MFN-007

Entrepreneurship
Indira Gandhi National Open University
and Food Service
School of Continuing Education Management
UNIT 1
History and Development of Food Service System 9
UNIT 2
Planning A Food Service Unit 45
UNIT 3
Setting up Food Service Unit 65
UNIT 4
Entrepreneurship and Food Service Management 84
UNIT 5
Food Management: Menu Planning — Focal Point of
All Activities in Food Service Establishments 116
UNIT 6
Food Management: Purchase and Storage 133
UNIT 7
Food Management: Quality Food Production — Planning and
Control 151
UNIT 8
Quality Food Production: Kitchen Production 167
UNIT 9
Food Management: Records and Controls 183
UNIT 10
Food Management: Delivery and Service — Goals and Issues 204
UNIT 11
Food Management: Delivery and Service Styles 218
UNIT 12
Food Management: Types of Food Service Systems 243
UNIT 13
Personnel Management: Leadership 269
UNIT 14
Personnel Management: Staff Planning and Management 292
UNIT 15
Personnel Function — Work Productivity 331
UNIT 16
Plant and Equipment Maintenance 359
UNIT 17
Plant Sanitation and Safety 383
UNIT 18
Issues in Food Safety 411
UNIT 19
Issue in Worker Safety and Security 451
Expert Committee
Prof. Tara Gopaldas Dr. Shobha Udipi Dr. Indira Chakraborthy
Tara Consultancy Services, Rtd. Professor, Department All Indian Institute of
Bangalore of Foods and Nutrition Hygiene and Public Health
SNDT University, Mumbai 110, Chittaranjan Avenue
Kolkata
Dr. Kumud Khanna Dr. Sushma Sharma Dr. Umesh Kapil
Former Head, Institute Department of Foods and Human Nutrition Unit,
of Home Economics, Nutrition, Lady Irwin All Indian Institute of Medical
F-4, Hauz Khas College, New Delhi Sciences, New Delhi
Enclave, New Delhi
Dr. Mary Mammen Dr. Parvathi Eashwaran Dr. Ulvir V. Mani
Christian Medical College Department of Food Service Department of
and Hospital, Udam Management, Avinashilingam Food and Nutrition,
Seudder Road Institute of Home Science College of Home Science,
Post Box No.3, Vellore and Higher Education for M.S.University
Women, Coimbatore Vadodara

Ms. Rekha Sharma Dr.(Mrs.) Molly Joshi Dr. (Mrs.) K. Puri

Ex-Chief Dietitian, Ex-Chief Dietitian Former Professor,
All India Institute of Department of Dietetics Foods and Nutrition Department
Medical Sciences, CMC Hospital Punjab Agricultural University
New Delhi Ludhiana, Punjab Ludhiana

Dr. Shikha Khanna Dr. Annu J. Thomas Prof. Deeksha Kapur

Ex-Chief Dietitian, School of Continuing (Convenor)
Ram Manohar Lohia Education, IGNOU, School of Continuing Education
Hospital, New Delhi New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

MSc. (DFSM) Programme Coordinator: Prof. Deeksha Kapur

Discipline of Nutritional Sciences
School of Continuing Education
IGNOU, New Delhi

MFN-007 Course Preparation Team

Content Contributors Unit Transformation
Dr. Mohini Sethi Dr. Salila Thomas (Unit 2, 3) Prof. Deeksha Kapur
Delhi Lady Irwin College IGNOU, New Delhi
(Unit 1,13,14,16,17) New Delhi Ms. Kalpalata
Junior Consultant
Mr. Vinesh Chhabra (Unit 4) Dr. Meenakshi Mehan
IGNOU
National Institute Entreprene- M. S. University
urship and Small Buisiness Vadodra
Development (NIESBUD) (Unit 5, 6, 7, 8)
Noida
Dr. Kalyani Singh (Unit 9) Mrs. Nina Dias
Lady Irwin College Mumbai
New Delhi (Unit 10-12, 15, 18, 19)

MFN-007 Course Editor(s)

Dr. Tara Gopaldas Prof. Deeksha Kapur
Bangalore IGNOU, New Delhi
MFN-009 Course Revision Team (2019)
Prof. Deeksha Kapur Ms. Isha Nagrath
Discipline of Nutritional Sciences Academic Associate
School of Continuing Education School of Continuing Education
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Print Production
Mr. Arvind Kumar
Assistant Registrar (Pub.)
SOCE, IGNOU, New Delhi

July, 2019 (Revised)

 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2006

ISBN-81-266-2693-3

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph
or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open
University.

Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained
from the University's Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068.

Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by
Dr. Heena K. Bijli, Director (SOCE), IGNOU.

Laser Composed By : M/s. Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi

Printed by M/s.
INTRODUCTION
Food service units like restaurants, langars, dhabas, canteens, kitchens, packed meals,
mobile catering are all evidence of large scale food preparation and services. The
development of these food services has closely followed the changes in the eating
habits and need of people. With modernization more and more people are moving out
of their homes seeking employment which has necessitated eating out more often.
Industrialization has necessitated feeding of employees at work sites. Development
of transport facilities has generated catering facilities on railway, airway, and roadways.
Awakened interest in health and nutrition of children and adolescent has led to
development of school/college canteens. While the types of food services are varied
and the number increasing every day, we need to focus on educating/training workforce
and/or developing manpower for this emerging employment sector. In the food industry
new job opportunities are opening up for those able to acquire the technical knowledge
necessary for this specialized area. The course ‘Entrepreneurship and Food Service
Management’, therefore, has been so designed so as to meet this objective. The
concept and functions of food service management, the tools which can be used to
achieve goals effectively and how best resources can be put together to make food
service viable is the focus of this course.

The course ‘Entrepreneