urea excreted in large quantities? Explain.
3. The figure below shows a vertical section through the human kidney. Use it to answer
questions that follow.

a. Identify the parts marked O and N

b. Which of the blood vessels K and L is the renal vein? Explain your answer.
c. Describe the difference in concentration of the following substances in blood vessels L
and K.
i. Urea
ii. Carbon dioxide
iii. Glucose
d. State the conditions indicated by the presence of the following in urine
i. Glucose
ii. Proteins
e. Briefly describe the role of ADH in osmo-regulation.
4. The figure below shows the dialysis machine. Use it to answer questions that follow.

19
a. Why are there many smaller tubes other one long tube in the dialyser?
b. Why are the blood and dialysis fluid moving in opposite directions in the dialyser?
c. Explain how loss of useful substances is avoided in the dialysis machine.
d. State the similarity between the tubes of the dialysis machine and kidney tubules.

20
 THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiration is the breakdown of organic Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
food substances to release energy. + Water + Energy
Respiration takes place in cell organelles
called mitochondria. C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
+ 2898Kj

60% of the energy is in form of heat energy

which is lost or used to warm up the body.
Some energy is immediately used by the
cell.

The remainder is converted to storable

form of energy molecule called Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a
The mitochondrion is adapted for combination of a complex organic molecule
respiration because: called Adenosine and three phosphate
a. It is highly folded which creates groups.
large surface area for respiration. When the third phosphate group is removed
b. It contains enzymes and other the stored energy is released. Adenosine is
special molecules required for left with two phosphate groups called
respiration Adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
Mitochondria are found in almost all cells
but they are abundant in cells that need a lot In aerobic respiration glucose is completely
of energy such as sperms and muscle cells. broken down hence the release of energy in
large quantities.
Breathing: the taking in of oxygen and
release of carbon dioxide by animals. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Gaseous exchange: the exchange of The release of energy from organic food
oxygen and carbon dioxide across a substances in the absence of oxygen. In
membrane. plants and fungi it is called alcoholic
fermentation. Because alcohol or ethanol
There are two types of respiration is produced.
a. Aerobic respiration Glucose ethanol + Carbon
b. Anaerobic respiration dioxide+ Energy
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
C6H12O6 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 +
This type of respiration takes place in the 210kJ
presence of oxygen. Glucose reacts with
oxygen and produces carbon dioxide, water Energy is the main product, and Carbon
and energy. Energy is the main product; dioxide and ethanol are by-products of
water and carbon dioxide are by-products. anaerobic respiration in plants.

21
In animals like human muscles anaerobic produces ethanol and carbon
respiration is called lactic fermentation dioxide in plants and lactic acid in
because acid is produced. animals as by-products
- Aerobic respiration by-products are
Glucose Lactic acid + energy simple substances that cannot be
C6H12O6 2CH3CHOHCOOH + broken down further while in
150Kj anaerobic respiration the by-
products are complex substances
In animals, anaerobic respiration produces that can be broken down further.
energy as a main product and lactic acid Uses of Energy Produced by Respiration
as a by-product.
a. Energy is used for growth e.g. in
Lactic acid is toxic when it accumulates in protein synthesis.
animal cells. It causes muscle fatigue. It is b. Heat energy is used to warm up the
usually broken down to water and carbon body- to maintain body
dioxide. temperature.
c. Is used in active transport to move
This happens when oxygen becomes
molecules against concentration
available. The amount of oxygen needed to
gradient.
break down lactic acid is called oxygen
d. Movement-contraction of muscles
debt.
requires energy.
Similarities between Aerobic and GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN LIVING
Anaerobic Respiration THINGS

- They both produce energy Gaseous exchange is the diffusion of

- In both, glucose as a raw material is oxygen and carbon dioxide across a
broken down into simpler forms. gaseous exchange structure.
- Both do not require oxygen in the
Importance of gaseous exchange
first stages of the processes.
Differences between Aerobic and a. Organisms are able to obtain useful
Anaerobic Respiration gases from their environment
b. Organisms are able to get rid of
- Aerobic respiration uses oxygen
waste gases into their environment
while anaerobic respiration does not
Properties of Efficient Gaseous
use oxygen.
Exchange Structures
- Aerobic respiration produces a lot
of energy per glucose molecule a. They are permeable to oxygen and
because glucose is completely carbon dioxide
broken down while anaerobic b. They are moist-to dissolve the gases
respiration produces small amount so that they are transported by blood
of energy because glucose is in animals with transport systems
partially broken down. c. They are thin for faster diffusion
- Aerobic respiration produce water due to short distance
and carbon dioxide as by-products
while anaerobic respiration

22
 d. They are rich in blood capillaries in a. Allows organisms to get oxygen for
animals with transport systems to respiration in cells
transport gases. b. Enables organisms to get rid of
e. They have large surface area for carbon dioxide produced by
maximum gaseous exchange respiration
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS Structure of the Human Respiratory
System
Gaseous exchange in lungs is between the
air and blood cells. In the tissues it is Twelve pairs of ribs surround and protect
between tissue fluid and cells. The fluid the lungs and the heart. Intercoastal muscles
surrounding cells is called tissue fluid. are attached to the ribs.
Tissue fluid has higher concentration of
oxygen than cells and oxygen diffuses from A large sheet of muscle (diaphragm)
tissue fluid into the cells. On the other hand separates the thorax from the abdomen.
carbon dioxide is highly concentrated in
cells than in surrounding tissue fluid.
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of cells into
tissue fluid.

Similarities between Exchange of gases

in Lungs and Tissues

- In both, oxygen and carbon dioxide

diffuse along their concentration
gradients.
- In both hemoglobin found in red The nostrils/nasal cavity: have hairs that
blood cells is the transport agent. filter the air. It also warms and moistens the
Differences between Exchange of Gases air.
in Lungs and Tissues
The pharynx: it is located behind the nasal
- In lungs gaseous exchange is cavity and above the larynx. It is a food and
between air and the blood cells air passage.
while in gaseous exchange is
between tissue fluid and cells. Trachea: made of rings of cartilage that
- In lungs oxygen diffuses into blood keeps the trachea open. Rings of cartilage
cells and carbon dioxide diffuses prevent the collapse of the trachea during
out into the air while in tissues inhalation.
oxygen diffuses from tissue fluid Larynx/Voice box: it is a passage of air. It
into cells and carbon dioxide has two membranes called vocal cords. The
diffuses from cells into the tissue vocal cords can be made to vibrate to
fluid. produce speech.
- In lungs it takes place faster while in
tissues its slower. Bronchi: these are branches of the trachea.
Importance of Gaseous exchange They branch into bronchial tubes which

23
further divide into bronchioles that lead to ADAPTATION OF THE ALVEOLUS
the alveoli. FOR GASEOUS EXCHANGE.

Alveoli: they are a site of gaseous exchange a. It has a network of blood capillaries
in lungs. that carry the gases being
exchanged.
Diaphragm: a dome shaped sheet of b. Thin walls in between capillaries
muscles located at the bottom of the rib and alveolus –gases diffuse faster.
cage. During inhalation it contracts and c. It is lined with a thin film of
moves downwards and increases volume of moisture to dissolve the diffusing
chest cavity and air rushes into lungs. gases.
During exhalation it relaxes and air is d. Diffusion gradient: There are
expelled. differences in concentrations of
Intercoastal muscles: during inhalation the gases in the blood and alveolus,
external intercoastal muscles contract and more oxygen in alveolus than the
pull the chest cavity upwards and outwards. blood hence oxygen diffuses into
This increases volume of the chest cavity capillaries, and more carbon
and air rushes into the lungs. During dioxide in blood capillaries hence
exhalation internal intercoastal muscles oxygen diffuses into the alveolus.
contract pulling the chest cavity inwards e. They are numerous: increase
and downwards and air rushes out. surface area for gaseous exchange.
The lung is surrounded by a pleural cavity.
The alveolus It is a space lined by pleural membranes,
membranes protect the lungs, stop them
leaking air into the thoracic cavity. In
between the membranes there is pleural
fluid that reduces friction between lungs
and thorax.

Adaptations of Lungs for Exchange of

Gases

Lungs

a. Presence of numerous alveoli-

increases surface area for gaseous
exchange
This is the site of gaseous exchange in b. Trachea has rings of cartilage to
lungs. hold the trachea open.
Oxygen diffuses through a thin epithelium c. Alveoli have thin walls for fast
of the alveolus and the endothelium of the diffusion of gases.
capillaries. It combines with haemoglobin d. Alveoli have dense network of
to form oxy-haemoglobin. Carbon dioxide blood capillaries for gas transport
diffuses in reverse direction.

24
The trachea has cilia and goblet cells that BREATHING OUT (EXHALATION)
produce mucus-cilia and mucus help to
clean the respiratory system

Breathing mechanism

Breathing is the taking of air into and

outside the lungs.

The following structures help in breathing:

i. Ribs
ii. Diaphragm
iii. Intercostals muscle (both external
and internal)
Breathing takes place in two phases:

i. Breathing in (inspiration) Diaphragm relaxes and returns to its dome

ii. Breathing out (expiration) shape. External intercoastal muscles relax
BREATHING IN (INHALATION) but internal contract and pull rib cage
downwards and inwards. Lung volume
decreases and pressure increases. Air
rushes out.

Adaptations of the Respiratory

structures in Human Beings

- The nasal passage has hairs and

mucus that trap dust particles and
other foreign particles coming with
inhaled air.
- The trachea is lined with ciliated
cells (goblet cells). The cilia sweep
the mucus with trapped particles out
of the respiratory tract.
- There a tissue of cartilage called
Diaphragm contracts and moves
epiglottis in the larynx that closes
downwards (flattens). External intercoastal
the trachea during swallowing to
muscles contract and pull the rib cage
prevent entry of food into the
upwards and outwards. This increases the
trachea.
volume of the chest cavity. Air pressure
- The trachea and nasal cavity have a
inside the chest cavity and that of the lungs
dense network of blood capillaries
decreases compared to atmospheric air
close to the surface which warms
pressure. Air rushes into the lungs from the
the inhaled air.
atmosphere.

25
 - Lungs have numerous alveoli which More oxygen is needed for respiration to
provide a large surface area for provide energy for the physical exercise.
exchange of gases. Breathing rate increases to increase oxygen
- The trachea is made of rings of intake.
cartilage that keep it always open.
- The alveoli are thin to enable faster d) Atmospheric pressure and
diffusion of gases. oxygen concentration
- The alveoli are surrounded by a High pressure means more oxygen is
dense network of blood capillaries available and breathing rate is normal. Less
for efficient transport of the gases pressure means less oxygen is available and
exchanged. breathing rate increases to get more oxygen.
Regulation/control of Breathing. e) Emotional changes in the body
Breathing is controlled by the Medulla Emotional changes in the body may include
oblongata. Medulla oblongata monitors the things like panicking, fright. These cause
levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the the production of adrenaline which
blood stream and adjusts the breathing rate increases breathing and respiration rates.
to maintain balance of the gases. In case of f) Health condition of the body
high carbon dioxide concentration, Health people usually breathe normally.
receptors in the medulla oblongata detect Sick people may breathe faster or slower
this. The oblongata sends impulses to the depending on the infection.
breathing structures to increase breathing
rate for faster oxygen intake and carbon Activity: Investigating the Effect of
dioxide expulsion. Exercise on Breathing Rate

Factors That Influence Breathing Rate Materials

a) Carbon dioxide concentration in  Stop watch

the Blood  Students
An increase in carbon dioxide  Rope
concentration in the blood leads to Procedure
increased rate of breathing. This increases
rate of carbon dioxide expulsion and 1. Count the number of breaths for 5
oxygen intake hence increasing oxygen minutes of a student while he or she
concentration in the blood. is standing.
2. Calculate the breathing rate per
b) Haemoglobin content or Amount minute and record.
of Red Blood Cells in the body 3. Let the student skip twenty times
When red blood cells or haemoglobin are with the rope.
low in the body less oxygen is transported 4. Count the number of breaths for 5
to cells. This causes the breathing rate to minutes of the student after
increase to compensate for shortfall and skipping.
meet the oxygen demands of the body. 5. Calculate the breathing rate per
minute and record the breathing
c) Physical exercises
rate.

26
Result Tidal volume: the volume of air breathed
in and out during one normal resting breath
Exercise increases breathing rate. (0.5L)
Effects of exercise on breathing Complementary air: when breathing
deeply 2 litres of air is forced in and out of
the lungs. The extra 1.5 litres on top of tidal
air is called complementary air.

Inspiratory capacity: It is the maximum

amount of air that can be inspired.

Inspiratory reserve volume: the extra

volume inhaled over and above the tidal
volume.

Expiratory reserve volume: the extra

volume of air expelled above the tidal
a. Increases the rate of breathing volume.
(number of breaths per minute) to Functional residual capacity: is the
expel carbon dioxide and get amount of air remaining in the lungs after
oxygen normal expiration.
b. Increases depth of breathing.
c. Increased concentration of carbon During exercise a person takes in and
dioxide in the blood due to expels an additional 3 litres to tidal air. 3
increased respiration litres of air is exchanged during exercise.
d. Decrease of amount of oxygen in This air is called vital lung capacity-the
the blood due to an increase in the maximum volume of air breathed in and out
amount of oxygen used for from deepest inhalation and deepest
respiration. exhalation.
Complete breath= one inhalation + one
Residual air: the amount of air that cannot
exhalation. During normal breathing the
be expelled during breathing. It is about 1.5
rate is 12-18 breaths per minute. During an
litres.
exercise breathing rate may go up to 27
breaths per minute. Residual air = lung capacity−vital
capacity.
LUNG VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES

The average female has lung capacity of 4 The Spirometer is the device that is used to
measure the volume of air going in and out
litres and adult male 5 litres.
of lungs.
Lung capacity: is the total amount of air
held by lungs when they are fully inflated Activity: Measuring lung Capacity
(4L for females and 5L for males) Materials

 Meter rule

27
  Two large balloons of equal size Causes of Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Procedure
a. Running generators or small
1. Inhale normally and then exhale engines inside buildings.
normally into the first balloon. Do b. Burning charcoal in poorly
not force your breathing. ventilated rooms
2. Hold the mouth of the balloon and c. Chimneys that are not working
measure its diameter. properly or are blocked
3. Repeat the procedures 1 and 2 three How Carbon Monoxide Occurs
times so that you have three
The poisoning occurs after inhalation of
measurements.
carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide has
4. Take a very deep breath and exhale
higher affinity for haemoglobin than
with maximum force into the
oxygen in that it readily combines with
second balloon. Measure the
haemoglobin to form
diameter of the balloon. Repeat this
carboxyhaemoglobin. Unlike
step three times with the second
oxyhaemoglobin, which splits readily in
balloon.
cells to release oxygen,
carboxyhaemoglobin is very stable and
does not easily split. In this case it does not
release oxygen for use by cells.

Since cells are denied oxygen, they cannot

respire to produce energy. This results in
fatigue (lack of energy), headache and
unconsciousness or death. Due to lack of
energy body processes stop taking place
and a person may die due to suffocation.
This is called carbon monoxide poisoning.
Results
First Aid for Carbon Monoxide
The volume of air in the second balloon is Poisoning
greater than in the first balloon.
Take the person out of the room and make
NB: The forced breathing constitutes vital them lay comfortably in an open space. If
capacity of the lung. The normal breathing air circulation is not sufficient fan the
out represents tidal volume. patient. If the person is having difficulties
in breathing then use mouth to mouth
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning resuscitation (kiss of life).
Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs after Ways of Preventing Carbon Monoxide
inhalation of a lot of carbon monoxide. Poisoning
Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas. Carbon
Monoxide (CO) is a product of incomplete a. Do not run generators or small
combustion (burning) of organic materials engines inside houses or buildings.
in insufficient oxygen. b. Ensure that chimneys are working

28
 c. Avoid burning charcoal in poorly
ventilated rooms
Abnormal Conditions Associated with Effects of Smoking
the Respiratory system. a. Respiratory Infections
Cigarette smoke contains substances that
a. Asthma
Asthma is a disorder resulting from the irritate the respiratory tract hence
inflammation or swelling of the respiratory increasing mucus production. The cilia on
tract. The bronchi and bronchioles constrict the respiratory tract are destroyed and
leading to narrowing of the air passages bacteria and other harmful substances are
leading to difficulties in breathing. not removed. This may result in lung
infections such as bronchitis and
Asthmatic attacks are caused by allergens emphysema.
such as dust, pollen grains, sprays, dust
mites and perfumes. Asthma can lead to b. Addiction
stiffness of the chest, wheezing sound in the Nicotine in tobacco is addictive leading to
chest and exhaustion due to reduced oxygen the person to depend on the smoking habit.
levels. c. Cancer
Smoke from cigarettes contains tar which is
b. Bronchitis
This is the inflammation of the bronchial a carcinogen. The carcinogen encourages
tubes. The membrane in the bronchial tubes cancerous cells to develop in the lungs by
produce thick mucus that blocks or narrows damaging DNA of the cells.
the air passages leading to difficulties in d. Harm to foetus
breathing. Tobacco smoke contains carbon monoxide
Bronchitis can be caused by infections, air and nicotine. Carbon monoxide may
pollution and cigarette smoking. combine with foetal haemoglobin leading
to retarded foetal growth, may also result
c. Pulmonary tuberculosis into still-borns or miscarriages.
It is caused by a bacterium called
mycobacterium tuberculosis. The Activity: To devlop a Futures Wheel on
bacterium destroy lung tissues making Effects of Smoking
difficult for the infected person to breathe. Materials
It can lead to death if not properly treated.
 Flip chart paper
d. Lung Cancer  Marker pens
This develops due to formation of tumours
 Notebooks
in alveoli. Cells from the tumours can
Procedure
spread other parts of the body. If untreated
it can lead to death. 1. Work in groups of four students
2. List the effects of smoking
Smoking
3. Group the effects into long term or
Tobacco contains about 300 chemical short term effects
compounds. Most of these are harmful to 4. Draw a circle on paper and divide it
lungs. into two halves

29
 5. Divide the circle into sections 4. a. Describe any three effects of
depending on the number of effects. smoking.
6. Write the effects in the relevant b. State any two abnormal
spaces in the circle. This forms the conditions associated with the
futures wheel on effects of smoking human respiratory system.
as shown below. c. Describe how you can
measure lung capacity
d. Explain how the following
affect breathing rate
i. haemoglobin content
ii. carbon dioxide
concentration
iii. physical exercise
iv. oxygen concentration
5. The figure below shows
volume of air in lungs of a
child at to the start of the
exercise.

REVISION EXERCISE

1. Define the following

a. Respiration
b. Residual air
c. Lung capacity
2. a. state any two ways in which
the alveolus is adapted to its
function.
b. Describe how exchange of
gases takes place in lungs
c. State any two properties of
an efficient gaseous exchange a. At what time does the child
structure start the exercise?
3. a. Mention any three effects of b. What is the maximum
exercise on breathing volume of air inspired
b. Describe how carbon during the exercise?
monoxide poisoning occurs c. Calculate number of breaths
c. Describe how medulla per minute
oblongata regulates breathing i. At rest
d. Describe any three ii. After exercise
adaptations of the human d. Explain why there is an
respiratory system. increase in breathing rate
between 20-40 second
e. s

30
 COORDINATION
The linking together of various processes in an animal is called coordination. In humans and
other mammals nervous and endocrine systems bring about coordination.

Definition of Terms i. The central nervous system (CNS):

this consists of the brain and the
Stimulus: the change in the environment of spinal cord
an organism that influence the behaviour of ii. The peripheral nervous system: this
an organism. consists of a branching system of
Irritability: the ability of an organism to nerves linking the brain (cranial
respond to a stimulus. nerves) and spinal cord (spinal
nerves) with all parts of the body.
Receptors: these are parts of the body that Functions of the nervous system
detect stimuli such as eyes, ears, nose and
skin and tongue. i. Receiving stimuli from the
environment.
Effectors: these are parts of the body that ii. Converting the stimuli into
respond to a stimulus. electrical impulses, a process called
transduction.
Impulse: electrical message or information
iii. Transmitting impulses over
transmitted by nerve cells or neurones.
distances.
Neurone: a specialised cell that conducts iv. Interpretation of impulses and
impulses. coordination of responses to
stimuli.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system or any mammal

consists of:

STRUCTURE OF A NEURONE

Dendrites/Dendron: transmit impulses to Axons: transmit impulses away from the

the cell body. cell body.

Cell body: produce an appropriate impulse.

31
Myelin sheath: insulate axons hence speed Synaptic knobs: transmit impulses to other
up impulse transmission. neurones.

Nodes of Ranvier: speed up transmission

of impulses.

TYPES OF NEURONES

There are three types of neurones: sensory neurones relay neurones and motor neurones.

1. Sensory Neurone

Sensory neurones are also called receptor neurones. They are connected with sense organs. The
cell body is located along their length and they have myelin sheath.

Function of sensory neurone

- They transmit impulses from receptors (sense organs) to the central nervous system.
2. Relay Neurone

Relay neurones are also called association Function of Relay Neurone

neurones. They do not have myelin sheath.
They have short axons. They are located in - Store information.
the grey matter of the brain and spinal cord.

- Link sensory and motor neurones by relaying impulses from sensory to motor neurones.

32
 3. Motor Neurone

Motor neurones have myelin sheath. They Functions of Motor Neurones

have long axons. Their cell bodies are
located at the end of the axons. They are - They carry impulses from the
connected to effectors such as glands and central nervous system (the spinal
muscles. Cell bodies of motor neurones are cord and the brain) to the effectors
located in the central nervous system. (muscles and glands).

Nerve impulse Transmission by a Neurone

An impulse involves propagation of electric charges along a neurone.

Nerve impulse transmission occurs in two stages

- Resting potential
- Action potential
Resting Potential The concentration of sodium ions is more
When a neurone is not conducting an on the outside than the inside of the
impulse it is said to be at resting potential. membrane. There are more potassium ions

33
and chloride ions on the inside than the Impulse Transmission across a Synapse
outside. Due to diffusion of potassium ions
from the inside to outside the net charge is An impulse arrives at the synapse. The
negative on the inside and positive on the seminal vesicles in synaptic knobs release
outside. The neurone is said to be polarised. neurotransmitters into the synapse. The
The inside is negative due to negatively neurotransmitters diffuse across the gap and
charged molecules and chloride. bind to the dendrites of other neurones and
cause formation of the same impulse and
Action Potential
Stimulation of the membrane reverses the the impulse restarts on the other side. Once
flow of ions across the membrane. The the impulse has crossed the synapse the
membrane becomes depolarised (more neurotransmitters are destroyed.
permeable to ions). Sodium ions diffuse to NB: Examples of neurotransmitters include
inside. Chloride ions diffuse outside to acetylcholine, noradrenalin, dopamine and
balance the charge. The inside of the serotonin.
membrane becomes positively charged and
the outside negatively charged. The reverse Functions of Synapses
in charges is called action potential and the
- Ensure unidirectionality-ensures
neurone conducts the impulse in this
movement of impulse to one
condition. When the impulse passes the
direction.
node of ranvier there is restoration of the
- Amplification-impulses are
charge. Sodium ions diffuse to the outside
amplified
using the sodium potassium pumps that use
- Prevent overstimulation
energy. Potassium ions and chloride ions
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
diffuse to the inside. The outside becomes
positively charged and the inside negatively The brain is made up of two halves called
charged. The neurone goes to resting hemispheres (the right and left
potential ready for another impulse. hemispheres). The hemispheres are
SYNAPSE interconnected by a group of nerves called
corpus callosum. The right hemisphere
controls activities of the left side of the
body while the left hemisphere controls
activities of the right side of the body.

The outermost part of the brain is grey due

to cell bodies and innermost part is white
due to axons. The brain is covered by two
membranes called meninges. The outer
membrane is called dura matter. It
A synapse is a microscopic gap between protects the brain from mechanical damage.
one neurone and the next. It is the gap The inner membrane is called the pia
between the end plate of one neurone and matter-it has blood capillaries and lymph
the dendrite of the next. Impulses are vessels. Between the dura matter and pia
carried across the synapse by chemicals matter there is space filled with a fluid
called neurotransmitters. called cerebro-spinal fluid. The cerebro-

34
spinal fluid performs the following Functions of the Cerebellum
functions:
i. Coordination of body movements
i. Distributes oxygen and nutrients to (muscular coordination).
the nervous tissues. ii. Maintains balance and posture
ii. Acts as a shock absorber by hence is called gyroscope.
cushioning it against iii. Ensures dexterity in fine
physical/mechanical damage. movements like playing the guitar,
iii. The fluid contains lymphocytes sewing and typing.
which protect the brain against 3. Medulla Oblongata
disease infections. This is the hind most and smallest part of
Functions of the Major Parts of the Brain the brain.

Functions of the Medulla Oblongata

i. It controls vital reflexes that

regulate heart beat rate, breathing,
blood circulation and blood
pressure.
ii. It controls non-vital reflexes that
coordinate swallowing, salivation,
coughing and sneezing.
The following are the general functions of
1. Cerebrum
the brain
This is the largest part of the human brain.
It is divided into right and left cerebral i. It receives and interprets impulses
hemispheres. Its outer layer is called from all sensory organs of the body.
cerebral cortex or grey matter. It is highly ii. It sends off impulses to glands and
folded hence higher number of neurones. muscles causing them to function as
The large surface area enables humans to effectors.
carry out complex activities. iii. It stores information so that
behaviour can be modified
Functions of the Cerebrum
according to past experience.
i. It is the memory centre. THE SPINAL CORD
ii. It is involved in learning.
The spinal cord is an extension of the brain
iii. It is the intelligence centre.
running from the base of the brain down the
iv. It is involved in creativity and
back. It is protected by the vertebrae of the
imagination.
backbone and meninges. The outer parts of
v. Contains centres for all five senses
the spinal cord contain the white matter and
which receive and interpret
the inner part contains the grey matter.
impulses from sense receptors.
2. Cerebellum Cross-section of the Spinal Cord
The cerebellum is located below the rear
part of the cerebellum. It is smaller than the
cerebrum. It is also highly folded.

35
 REFLEX ACTIONS

A reflex action is a rapid automatic

response to a stimulus which is not under
voluntary control of the brain. The nervous
pathway taken by a nerve impulse is called
a reflex arc.

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves and these

divide form two branches, the dorsal and
ventral roots.

Dorsal root: also known as the sensory root

is made of sensory neurones that bring
impulses from receptors.

Ventral root: also known as motor root is

made of motor neurones that carry impulses The reflex arc consists of five distinct parts:
from the spinal cord to effectors. i. Receptor to receive stimulus
Ganglion: is a bulge made by cell bodies ii. Sensory neurone which carry
sensory neurones in the dorsal root. All cell impulses from receptors to central
bodies apart from those of the dorsal root nervous system.
are concentrated in the grey matter. The iii. Multipolar neurone-relays impulses
white matter consists of nerve fibres. from sensory neurone to motor
neurone.
White matter: it covers the peripheral iv. Motor neurone-carries impulses
areas of the grey matter. The white matter from central nervous to the
consists of nerve fibres that carry impulses effectors.
up and down the spinal cord. v. Effector to give response to
stimulus.
Grey matter: this is a butterfly shaped that
Cranial reflexes are those reflexes
appear grey in fresh tissue. It is grey due to
controlled by the brain. The reflexes
presence of numerous cell bodies.
include breathing, blinking, pupil reflexes,
Central/spinal canal: it is a small clear salivation, heartbeat and swallowing.
space. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Spinal reflexes are controlled by the spinal
cord. Examples of spinal reflexes include
Functions of the Spinal Cord knee and ankle jerks. Withdrawing a hand
from a hot/sharp object is controlled by
i. It links nerves of the peripheral
both the brain and the spinal cord.
nervous system with the brain.
ii. Coordinates certain automatic or Types of Action
reflex responses.
36
There are two types of reflex actions: Results

i. Simple reflex actions The lower leg is jerked forward.

ii. Conditioned reflex actions 2. Ankle Jerk

Simple Reflex Actions Materials

This is a reflex action in which a stimulus  Students

always produces a natural response. Simple
reflexes are not learnt.  Reflex hammer

Examples of Simple Reflex Actions Procedure

- Knee jerk reactions 1. A student must kneel on a chair and

let feet lay loosely
- Salivation at sight of food
2. Tap the back of the student’s foot
- Secretion of tears when onion is just above the foot
peeled near you
3. Observe what happens
- Sneezing
4. Repeat the procedure
- Quick withdrawal of a hand or
finger from a hot object Results

Practical Activities on Reflex Actions The ankle is jerked.

1. Knee Jerk

Materials 3. The Blink Reflex

 Students Materials

 Taylor’s hammer or reflex  Students

hammer Procedure
Procedure 1. Let a student open his or her eyes.
1. A student has to sit on a table with The student should look straight
legs hanging loosely ahead.

2. With a taylor’s hammer gently tap 2. Another student should suddenly

the student on the knee just below wave their hand in front of the first
the knee cap student’s eyes

3. Observe what happens 3. Observe what happens

4. Repeat the procedure 4. Repeat the procedure

Results

37
The first student blinks iii. An organism is exposed to the
substitute stimulus only. The
CONDITIONED REFLEXES same response is produced.
Conditioned reflexes are reflexes that are
Importance of Reflex Actions
acquired through training and past
experience. a. They protect the body from harm.
Reflexes that protect the body from
Examples of conditioned reflexes harm include blinking, withdrawal
- Cycling, walking, driving, of a hand from a hot or sharp object.
salivation upon hearing noon bell at b. They help to in control of internal
boarding school and going to class environment (homeostasis) such as
when the bell rings at 7:30 am. heart beat, breathing and blood
pressure.
In an experiment a Russian scientist Ivan c. Help in learning skills such sewing
Pavlov rang a bell when he fed dogs. and cycling.
d. Some animals use reflex actions to
catch prey and obtain food.
INVESTIGATIONS ON
COORDINATION

1. To Investigate the Effect of Time

of the Day on Memorising
Materials

 Two lists of words

 Stop watch
Procedure

1. Write down two lists of 20 words on

two separate sheets.
The dogs then salivated in response to the
2. Memorise the list of words on one
bell even when no food was given. The
sheet in the morning for 5 minutes.
natural stimulus (food) has been replaced
3. Write down the number of words
by unnatural one (the bell). This is an
you can remember from the sheet at
example of a conditioned reflex.
noon.
Steps Involved in Conditioning an 4. In the evening after school try to
Organism memorise the words on the second
sheet for 5 minutes
i. An organism is exposed to a 5. Write down the number of words
natural stimulus. A response is you can remember from the second
produced. sheet before going to sleep.
Results
ii. An organism is exposed to both
natural and substitute stimulus. More words memorised in the morning
The same response is produced. were recalled than those memorised in the

38
evening after school. In the morning are Sedatives/depressants: these drugs act by
fresh after. reducing brain cell activity hence reduce
anxiety and induce sleep. Examples of
Conclusion sedatives include valium, alcohol and
Time of the day affects our ability to opium.
memorise or record information. Stimulants: these speed up the action of the
1. To Investigate Effects of Practice nervous system. Stimulants make the drug
on Hitting a Target user more confident and alert. Examples
Materials include caffeine and nicotine.

 Dart board Pain killers (analgesics): they suppress the

 Arrows/ball part of the brain or spinal cord responsible
for pain or inhibit formation of impulse at
Procedure
the site of pain. Examples of pain killers
1. Make a mark on the dart board. include aspirin, morphine and ibuprofen.
2. Aim the mark using arrows/ball
3. Take ten attempts (1st round) and Hallucinogens: these drugs cause
count number of hits to target you hallucinations or illusions. Hallucinations
make. are perceptions of somebody or something
4. Continue for about ten rounds (100 that is not there. Examples of hallucinations
attempts). Record the number of hits include cannabis, lysergic and
to the target you make in each round. diethylamide.
Result Effects Of Alcohol On The Central
At the beginning there were few hits on the Nervous System
target. As rounds continued hits on target a. It slows down the transmission of
increased. impulses which slows down the
speed at which a person can respond
Conclusion
to a stimulus.
Practice increases accuracy in hitting the b. It damages brain cells hence affects
target. memory and judgement.
c. It increases the feeling of aggression
NB: Exposure to one stimulus for repeated resulting to increased violence.
times make the brain to coordinate repeated d. It interferes with body balance
activities faster and more accurately. resulting to unconsciousness
DRUGS AND THE CENTRAL convulsions.
NERVOUS SYSTEM Alcohol taken by a pregnant woman may
diffuse across the placenta to the foetus.
A drug is a chemical substance that can alter Alcohol causes the following effects on the
the way in which a part of the body works. foetus:
Drug abuse is the use of drugs in a way that
can cause harm to the person using them or i. Poor mental development by
someone else. Drugs affecting the brain and slowing down the development of
spinal cord fall under the following groups: brain cells in the foetus.

39
 ii. Development of a small brain and a fungi or parasites. The symptoms of
small head. meningitis include headache, neck
Effects of Marijuana on the Central stiffness, fever, epilepsy, coma and
Nervous System deafness. Meningitis leads to death if
untreated.
a. Marijuana contains chemicals that
damage cells in the memory centre 3. Leprosy
of the brain. This leads to loss of It is caused by bacteria called
memory. mycobacterium leprae. It causes
b. High doses of marijuana lead to permanent damage to the skin, neurones,
total breakdown of mental limbs and eyes. It affects the peripheral
coordination leading to madness. nervous system.
c. It also damages cells that control
emotions. This results to distorted 4. Tetanus
emotional reactions by an It is caused by bacteria called clostridium
individual. This leads to slow or no tetani. The bacteria is present in the soil
emotional reactions in situations and enters the body through cuts. It causes
where it is needed and feelings of permanent contraction of muscles by
worry and anxiety even when there interfering with nervous transmission. This
is nothing to worry about. causes the jaws to lock after contraction of
d. Marijuana interferes with muscles.
transmission of impulses from one 5. Stroke
impulse because it affects the Stroke is brain damage caused by a lack of
release of neurotransmitters at a blood flow to any part of the brain. A stroke
synapse. Some chemicals in is caused by blockage or bursting of a
marijuana (cannabinoids) act as capillary in the brain leading to formation
neurotransmitters hence disrupting of blood clots that block or interfere with
mental processes. blood cells. Deprived of oxygen and
Problems Associated with Nervous nutrients brain cells die leading to stroke. A
System stroke leads to permanent brain damage and
disability for patients. A person with stroke
1. Poliomyelitis (Infantile Paralysis)
Poliomyelitis is a disease caused by a virus may develop paralysis on one or both sides
called poliovirus. It damages the axons of of the body, have difficulty in walking or
motor neurones to muscles of the legs and lose ability to speak or understand speech.
arms hence no response and movement of It may also result to death.
these organs and the muscles are paralysed. CHEMICAL COORDINATION
This result in poor development of bones /ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
and limbs wither.
The endocrine system is a series of organs
2. Meningitis called glands which secrete chemicals
Meningitis is a disease that affects the called hormones. Hormones are chemical
meninges surrounding the brain and the substances produced by endocrine glands to
spinal cord. It causes the meninges to be carry impulses to target organs. The
inflamed. It is caused by viruses, bacteria,

40
hormones may have an effect on the whole Examples of endocrine glands are pituitary
body or specific organs. An organ that is glands, thyroid gland, pancreas, testes,
affected by a particular hormone is called a ovaries and adrenals.
target organ for that particular hormone.
There are two types of glands exocrine and THE PITUITARY GLAND
endocrine glands. An exocrine gland The pituitary gland is at the base of the
secretes its products into a duct eg sweat cerebrum. It is called the master gland
glands. because it produces hormones that
influence other glands. The pituitary gland
produces the following hormones:

a. Growth hormone
The growth hormone regulates growth
hence controls mitosis in meristems. Too
much production of growth hormone results
into giantism and too little production leads
to dwarfism.

b. Follicle stimulating hormone

It regulates development of graffian
follicles in the ovaries. It regulates
formation of sperms in males.

c. Anti-diuretic hormone
It regulates water levels in the body. Failure
by the pituitary gland to produce the
hormone leads to a condition called
diabetes mellitus.
An endocrine is ductless and has the Diabetes Insipidus
following characteristics:
This is a condition which develops when
1. It secretes chemicals (hormones). the pituitary gland fails to secrete
2. It has no duct-hormones are antidiuretic hormone. The kidney nephrons
secreted directly into the blood are unable to reabsorb the required amounts
stream of water. This leads to production of large
3. It has rich supply of capillaries. amounts of dilute urine a condition known
A hormone has the following properties: as diuresis. The urine is tasteless or insipid.
This can lead to dehydration. People with
a. It travels in the blood
this condition drink a lot of water.
b. It has its effect at a site (target)
different from the site where it is d. Leutinising hormone
made. It controls ovulation in females. It controls
c. It is specific ejaculation in males.
d. It is a small soluble molecule
e. It is effective in low concentrations e. Thyroid stimulating hormone

41
It stimulates the thyroid to produce e. Bulging or protruding eyes.
thyroxine. ADRENAL GLANDS

f. Oxytocin Adrenal glands are located on top of each

It stimulate birth or labour in females. kidney. They produce a hormone called
adrenaline. Adrenaline is produced by the
g. Prolactin inner part of the adrenal gland known as the
It regulates milk production. adrenal medulla. The hormone is involved
THYROID GLAND in response to danger, anxiety, excitement
and emergency. It is sometimes referred to
It is located around the larynx. They as fight/flight/emergencyhormone.
produce a hormone called thyroxine.
Thyroxine is responsible rate of growth and Adrenaline prepares for fight or flight in the
development of an organism since it following ways:
controls metabolism rate. Thyroxineis a - Increased conversion of glycogen to
complex protein compound that contains glucose.
iodine. Deficiency in iodine causes goitre - Increased rate of breathing to supply
(the swelling of the thyroid gland). oxygen required for more energy
Under secretion of thyroxine leads to the production.
following conditions: - It increases heart beat to increase
transport of gases and nutrients such
a. The skin become rough and hair is as glucose.
lost. - Increased rate of muscle contraction
b. Weight increases and movement enabling rapid movements.
becomes slower a condition known Underproduction of adrenaline causes:
as myxoedema.
c. The tongue swells. - Reduced activity
d. Deficiency at birth leads to poor - Fatigue
growth and retardation, a condition - Stress and slow response to danger.
known as cretinism. PANCREAS
Over secretion of thyroxine leads to It is both an exocrine gland and endocrine
increase in metabolic rate in the body which gland because it produces pancreatic juice.
results to the following: It is an endocrine gland because it produces
a. High body temperatures. insulin and glucagon. These hormones
b. Increased breathing rate and heart regulate sugar levels in the body. Insulin
beat. causes liver cells to change excess glucose
c. Increased rate of breakdown of to glycogen for storage in the liver and
glucose, glycogen, and fats leading muscles. Glucagon changes glycogen to
to loss of body weight. glucose when levels of glucose are low in
d. Excess energy production that the blood. Insulin and glucagon are
results to physical and mental produced by special cells inside the
restlessness. Some people become pancreas called islets of Langerhans.
nervous and irritable. Deficiency in insulin results into loss of

42
glucose in urine, a condition known as Found in males. Produce hormone
diabetes mellitus. calledtestosterone. Testosterone is
responsible for:
Diabetes Mellitus
- Sperm production
This is a condition that develops when the - Male secondary characteristics
pancreas fails to produce insulin. This (deep voice, muscularity,
results into high glucose levels in the blood appearance of hairs in pubic region
since it’s not converted to glycogen for and arm pits, enlargement of the
storage. Some glucose is passed out in penis).
urine. Functional Similarities and Differences
Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus between Endocrine and Nervous Systems

- Urinating frequently Similarities

- Frequent thirst - Both stimulate responses to stimuli.

These responses are of survival
- Loss of weight value.
- Both are involved in coordination of
- Dehydration
body activities.
- Poor resistance to infection Differences

- Presence of glucose in urine. 1. In the endocrine system responses

are slow while in the nervous
OVARIES system responses are usually fast.
2. Hormones are transmitted through
They are found in female mammals. They
blood while in the nervous system
produce two hormones, oestrogen and
impulses are transmitted through
progesterone.
nerve cells.
Oestrogen 3. Hormones reach all parts of the
body while nerve impulses are
Oestrogen has the following functions: transmitted through nerve cells
- Stimulates thickening of the uterus. connected to specific parts of the
- Responsible for female secondary body.
characteristics. 4. Hormones stay longer in the blood
- Enlargement of vagina. and as a result, their effects last
- Controls heat periods in females. longer while in nervous system
Progesterone impulses are short lived and their
effects last for a short time.
- This hormone maintains pregnancy 5. Endocrine system uses hormones to
by maintaining thickening of the relay impulses while nervous
uterine. system nervous system uses
TESTES electrical charges to transmit
impulses.
REVISION EXERCISE

43
1. What do you understand by the following ii. Give any two features that enabled you to
terms? identify the neurone
iii. State one function of part marked X.
a. Coordination
iv. Part Y helps to form synapses.
b. Hormone e. What is a synapse?
f. Explain how a nerve impulse is transmitted
c. Impulse across a synapse
4. The figure below shows the cross-section of the spinal
d. Neurone cord. Use it to answer questions that follow.
e. Target organ

2. a. State any two differences between nervous

and hormonal coordination

b.State any two effects of the following on the

nervous system

i. marijuana

ii. alcohol a. Name the part marked L

3a. Define a conditioned reflex action b. Give one function of the fluid found in the
b.What is the difference conditioned reflex and neural canal.
simple reflex action
c.Mention three steps involved in conditioning c. Give the structural difference between K
and organism and L.
d.The figure below is a diagram of a neurone.
5. Describe how the following conditions develop
Use it to answer questions that follow. in humans

a. Diabetes mellitus

b. Diabetes insipidus

6. Describe the path followed by an impulse

during a knee jerk.

7. Describe any five abnormal conditions

associated with the nervous system
i. Identify the type of the neurone in the
diagram
8. .

44
 IMMUNITY
Immunity is the body’s ability to resist infections or diseases. The body defends itself against
pathogens in different ways. Such defence can be first line or second line.

CELLS INVOLVED IN IMMUNITY

The cells involved in immunity are phagocytes and lymphocytes.

1. Phagocytes

45
 When a cut is sustained chemicals called When B-lymphoctyes come into contact with
histamines are produced by cells resulting germs they differentiate into memory cells
into the area around the cut becomes and effector cells. B-Memory cells store
inflamed red and hot. This results into an information about attack by disease or
influx of phagocytes that kill germs by response to disease. B-effector cells produce
phagocytosis. antibodies that kill germs. Antibodies are
specific, for example, antibodies against
2. Lymphocytes measles will only destroy the measles virus
It involves the reaction of two types of not other disease organisms. Antibodies work
lymphocytes to antigens: B-lymphocytes and in the following ways:
T-lymphocytes.
i. Opsonins: these are antibodies that
Lymphocytes are divided into two: combine with antigen material on the
a. T-lymphocytes or T-cells outer surface of the pathogens so that
b. B-lymphocytes or B-cells phagocytes can easily destroy the
T-LYMPHOCYTES germs.
ii. Lysins: these are antibodies that kill
T-cells attack the following: bacteria and viruses by dissolving
them.
i. Cells that have been infected by
iii. Agglutinins: cause pathogens to stick
microbes
together in clamps. In this condition
ii. Transplanted organs and tissue
germs cannot penetrate cells nor
iii. Cancer-causing cells
reproduce properly.
When T-lymphocytes come into contact with
iv. Anti-toxins: these are antibodies that
foreign antigens they differentiate into
neutralise toxins produced by
memory cells and effector cells. There are
pathogens.
three types of effector cells:
FIRST LINE DEFENCE
i. T-helper cells
The first line defence prevents pathogens
ii. Killer cells
from entering the body. The body does this
iii. Suppressor cells
by creating entry barriers or killing
T-Helper cells stimulate B-lymphocytes to
pathogens. The following are the first line
function. T-Helper cells also stimulate T-
defences in the human body.
killer cells to start attacking targeted
pathogens or substances. T-Suppressor cells a. Skin
cause killer cells to stop killing pathogens or The outer layer of the skin (cornified layer) is
destroying targeted substances. T-Memory made of dead cells and is dry hence micro-
cells store the memory of the whole attack. organisms cannot survive on the skin. Sweat
(produced by sweat glands) and sebum
B-LYMPHOCYTES
(produced by sebaceous glands) contain
enzymes that kill or inactivate germs. Sebum

46
(body oil) traps dust and germs which are There are two types of immunity: natural and
removed by bathing. artificial immunity. Natural immunity is the
immunity that comes from the body itself.
b. Mucus Artificial immunity is the immunity obtained
Mucus lining the respiratory system is by introducing weakened or killed germs or
produced by goblet cells. It traps dust and readymade antibodies into the body.
germs. it contains an enzyme called lysozyme
that destroy certain bacteria. The mucus is
expelled together with pathogens.

c. Cilia
Cilia are tiny hair-like structures that line the
inside of some parts of the body. The cilia
can move back and forth to trap and sweep
pathogens and prevent them from entering Both natural and artificial immunity can be
the lungs. They usually sweep pathogens active or passive. Active immunity is when
trapped in mucus. the body produces its own antibodies. Passive
d. Tears immunity is when the body receives ready-
Tears are produced by tear glands. Tears made antibodies.
contain lytic enzymes called lysozymes that Natural Immunity
kill pathogens. This means pathogens cannot
enter through the openings around the eye. Natural immunity is divided into two:

e. Blood Clotting - Active natural immunity

Blood clotting seals or closes wounds to - Passive natural immunity
prevent entry of germs. It also prevents Active Natural Immunity
anaemia by stopping further loss of blood.
This is immunity obtained through infection.
f. Symbiotic Defence When the body is invaded by germs it
Symbiotic defence is provided by bacteria produces antibodies against antigens of the
called E. Coli that habits in the small pathogens. Once the organism recovers it can
intestines especially of a baby. The bacteria produce antibodies very quickly should the
attacks and kills germs that enter together pathogens invade it again. This makes an
with food. organism immune.

g. Hydrochloric Acid In The Stomach Passive Natural Immunity

Hydrochloric acid contained in gastric juice
This is also called maternal immunity. It is
kills some germs that are swallowed together
acquired in two ways:
with food.

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL

IMMUNITY

47
 i. The foetus receives antibodies that These lymphocytes kill cells that have been
diffuse through the placenta from the infected by HIV. Their activity reduces with
mother. destruction of Helper T-cells by HIV.
ii. Through breast milk especially
colostrum that has alot of antibodies. How HIV Weakens the Immune System
Artificial Immunity The virus destroys T-helper cells. It attaches
Artificial immunity can be divided into two: itself to special protein called cluster
determinate 4 (CD4) on the surface of T-
- Active artificial immunity helper cells before invading and destroying
- Passive artificial immunity the cells. As T-helper cells are destroyed
Active Artificial Immunity more HIV is released which attack other T-
helper cells. When T-helper cells are
This is obtained by introducing weakened or destroyed it means T-killer cells and B-
killed germs in the body (vaccination). The lymphocytes are not stimulated to fight
body produces antibodies as if it is under real infection. This means the immunity of a
attack by the disease hence making the body person weakens.
immune. Active immunity stays longer in the
body because the body learns to make VACCINATIONS
antibodies through memory cells.
Vaccination is the introduction of vaccines
Passive Artificial Immunity into the body of an organism. Immunisation
is also called immunisation or inoculation. A
This is immunity obtained by introducing vaccine is a dosage of weakened or killed
readymade antibodies into the body. The germs or toxoids.
antibodies are usually extracted from the
serum of an animal that has recovered from How Vaccination Works
the disease. Passive artificial immunity does
not last for long. When the vaccine is introduced in the body,
the body responds by producing antibodies
The effects of HIV on Helper T-cells and and forming memory cells as if it is under
Killer T-cells actual infection. The antibodies produced
make an organism immune to the disease
i. Helper T-cells
vaccinated against. Memory cells enable a
The virus attacks the Helper T-cells it starts
rapid response to actual infections since the
to replicate in the cells. The Helper T-cells
body already learnt how to produce
eventually die and the new virus infect other
antibodies against the infection.
cells leading to reduction in Helper T-cells.
This reduces the body’s ability to defend
itself against infections leading to
opportunistic infections.

ii. Killer T-cells

48
Diseases That Can Be Vaccinated Against the virus directly or produce antibodies that
try to kill the virus.
Disease Causati Nature of Dura
ve Vaccine tion BLOOD TRANSFUSION
agent
Typhoid Bacteria Dead 1-2 This is the transfer of blood from one person
bacteria years to another who needs it. One of the factors
Cholera Bacteria Dead 6 considered before transfusion is blood
bacteria years groups.
Whooping Bacteria Dead -
cough bacteria The ABO Blood Group System
Smallpox Virus Cow pox 3
virus years The blood groups are determined by special
Tuberculo Bacteria Attenuated 4 proteins on surface of red blood cells. These
sis bacteria years proteins are called antigens or agglutinogens.
Measles Virus Attenuated - The antigens are of two types: antigen A and
virus
antigen B.
Poliomyeli Virus Virus 6
tis mont If red blood cells have antigen A then the
hs
person belongs to blood group A. If the red
Diphtheria Bacteria Toxoid 3
toxin years cells have antigen B their surface then the
Tetanus Bacteria Toxoids 5 person belongs to blood group B. If red
toxins years blood cells have both A and B antigens then
Rabies Virus Attenuated 1 the blood group is AB. If the red blood cells
virus year have no antigens then the blood group is O.
Yellow virus Attenuated 10
fever virus years There are two antibodies corresponding to
antigens. These are antibody a (Anti-A
antibody) and antibody b (Anti-B antibody).
The antibodies are called agglutinins. When
Importance of vaccination corresponding antibodies and antigens occur
together agglutination of blood takes place.
- It helps to stimulate an immune
response that protects an organism Blood Group A
from a specific infection
- Has A antigens
- It prevents spread of certain diseases
- Has anti-B antibodies
hence saving lives.
Blood Group B
The role of the Lymphatic System on HIV
immune Response - Has B antigens
- Has anti-A antibodies
The lymphatic system produces white blood
Blood Group AB
cells. The white blood cells produced attack
- Has both A and B antigens

49
 - Has no antibodies The Rhesus Blood System
Blood Group O
There is another antigen found on red blood
- Has no antigens cells of some people. This antigen is called
- Has both anti-B and anti-A antibodies the Rhesus antigen or the Rhesus factor or
How to Determine the Blood Group of a antigen D. Individuals with this antigen on
Person their red blood cells are said to be rhesus
positive (Rh+). Those without the antigen are
Anti-A serum and Anti-B serum are put into said to be rhesus negative (Rh-).
two separate Petri-dishes like containers
called wells. A sample of blood is collected Examples of blood groups and Rhesus
from an individual. Some drops of the blood factor
are put in both sera. If blood agglutinates in
anti-A serum only the blood group is A. If the
blood agglutinates in anti-B serum only then Blood Explanation
the group is B. If the blood agglutinates in group
both sera then the blood group is AB. If there
is no agglutination in both sera then blood Blood group is B and is rhesus
+ positive
group is O. B
Blood group is O and is rhesus
+ positive
O
Blood group is A and is rhesus
- negative
A
- Blood group is AB and is rhesus
AB
negative

Rhesus negative blood does not normally

have antibodies against the rhesus antigen in
the plasma. When the rhesus positive blood is
introduced into a rhesus negative individual
the production of anti-rhesus antibody
AB is a universal recipient because it has no (antibody D) is triggered. The first
antibodies to cause blood agglutination. O is transfusion cause very little agglutination.
a universal donor because it has no antigens Subsequent transfusions can lead to serious
that cause production of antibodies that cause agglutination since levels of anti-rhesus
agglutination. antibodies are already high leading to death
Antigen: any foreign protein that causes of an individual.
production of antibodies. Production of rhesus antibodies can also be
Antibody: proteins produced by the body to triggered by leakage of the rhesus positive
destroy or neutralise antigens. antigen of a foetus into the blood stream of

50
the mother. The mother produces rhesus f. Hepatitis
antibody that can cause agglutination of To avoid infection of the recipient. Hepatitis
blood in the foetus. The baby may be born is a liver disease and should be tested before
anaemic or in serious cases a miscarriage blood transfusion.
may occur.
g. HIV/AIDS
FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE To avoid infecting the recipient. The blood
BLOOD TRANSFUSION donor should be tested for HIV before
transfusion.
a. Blood Groups
ABO blood groups should be considered Agglutination
before blood transfusion. This is done to
avoid agglutination which may result in This means the sticking together of blood.
blockage of blood vessels which disturbs This can lead to blockage of blood vessels
oxygen and nutrient supply leading to death. that supply nutrients to vital organs such as
the heart, lungs and the brain leading to death.
b. Rhesus Factor
To avoid miscarriages which may occur after ORGAN TRANSPLANT
first pregnancy when the foetus is Rh+ and An organ transplant is the moving of an organ
mother is Rh-. When the blood of the mother from one body to another to replace damaged
and foetus mix then the mother’s body or absent organs.
produces antibodies against antigen D. The
first pregnancy survives but subsequent Example of Organs That are Transplanted
pregnancies are destroyed by the high levels
- Heart, lungs, kidney, pancreas and
of antibodies produced by the Rh- mother.
eyes.
c. Syphilis Factors to Consider Before Organ
To avoid infecting the blood recipient. The Transplants
disease can lead to sterility, blindness in new
a. Tissue Matching
born babies and madness.
Tissues should match to avoid tissue
d. Age of the Donor rejection. Donors are usually relatives.
The donor should not be too old or too young
b. Health of the Donor
for faster replacement of blood (16-65 years
The health of the donor is considered to avoid
old). In old people iron absorption is low and
infecting the recipient or putting the donor at
young ones bone marrows are not fully
risk. Ensure that the donor does not put
developed hence their blood replacement is
themselves at health risk by donating organs.
slow.
c. Use of Immuno-Depressant Drugs
e. Anaemia
The drugs help to suppress the production of
To avoid death due to low levels of oxygen
antibodies against the transplanted organ
transported.
hence preventing organ rejection.

51
An Illustration of the Body’s Response to
Infection/Disease a. Calculate the percentage of
vaccinated children that was
not infected.
b. Explain how the vaccine
protected some children from
tuberculosis.
3. The figure below is a graph showing the
response of antibodies in the human
body at different times. Use it to answer
questions that follow.

1st response/Primary response: the

response is slow as the body learns to produce
antibodies that are specific to the infection.
This takes time and a person may get sick.

2nd response/secondary response: the

second response is rapid because memory
cells are present and antibodies are produced a. Why does the level of antibodies
rapidly making the body immune to decrease between U and V
infection. b. State what happens in the human body
between X and Y
REVISION EXERCISE c. Why is there a rapid change in response
between V and W?
1. Define the following terms d. How does HIV weaken the immunity of
a. Inoculation a person?
b. Primary response e. Define a vaccine
c. Antigen f. Children under five years are vaccinated
d. Antibody against diseases such as tetanus and
e. Immunity tuberculosis
f. Agglutins i. Why can a vaccine for
2. The table below shows the number of tuberculosis not be used against
children who were infected by tetanus?
tuberculosis after being exposed to 4. Describe how natural and artificial
two different treatments. Use it to immunities are acquired. Your
answer questions that follow. answer should be in an essay form.
5. Explain any five factors that you
would consider before a blood
transfusion

52
 VARIATION AND MUTATION
This is the difference between organisms of separate parents. This results in differences in
the same or different species. Variation characteristics.
between organisms of the same species is
called intra-species variation. Variation Types of Variation
between organisms of different species is a. Continuous Variation
called interspecies variation. These are variations that can be arranged
from one extreme to another. There is a range
Causes of Variation
of values due to presence of intermediates.
a. Age
Examples of continuous variation
Characteristics develop with age. Differences
in age result in differences in characteristics - Mass
such as size, mass and height. - Height
- Age
b. Environment - Skin colour
Environment can determine the - Size
characteristics an organism possesses. Some b. Discontinuous Variation
aspects of the environment that cause These are variations that have clear cut
variation include diet, climate, diseases and differences with no intermediates between
accidents. them.

c. Heredity Examples Discontinuous Variations

This is the passing of characteristics from
parents to off springs. Off springs from - Blood groups
different parents have different traits. - Sex or gender
- Tongue rolling
d. Mutation USING MATHEMATICAL SKILLS TO
Sudden changes to structure of genetic DESCRIBE VARIATION
material changes the way characteristics are
controlled hence variation. a. Calculating frequency
Frequency is the number of times a value or
e. Meiosis item appears.
Segregation of chromosomes and crossing
over during gamete formation can lead to Example
variation. The following numbers are scores of five
f. Sexual Reproduction students in a biology test: 20, 05, 10, 70 and
During sexual reproduction a zygote is 20. From the figures the frequency of scores
formed by fusing of gametes from two

53
of 20 is 2 while the frequency of scores of 10 = 30g, 25g, 16g, 15g
is 1.
= 25g+15g/2
b. Calculating mean
Mean is the sum of all the values in a group =41g/2
divided by the number of values in each =20.5g
group.
Calculating Range
Example
This is the difference between maximum data
The heights of four students are as follows value and minimum data value.
70cm, 30cm, 20cm and 40cm.
Example
70𝑐𝑚+30𝑐𝑚+20𝑐𝑚+40𝑐𝑚
Mean=
4 The following are the scores in mathematics
test for some form three students: 0,
=160𝑐𝑚⁄4
80,79,40,2,24,30 and 55.
=40cm
Range = 80-0
c. Calculating Mode
=80
Mode is the value of items that has the
highest frequency. Presenting Data Using Bar Charts or
Histograms
Example
Bar Charts/Graphs
The heights of seven form four students are
as follows: 1m, 1.6m, 1.1m, 1m, 2m, 1.8m, The table below shows the amount of energy
1m. in 100g of each type of food.
The modal height is 1m.

d. Calculating Median
Median is the middle value when the values
are arranged in ascending or descending
order.

Example
Draw a Bar chart to show amount of
The masses of five kittens are as follows, 30g, energy against food type.
25g, 18g, 16g, 15g. The median is 18g.

If it were like this, 16g, 30g, 25g and 15g, you

add the two values in the middle and find
average as shown below:

54
 mutations are changes to a single gene that
may lead to production of a defective protein
that may change an individual’s traits.

Types of Mutation

- Gene mutation
- Chromosome mutation
Gene Mutation

It occurs due to molecular changes to a gene

on the locus. It is also called point mutation.
Histograms
Chromosome Mutation
The data below shows the birth masses of 12
babies (in Kg). This occurs when changes occur in
chromosomes. Part of the chromosome may
break off and get lost or join another
chromosome.

Causes of Mutation

a. Chemicals
Draw a histogram Using the data above Chemicals react with nucleotide bases of
Birth Mass (Kg)
DNA. This changes DNA and the way it
controls characteristics.
Number of 1 3 5 3
b. Exposure to Ultraviolet rays
Babies
These rays cause damage to DNA. This
changes the way DNA controls the
characteristics of an organism.

c. Exposure to Radiation
Radiation also leads to changes in DNA as it
has a lot of energy that split DNA in cells.
This causes changes in DNA hence mutation.

d. Temperature
Temperature increase results in increase in
rate of mutation.
MUTATION
Effects of Mutation
Mutation refers to sudden change in structure
of genes or chromosomes which also changes - Some mutations are lethal (deadly)
the way they control characteristics. Most such that an organism dies before

55
 reaching maturity such as albinism in SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA
plants and sickle cell anaemics.
This is the condition whereby the body
- Some mutations are beneficial
produces abnormal or defective red blood
organisms such that the organism
cells (haemoglobin). Normal red blood cells
becomes better adapted to survive in
are biconcave discs while sickle cells are
its environment.
either sickle shaped or crescent shaped.
- Some mutations may change the
Sickle cells arise due to mutation of genes for
phenotype of an organism but the
production of normal red blood cells. Sickle
organism is not affected in any way
cells have less surface area hence less surface
such a mutant with extra toe.
area for haemoglobin to carry oxygen. The
NB: Substances that cause mutation are
person is weak and the condition is called
called mutagens. The individuals or
sickle cell anaemia. Sickle anaemics are
organisms that have genes that have
homozygous recessive (HbSHbS). Others are
undergone mutation are called mutants.
heterozygotes (HbAHbS) and others are
Examples of Mutation homozygous dominant (HbAHbA).

- Haemophilia Sickle cell anaemics do not survive to

- Sickle cell anaemia maturity. However, they are resistant to
- Colour blindness malaria as there is little room for plasmodia
- Albinism to multiply.

Genotypes and Phenotypes Related to

Sickle Cell Anaemia

GENOTYPE TYPE OF HAEMOGLOBIN SHAPE PHENOTYPE

A A
Hb Hb Normal Biconcave Normal
HbAHbS Normal and sickle cell Biconcave & sickle Sickle cell anaemia trait.
(carrier) cell
HbSHbS Sickle cell Sickle cell Sickle cell anaemia

ALBINISM from the sun and is subjected to premature

ageing and skin cancer.
This is a condition of lacking normal skin
pigmentation (melanin). Absence of melanin Possible Genotypes and Phenotypes in
leads to albinism. Albinism is caused by Relation to Albinism
defective gene for production of melanin.
GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE
The defective gene causes failure to produce
AA Normal
an enzyme called tyrosinase needed to form
Aa Normal Skin (carrier)
melanin. Melanin protects the skin and eyes
aa Albinism
from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun.
Without melanin the skin lacks protection

56
REVISION EXERCISE
1. The diagram below shows a variety of dogs

a. Identify one variation that can be observed in the dogs

b. Explain any two ways in which the variation mentioned above would have arisen
in the dogs
c. To which types of variation do the following belong
i. Blood groups
ii. Tongue rolling
iii. Age
iv. Height
2. A farmer planted maize seeds. After the seeds have germinated the farmer observed
that some seedlings had white leaves. All the seedlings with white leaves died five
days later
a. State the genetic term used to describe the condition of seedlings with white
leaves.
b. Explain why the seedlings with white leaves died five days after germination
c. State how the condition in 2a above arose in the maize seedlings
3. The figure below shows a bar graph of human blood groups

a. What type of variation is shown by blood groups in the bar graph?

b. In a population of 300 what will be the number of people with blood group AB?
c. Give two examples where mutations may be:
i. Beneficial to a person
ii. Disadvantageous to a person

57
 EVOLUTION
This refers to gradual change in organisms. Life on earth began from simple forms which
slowly evolved into present day organisms. All living things evolved from common ancestors
over a long period of time. This is called the theory of evolution. It was proposed by a scientist
by the name of Charles Darwin-the father of evolution.

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution disadvantageous or non-beneficial

variations.
Darwin’s theory of evolution is based on d. Survival of the fittest: beneficial
the following ideas: variations are called adaptations.
a. Overproduction: all organisms Adaptations are inheritable
produce more off springs than can characteristics that make an
survive. This is due to many factors organism suited to survive in its
such as hunger and disease. environment. Those with
b. Struggle for existence: adaptations survive and those
overproduction leads to competition without adaptations are eliminated.
for resources which are limited. The e. Advantageous characteristics are
resources competed for include passed on to off springs: organisms
food, water, space and mates. with adaptations pass on their
c. Variation: there are variations in adaptations to their off springs. The
characteristics of organisms. Some organisms with advantageous
variations enable organisms to variations increase in number while
compete effectively or successfully those with disadvantageous
and are called variations decrease in number in a
favourable/advantageous/beneficial given population.
variations. The variations that f. Natural selection: organisms with
prevent an organism to compete disadvantageous variations do not
effectively are called survive the competition. They do

58
 not grow to maturity and reproduce. totally different from the original
They reduce in number in a given species.
population. It is as if nature selects Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution is a
some organisms to live and some to theory of evolution by natural selection.
die through diseases, predators,
hunger and drought. EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
g. Gradual change: the changes in 1. Fossil Records
organisms are very gradual. Fossils are remains of plants and animals
Evolution occurs slowly and that lived millions of years ago. The fossils
continuously over millions of years. are studied and fossil information of related
The changes occur due to organisms is arranged in such a way that
accumulation of adaptations in they form a series according to their age,
organism which may lead to starting from oldest to the most recent. This
formation of new species which are is called a fossil record.

Trilobites (ancestor of insects), mammoth (ancestor of elephants) and evolution of humans

Fossil records indicate extinction of

organisms due to presence of fossils of
organisms that do not exist today, they
show progressive change within forms of
organisms and they show existence of
transitional forms between organisms.
This shows that organisms having this plan
2. Comparative anatomy arose from the same ancestral parent.
Anatomy is the study of the structure of
Under comparative anatomy there are the
living organisms. Comparative anatomy is
following categories of structures:
the study of structural differences and
similarities between organisms. It involves a. Homologous structures: these are
the comparison of structural designs of structures having a similar pattern
certain parts organisms. For example, the but used for different functions e.g.
limb bone pattern of all animals with four the fore limb of a monkey, human
legs has the same structural designs. The being and a dolphin. This shows
design is called pentadactyl limb design. divergent evolution since these

59
 organisms have diverged from each
other during evolution.

b. Analogous structures: these are structures having different patterns but used for the
same function e.g. wings of a bird and wings of an insect, thorns in plants and spines
of animals. This shows convergent evolution which suggests that the organisms evolved
from different ancestors but develop similar adaptations.

c. Vestigial structures: these are structures present in organisms but serve no function at
all e.g. appendix in humans and claw-like structures in pythons and some snakes.
3. Comparative Embryology

This is comparative study of different embryos of different animals. Many similarities are noted
in the early stages of embryo development. These similarities support the idea that these

60
animals have a common ancestral or evolutionary origin. Embryo development can be used as
evidence for evolution.

4. Geographical Distribution may have evolved from the same ancestor.

Organisms living in different parts of the On the other hand organisms with
world have many similarities in common. eukaryotic cells may also have evolved
For example the leopard is similar to from common ancestors such as monkeys
animals like tigers, cheetahs, lions and cats. and humans. Another example is presence
The similarities support the idea that the of haemoglobin, DNA and other cell
organisms evolved from common organelles in cells of mammals can also
ancestors. Animals of the same species show evolution from common ancestor.
were separated by geographical barriers
such as oceans and mountains and could not Natural Selection in Action
interbreed. These organisms evolved into 1. Sickle Cell Anaemia
different species as they adapted to their Individuals with sickle cell anaemia always
different environmental conditions. suffer from severe anaemia and die before
Geographical barriers create geographical reaching maturity and do not reproduce
isolation between organisms. hence the gene is eliminated. Individuals
with sickle cell trait survive better than
5. Cell Biology
Studies of different cells from different normal individuals in malaria prone areas.
organisms may reveal some differences and The rate of multiplication of plasmodia in
similarities between them. For example individuals with sickle cell trait is slow
cells without true nucleus and nuclear hence having lower chances of death due to
membrane are prokaryotic cells and those malaria. Individuals with normal
with nucleus and nuclear membrane are haemoglobin are easily attacked by malaria
eukaryotic cells. Organism with as there is enough room for plasmodia
prokaryotic cells are more closely related multiplication hence individuals can easily
such as bacteria and blue algae hence they die from malaria and can be eliminated.

2. Peppered Moth (Biston Betularia)

61
The peppered moth is commonly found in interbreed successfully and produce viable
England. There are two types of such moths; offspring. New species can develop due to
light moths and dark coloured moths. The Natural selection and Isolation.
dark coloured moths arose due to mutation in
genes for body colour. The dark moth was 1. Natural Selection and Speciation
very rare before industrial revolution but With time and over many generations
increased with industrial revolution. Before favourable adaptations accumulate in a given
industrial revolution tree trunks were covered group of organisms while unfavourable ones
by light coloured lichens which grow on disappear. This leads to clear differences
them. The light coloured moths were hidden between a particular species and its ancestors.
by light coloured lichens from predatory The species develops into a new species
birds. Dark coloured moths were easily seen because its features do not fit into the features
and eaten by predatory birds. The number of of its ancestors.
light coloured moths increased while dark 2. Isolation And Speciation
coloured moths decreased. Due to pollution Speciation can also occur when a group of
after industrial revolution, the lichens organisms of the same species are separated
population was reduced and tree trunks were by geographical, ecological, behavioural,
darkened by soot. This results in black forms reproductive and genetic barriers.. If their
to be better hidden than light forms hence environments are different they will adapt
more light coloured moths are eaten by differently to suit their habitats. They also
predatory birds than dark coloured moths. acquire different reproductive behaviours.
This results in increase in number of black Overtime the two groups may become so
coloured moths and reduction in light different that they cannot interbreed
coloured moths. successfully.
3. Drug Resistance Mechanisms of Isolation
Sometimes organisms that are meant to be
killed by the drugs, pesticides and antibiotics Geographical Isolation: isolation brought
do not die. This is because organisms are about by physical barriers such as mountains,
resistance to these drugs. Resistance to drugs seas and oceans. Organisms of the same
arises due to mutation or natural selection. In species are separated by these barriers. As
natural selection the drugs may be selective each of the two groups adapt to their different
in that they may kill some organisms while environments they develop different
failing to kill others. Organisms such as characteristics leading to formation of new
bacteria that are not resistance to drugs die species.
while those that are resistance to drugs
Ecological isolation: due to occupation of
survive and multiply.
different habitats from the original one
SPECIATION organisms of the same species may be
isolated. As they adapt to new habitats they
Speciation is the formation of new species. A
species is a group of organisms that can
62
form new species due to accumulation of a. Speciation
different adaptations. b. Evolution
c. Vestigial structures
Behavioural isolation: organisms change d. Homologous structures
behaviour before mating period. This seeks to 2. How do the following support the
attract members of the opposite sex. The theory of evolution?
behaviour can be nesting, songs or coloration i. Comparative anatomy
which may change and fail to attract ii. Embryology
members of the opposite sex. Mating fails to iii. Fossil records
take place. Each of the isolated populations 3. How do the following help in
may be acted upon by different formation of new species
environmental factors resulting in formation a. Isolation
of new species. b. Natural selection
Reproductive isolation: sometimes isolated 4. The figure below shows the wing of a
populations develop structural differences in bat labelled A and the front leg of a
reproductive organs. Copulation is not rabbit labelled B. Use it to answer
possible between isolated individuals. This questions that follow.
may lead to development of new species.

Genetic isolation: this is a result of mutation

which result in formation of new genotype.
Fertilisation may take place but may result
into inferior zygotes that fail to develop
properly. The new genotypes undergo natural a. Give two structural differences
selection and yield a new species. between A and B.
b. What type of evidence of
evolution is shown above? Give a
REVISION EXERCISE reason for your answer.
c. Describe any five evidence of
1. What do you understand by the
evolution.
following terms

63
 BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is the use of living organisms and their Introduction: the importing of animals with desirable
body processes to develop new and useful products characteristics for breeding.
that help to improve human life.
Cross breeding: crossing two breeds of animals to
Biotechnology aims at solving existing problems in produce a new breed that possesses good qualities
lives of people
from both parents.
PLANT AND ANIMAL BREEDING
Inbreeding: mating closely related animals to
Plant and animal breeding is done to produce animals preserve desirable characteristics (to prevent genetic
and plants that have useful qualities. This improves erosion).
agricultural productivity.
Progeny testing: choosing animals (male) for
Plant and animal breeding applies genetic principles to
breeding based on the performance of their off springs
produce improved breeds of animals and varieties of
(daughters).
plants.
Sib selection: choosing animals (female) for breeding
1. NEW MAIZE VARITIES
based on the performance of their off springs (sons).
This aims to produce maize varieties with good
qualities and suited to various regions of Malawi. APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Aims of developing new maize varieties include:
The knowledge of biotechnology can be used to
- To produce early maturing varieties for areas improve the quality of human life. Therefore
with short rainy seasons. biotechnology is applied in various fields.
- To produce late maturing varieties for areas a. In Medicine
with longer growing seasons. i. Genetic engineering is applied in producing
- To produce high yielding varieties. medically important proteins. For example
- To produce disease resistant varieties insulin to treat diabetes mellitus can be
Ways of Improving Crops/Plants produced using bacterium called
Escherichia coli.
- Introduction: this is the importation of crop ii. Gene therapy. A defective gene can be
varieties with desirable characteristics for removed and replaced by a normal gene to
propagation. The imported varieties may treat the disorder.
replace local varieties. iii. Vaccines and blood clotting factors are
- Selection: the choosing of plants with produced from viruses using genetic
desirable traits for propagation or breeding. engineering techniques
- Hybridisation/cross breeding: two varieties b. In Agricultre
of plants are chosen and crossed to produce i. Improving shelf-life of agricultural
new variety that has good qualities of both produce. This lengthens the period
required for produce to go bad.
parents.
ii. Production of genetically modified
2. NEW POULTRY AND DAIRY BREEDS
organisms. Introducing genes
This aims to produce:
(trangenes) that determine certain
desired characteristics can change
-Breeds that grow fast.
the genotype of organisms. This is
-Breeds suitable to the climatic conditions of
aimed at improving disease
Malawi. resistance, resistance to drought and
- Breeds that produce high yields. protein content. Crops with
- Disease resistant breeds. transgenes are called genetically
WAYS OF ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT modified (GM) crops.
iii. Bacteria has been used to produce a
Selection: the choosing of animals with desirable hormone called Bovin
characteristics for breeding. somatrophin which is injected into
cows to increase milk production.
c. In Industry
64
Industrial uses of biotechnology mainly rely on produce the required protein under control of foreign
enzymes and micro-organisms such as fungi and DNA.
bacteria. For example:
How Insulin is produced
i. In the manufacture of beer and bread certain
fungi (yeast) are used for faster fermentation A gene for insulin production is extracted from the
ii. In the manufacturing of detergents, enzymes pancreas of a human being. The gene is introduced into
with better cleaning power have been used a portion of the bacteria’s DNA. The bacteria with the
iii. Large scale meat tendering uses enzymes new insulin is cultured and allowed to multiply. The
iv. In sewage treatment, plant enzymes have insulin gene inserted in the bacteria instructs it to
been used to break down the organic matter. produce the human insulin. The hormone is then
d. In forensic Science collected from the bacteria. The insulin is then purified
Studying the DNA of a child and of the parents in and packaged for sale.
dispute of paternity resolves the disputes. Similarities NB: Insulin is used to treat diabetes mellitus.
in DNA structures studied indicate closeness in
relationship. Application of Genetic Engineering

GENETIC ENGINEERING - Production of vaccines from micro-

organisms especially Hepatitis B vaccine in
Genetic engineering is a process that involves man and foot and mouth disease in cattle.
introduction of a portion of foreign DNA into a host - Production of the Bovine somatrophin
organism to stimulate the synthesis of a protein. It is hormone using bacteria. The hormone is
also called recombitant DNA technology. injected into cows to make them produce
The process of integration or insertion of DNA from more milk
organism to another is called cloning. An organism - Production of pest-resistant crops. A gene is
whose DNA has been altered by addition of genes is transferred from a bacterium Bacillus
called a transgenic organism. The production of large thuringiesis into some crops. The gene
quantities of identical genes by genetic engineering is influences the production of substances that
called genetic cloning. repel the pests.
- Production of disease resistant animals such
How Genetic Engineering is done as influenza resistant pigs
- Production of insulin using bacteria or
viruses
- Production of transgenic cows that produce
more milk.
- Transgenic plants have been used to produce
a chemical that is used as a biodegradable
plastics thus reducing pollution..
Benefits of Genetic Engineering

- Production of proteins in plants and animals

to treat disorders in both plants and animals
such diabetes mellitus, disease resistance,
A section of DNA extracted from an organism is etc.
translocated into a bacterium or a virus. The foreign - Provision of high quality hybrids of plants
DNA is inserted in the plasmid inside the bacterial cell and animals with improved nutritional value.
to stimulate the synthesis of required proteins for - It has been used to produce drought, disease
various functions. Once the piece of DNA has been and pest resistant hybrids in plants and
successfully inserted the bacteria may divide retaining high yields.
continuously to produce other bacteria which contain - It has promoted increased agricultural
copies of the foreign DNA. All the new bacteria production such as increased milk production
which can lead to food security.

65
 - Improving shelf-life of agricultural produce. - The probability of the survival and
This lengthens the period required for growth of genetically modified
produce to go bad. organisms beyond the intended
Problems of Genetic Engineering environment.
- Some genetically modified organisms may - Genetically identical plants and animals
have negative effects on human life. For lead to loss of biodiversity
example some products like milk were found - The genetically modified plants may
to have traces of antibiotics that may trigger escape into the wild and superweeds may
cancer. be created by cross-breeding of wild
- It can lead to production of harmful species and transgenic species.
organisms which can be released to the
- Protection of human subjects during
environment.
clinical trials
- Alteration of genetic codes of organisms may
- Businesses control the products being
lead to undesirable mutations that may cause
produced and aim at profit which may not
disorders to the organisms concerned.
be in the interests of consumers of the
- The technique is tedious and expensive
products.
- The host micro-organism may reject the
- The transgenic products may cause
inserted DNA either by destroying it or
allergic reactions in people.
inactivating it.
- Affordability of the technology
Ethical Implications on the use of
- The extent to which genetically modified
Biotechnology
organisms may be harmful to human
Ethics involves what people believe to be right beings, the environment and other
and acceptable in the community. Ethical issues organisms they come in contact with.
raised by biotechnology include:

REVISION EXERCISE
1. Define the following terms
i. Biotechnology
ii. Genetic engineering
iii. Transgenic organisms
2. Describe the process of genetic engineering
3. Describe any two ways in which genetic engineering is applied in the following areas:
i. Agriculture
ii. Medicine
iii. Industry
4. Describe how insulin is produced using genetic engineering
5. What are some of the ethical issues that arise on use of biotechnology? Mention two.
6. State two ways in which genetic engineering is applied

66
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES
A disease is a disordered state of the body of d. Vectors-spread by living organisms
an organism. such malaria and trypanosomiasis
e. Direct contact-diseases spread by
Non-Infectious Diseases direct contact with an infected person
- Nutritional diseases or their clothing. These are called
- Genetic diseases contagious diseases.
- Mental diseases DISEASES CAUSED BY BACTERIA
- Ageing diseases A. TUBERCLOSIS (T.B.)
- Human induced diseases (due to T.B. of the lungs (pulmonary tuberculosis) is
alcohol or drugs) caused by bacterium called mycobacterium
Infectious diseases tuberculosis. T.B. of the bones is caused by
They are also known as parasitic diseases. bacterium called mycobacterium called
They are caused by other living organisms mycobacterium bovis.
such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and Mode of Transmission
worms. The diseases are often communicable
because they can be transmitted from one - droplets from breathing or sneezing
person to another. (airborne)
- dry infected sputum in particles of
Diseases are transmitted by organisms called dust
vectors. A vector is an organism that carries - T.B. of the bones is transmitted
disease causing organisms. A person who through drinking contaminated milk.
carries pathogens but he or she is not sick is Signs and Symptoms of T.B.
called a carrier.
- General weight loss and fatigue
Incubation period of a disease is the time - Fever
between catching a disease and the
- Persistent coughing
appearance of its symptoms.
- Chest pains
Modes of transmission of Diseases - Sweating at night
- Sputum may contain blood
a. Air-diseases spread through the air Prevention of T.B.
and are called airborne diseases such
as T.B. and common cold. - Drink clean boiled milk.
b. Water-diseases spread by - Always stay in well ventilated homes.
contaminated water and they are - Avoid overcrowding.
called water-borne diseases such as - Immunization of children with BCG
cholera and typhoid. vaccine (BCG: Bacillus Calmate
c. Food – spread by contaminated food Guerin).
such as cholera and dysentery. - Isolate the patient.

67
Treatment of T.B. - Vectors like flies from human faeces
to food.
- Use drugs such ethambutal, isoniazid - Through contaminated water
streptomycin and rifampicin.
Signs and Symptoms of Cholera
B. PNEUMONIA
It is caused by pneumonococcus - Severe diarrhoea due to toxins
streptococcus bacteria. It affects the produced by bacteria
respiratory tract. It causes production of fluid - Abdominal pains
which collects in the alveolus. The lungs - Watery rice-like stools
become filled and have no air hence prevents - Severe vomiting
exchange of gases in lungs. - Dehydration and loss of mineral salts
Prevention of Cholera
Mode of Transmission
- Correct disposal of faeces
- It is spread by inhaling contaminated
- Wash hands after using the toilet
air. It is an airborne disease.
- Wash hands before eating
Signs and symptoms
- Treating water before drinking such
- Fever as boiling or chlorination.
- Headache - Education awareness campaigns on
- Coughing hygiene
- Chest pains - Covering food to prevent contact with
- Difficulties in breathing flies
Prevention of Pneumonia - Wash raw food with clean water
before eating
- Avoid overcrowding Treatment of Cholera
- Live in well-ventilated homes.
- Vaccination. - Use of antibiotics
Treatment of Pneumonia - Administering of ORS to the patient
D. TYPHOID
- Use antibiotics such as erythromycin, It is caused by bacteria called salmonella
penicillin, and tetracycline. typhi. It affects the alimentary canal,
C. CHOLERA spreading to the lymph and blood, lungs,
It is caused by bacterium called vibrio bone marrow and spleen.
cholerae. The bacteria can survive in areas of
low oxygen like in small intestine. Mode of Transmission

Mode of transmission - Contaminated food and water

- Contaminated objects
- Fecal contamination - Vectors-flies or carriers
- Food contamination Signs and Symptoms
- Handling of contaminated objects and
putting dirty fingers in the mouth. - Mild fever

68
 - Slight abdominal pain - It is spread by droplet infection
- Ulceration and rupture of the intestine through the air
- Diarrhoea - It can also be spread by touching
- Constipation items with the virus and touching the
Prevention of Typhoid mouth
Signs and Symptoms
- Vaccination
- Proper disposal of faeces - Sudden fever and headache
- Treatment of water - Sore throat and muscle pains
- Thorough cooking of food to kill - Nausea and vomiting
bacteria - Dizziness
- Wash fruits and vegetables before Prevention
eating them
- Use back of hand or cloth when
Treatment of Typhoid
sneezing
- Use of antibiotics - Vaccination
DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES Treatment of Influenza

A. COMMON COLD - Use antiviral drugs in severe cases

It is caused by a variety of viruses. - Drinking hot drinks
- Use cough drops
Mode of Transmission
- Use drugs that lower the fever
- Transmitted by droplets through  There are no drugs for most of
coughing, sneezing, from infected influenza.
people. C. MEASLES
Signs and Symptoms of Common Cold It is caused by measles virus.

- Running nose It occurs mainly in children.

- Sneezing Means of transmission
- Fever
- Sore throat - By droplets
Prevention of Common Cold - Through contaminated eating utensils
and clothes
- Avoid overcrowded areas Signs and Symptoms of Measles
- Keeping rooms well-ventilated
Treatment - Sore throat
- Running nose
- Taking prophylactic drugs - Coughing and fever
- Taking a lot of fluids - Small white spots in mouth called
B. INFLUEZA OR FLU koplik spots
It is caused by the influenza virus - Skin rash, swollen glands, and
Mode of transmission swollen eyes.

69
  Complications that may happen - From infected mother to child during
include blindness and deafness. It birth
may also result in sterility when it - Sharing of piercing objects such as
affects the testes and the ovaries. needles, syringes and razor blades
Treatment - Blood transfusion with infected blood
- Through close contact between
- There is no specific treatment for the
infected and non-infected person
disease
through cuts or open wounds
Prevention
Signs and Symptoms of AIDS
- Immunization or vaccination.
- Sudden loss of weight
NB: Survivors of measles get natural active
- Lymphoma (cancer of the lymphatic
immunity. They can never be affected by the
system)
disease again.
- Chronic diarrhoea for more than a
D. AIDS month
Meaning of AIDS - Persistent cough
- Shingles
A: Acquired-means passed from one person - Fever
to another - Swollen lymph glands or lymph
nodes
I: Immune-means the body’s defence or
- Loss of appetite
protection against infections
Prevention of the Disease
D: Deficiency-means weakening of the
body’s defence against diseases - Abstinence from sex before marriage
- Practicing protected sex
S: Syndrome-a group of diseases that come - Being faithful to one partner
when the immunity is weak - Screening blood for HIV before blood
transfusion
AIDS is caused by Human
- Avoid sharing piercing objects such
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). The virus
as blades, needles and syringes.
destroys the body’s immune system. The
Treatment
virus infects and destroys certain types of
white blood cells called T-helper - Use antiretroviral drugs (ARVs)
Lymphocytes. The T-helper cells cannot which slow down the spread of the
stimulate killer cells to fight infection. This virus in the body. AIDS has no cure.
breaks down the immunity of the body. E. CHICKEN POX
This is a skin disease caused by a virus called
Mode of Transmission of AIDS
varicella zosta.
- Through sexual intercourse with an
Mode of Transmission
infected person
- Through air droplets

70
 - Contact with infected person and their The plasmodia multiply in the liver. Then
clothes invade red blood cells. They reproduce in red
Signs and Symptoms blood cells and cause the cells to burst
releasing more plasmodia. The bursting of
- Rashes on the skin red blood cells by plasmodia may cause
- A lot of itching on the skin rashes anaemia. When red blood cells burst toxins
- Mild fever from plasmodia are also released. The toxins
Treatment and damaged red blood cells cause symptoms
There is no specific treatment. of malaria.

Prevention of Chicken Pox Signs and Symptoms of Malaria

- Through vaccination or - High fever

immunization - Headache
A person who recovers from the disease gets - Sweating
natural active immunity. They can never be - Convulsions and coma if the parasite
affected by the disease again. attacks the brain
- Nausea
DISEASES CAUSED BY PROTOZOA - Anaemia
- Little deeply coloured urine
A. MALARIA
Prevention of Malaria
Malaria means bad air as it was believed that
it was caused by contaminated air. - Sleeping under mosquito nets
- Draining stagnant water-where
Malaria is caused by a parasite called
mosquitoes breed
plasmodium.
- Spraying oil on stagnant water which
Mode of Transmission suffocates larvae and pupa of
mosquitoes
The malaria parasite is transmitted by a - Clearing bushes near and around
female anopheles mosquito. residential areas
When the female anopheles mosquito bites - Introducing ducks and fish in ponds
an infected person, it passes saliva down the or lakes to eat mosquito larvae
proboscis to prevent blood clotting before it - Using insecticides to kill mosquitoes
sucks up the blood. The plasmodium remains - Wearing long sleeved clothes
in its salivary glands. When the mosquito especially at night
bites a healthy person it injects the plasmodia - Using mosquito repellants
present in its saliva into the blood stream of a Treatment of malaria
healthy person and the person becomes - Using drugs such as artemesinin,
infected. chloroquine, fansidar, lumefantrine
Effects of Plasmodia on the Host artemether.

71
 B. SLEEPING - It is transmitted by houseflies,
SICKNESS/TRYPANOSOMIASI uncooked food and unhygienic food
S preparation.
- It is caused by protozoon called Signs and Symptoms
trypanosome rhodesience.
Mode of Transmission - Fever
- Nausea and vomiting
It is transmitted by tsetse flies when they - Diarrhoea and blood in stools
bite infected people or cattle and later bite Treatment
healthy people.
- Use drugs such as metronidazole.
Trypanosome releases chemicals which Prevention
go to the brain causing a person to
become unconscious hence sleeping - Hygienic food handling and
sickness. preparation
- Control of flies
Signs and Symptoms D. ELEPHANTIASIS
Elephantiasis is not caused by protozoa but a
- Fever and headaches
type of round filarial worm wuchereria
- Enlargement of lymph nodes, spleen
bancrofti.
and liver
- Muscular spasms and frequent The worm lives in the circulatory and
sleeping lymphatic system. It is transmitted by a bite
- Emaciation: thinness of the body from the culex mosquito. The worm enters
- Fever the lymphatic vessels and blocks them. This
Treatment causes the lymph to accumulate in that part of
the body. This causes the affected part to
- Use drugs such as pentamidine swell to large proportions.
Prevention
Signs and Symptoms
- clearing bushes
- spraying insecticides - Massive swelling on legs and arms
- releasing sterile males - It may also lead to swellings of the
scrotum and breasts
C. AMOEBIASIS (AMOEBIC Control and prevention
DYSENTRY)
a. Mosquito control
It is caused by protozoon Entamoeba
b. Treatment using appropriate drugs
histolytica.
DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGI
Mode of Transmission
A. RINGWORM
It is caused by a fungus called Tinea. It is a
contagious disease.

72
Mode of Transmission - Use drugs such clotrimazole
C. ATHLETE’S FOOT
- Direct contact with infected heads It is a fungal disease that affects feet in
- Using infected combs or shaving human beings. It occurs due to:
equipment
- Sharing head brushes and hats - Wearing closed shoes for a long time
Signs and Symptoms - Keeping the feet wet for a long time
- Excessive sweating in the feet.
- Round grey patches on the head and It common in areas with warm wet weather.
face
- Itching on the grey patches Mode of transmission
- Hair loss on the patches
- Contact with infected feet, floors,
Treatment
mats on which people walk barefoot.
- Use fungicide creams and tablets - Contact with shoes of infected people
- Drugs such as griseofulvin Signs and Symptoms
Prevention of Ringworm
- Itching feet
- Hygiene in care of hair - Pain between toes
- Avoid sharing of combs, brushes and - Swollen, peeling and craved skin
hats between toes
B. THRUSH/CANDIDIASIS Prevention
It is caused by a fungus called candida
albicans. It can occur in the mouth, vagina - Proper drying of feet after bathing
and intestines. It may arise due to changes in - Use sandals in public showers
acidity in the vagina in females during - Change socks frequently
pregnancy or diabetes. Newborn babies can Control
be infected in the mouth during birth. Treatment with antifungal drugs such
griseofulvin in form of powders and creams.
Mode of transmission
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF
- It is transmitted mainly through DISEASES AT HOUSEHOLD AND
sexual intercourse COMMUNITY LEVEL
- From mother to child during birth a. Water treatment: this is the process
Signs and Symptoms of removing undesirable properties of
raw water to make it safe for human
- Fluffy white patches on infected area
consumption. Water treatment kills
- Red inflamed skin under the patches
pathogens such as bacteria and flukes
- Severe irritation
hence preventing spread of diseases.
Control and prevention
There are many methods of water
- Drugs used as lotions, creams or treatment such as filtration, boiling
pessaries (for vaginal infections)

73
 and using chemicals such Health services help to prevent spread
chlorination. of diseases.
b. Proper disposal of human and CANCER
domestic wastes: this includes using Cancer refers to uncontrolled cell division
latrines, toilets and sewage treatment that may lead to development of tumours.
and rubbish pits. This helps in Breast cancer is the most common in women
prevention of diseases such as and lung cancer is most common in men. The
cholera, typhoid and amoebiasis. common cancers are cancers for skin,
c. Personal hygiene: this involves stomach, colon, bladder, blood, e.tc. The type
observing personal cleanliness such of cell division associated with cancer is
mitosis. The abnormal multiplication of cells
as washing hands before eating food
is due to mutation of genes that control cell
and after using toilet, washing the
division. The abnormal genes are called
body daily, covering food. Personal
oncogenes. The cells undergo uncontrolled
hygiene reduces risk of diarrhoeal cell division and the cells form a mass of cells
infection. called tumour. Cancerous cells may spread
d. Vector control: control of vectors to other parts of the body a process called
such as flies and cockroaches metastasis.
prevents the spread of diarrhoeal
Causes of Cancer
diseases.
e. Food treatment and preservation: Cancer is caused by mutation of genes that
this is the practice of processing food control cell division. Factors that can cause
to prevent spoilage and food gene mutation includes radiation, viral
poisoning. Microbes decompose infections, chemicals, etc.
unprocessed food and when microbes Types of cancer
are consumed together with food they
can cause serious illness or death. i. Malignant cancer: cancer in which
Preserved and treated food has less tumour cells spread and invade other
risk of ill-health as microbes are cells. The cells spread and attack and
unable to grow and multiply on destroy healthy cells leading to death.
preserved food. Some ways of food ii. Benign cancer: cancer in which
preservation and treatment include tumour cells do not spread and invade
smoking, salting, drying, freezing, other cells. The cells grow on one part
canning, pasteurization and of the body only.
radioactive preservation. Characteristics of Cancerous Cells
f. Health services: they provide a. They are self-sufficient in growth
treatment of diseases to prevent signals-cell division is normally
spread of diseases, provision of safe controlled by genes. However, cancer
water and sanitary services, health cells acquire autonomous drive to
education and maternity services. divide by mitosis.

74
 b. Sustained angiogenesis-they are able such as the brain and lungs. This
to develop their own blood supply results in organs not functioning
and blood vessels. properly.
c. Tissue invasion and metastasis- c. Death of cells, tissues and organs.
cancer cells are able to migrate to This may lead to death of an
other organs, invade other tissues and individual if not treated.
colonise these organs. Factors That Increase the Risk of Cancer
d. Cancerous cells suppress and
a. Smoking: smoke from cigarettes
inactivate genes and pathways that
contains a substance called tar. Tar
normally enable cells to die.
contains chemicals that can cause
They are insensitive to growth-
mutations of genes in the lungs,
inhibitory signals by suppressing
mouth and throat leading to cancer.
tumour suppressor genes.
Tar is a carcinogen. A carcinogen is
Lung cancer
any substance that increases the risk
of cancer.
b. Viral infections: viruses contain
DNA and RNA that may have
oncogenes. When these DNA are
injected into an individual’s cells they
may cause cancer.
c. Over-exposure to radiation: over-
exposure to radiation such as x-rays,
1.
ultraviolet rays, gamma rays and beta
rays increases risk of cancer.
Radiations can penetrate into cells
and break or damage DNA or cause
mutations that can lead to cancer.
d. Chemicals: chemicals such
mercury, artificial food sweeteners,
food preservatives increase risk of
cancer. These chemicals may react
e. with DNA bases hence causing
Effects of Cancerous Cells in the Body mutation that result into cancer.
a. Cancerous cells compete for nutrients Chemicals in food that cause cancer
and space with normal body cells. are called dietary carcinogens.
b. Malfunctioning of body organs- e. Excess alcohol consumption:
tumours can grow and interfere with alcohol damages liver cells making
various systems in the body such as them to develop cancer. It is
digestive, circulatory and nervous converted to other chemicals that
systems. They can also attack organs increase the risk of cancer.

75
 Ways of Preventing and Controlling - Hormone therapy-to reduce cell
Cancer activity. For example in treatment
of breast cancer.
a. Healthy Living
- Surgery to remove a tumour or
- Avoid smoking to reduce cancers
organ or tissue that is affected.
of the lungs, mouth, oesophagus
- Chemotherapy-using medicines
and larynx
to stop cell division
- Eat plenty of plant foods such as
- Radiotherapy-using ionising
fruits and vegetables which are
radiation to kill rapidly growing
rich rich in vitamins C and E, beta
cells.
carotene and selenium which
- Gene therapy to repair diseased
neutralise chemicals before they
cells by replacing defective genes.
cause gene mutation.
NB: Cancer is not contagious because the
- Avoid drinking alcohol to avoid
immunity of an individual whose body is in
lung and colon cancers among
contact with foreign cancerous cells destroys
others.
the cancerous cells since they are identified
- Protect yourself from harmful as foreign proteins.
radiations that may contribute to
cancer. Management of cancer
This includes palliative care which is a
b. Immunisation specialized medical care for people with
Get immunisation for hepatitis B to limit liver serious illnesses.
cancer and Human Papilloma Virus that leads
to cervical cancer. It seeks to provide relief to the patients from
pain, stress and discomfort by improving the
c. Avoid Risky Behaviour quality of life for the patient.
Some sexually transmitted diseases may
increase the risk of cancer. For example Palliative care is done by a team of medical
people with HIV have a higher risk of cancer personnel to provide support to cancer
of the anus, cervix, lungs and immune patients and other patients with terminal
system. Human papilloma virus is associated illnesses.
with cervical cancer, cancer of the penis, and Palliative care helps the patient to cope with
vagina. Avoiding risky behaviour may the pain and other problems related to the
reduce chances of developing cancer. disease.
Control and Management for Cancer

REVISION EXERCISE

1. The figure below shows legs of a person with a skin disease

a. Name the disease
b. To which group of organisms does causative agent of the disease belong

76
c. Describe the life cycle of the causative agent of the disease
d. Give two ways of preventing the disease
2. Suppose you are a Health Assistant in a community where there is high prevalence of
malaria what advice would you give to the community on prevention of malaria. Explain
any five points in an essay.
3. The figure below shows a mode of transmission of some diseases
a. Identify the mode of transmission
b. Name any two diseases that can be transmitted by the mode shown
c. Explain any one way of preventing transmission of diseases through the mode shown above
4. At a certain school students develop a rash on the skin and high fever. A doctor diagnosed
them positive for a certain disease.
a. Identify the disease
b. What is its causative agent?
c. Mention any two ways in which the disease could have been transmitted.
5. a. explain what happens during the incubation period of the disease
b. Name the cause of sleeping sickness.
c. Explain any two ways of preventing sleeping sickness.
6. a. Describe any two ways in which palliative care for cancer patients is important
b. describe how the following increase risk of cancer.
i. Smoking
ii. Viral infections
7. How do the following ways help in HIV prevention?
a. using condoms
b. being faithful to your partner
8. Describe the following
i. Effects of cancerous cells in the body
ii. Why cancer is not contagious
iii. Window period for HIV & AIDS

77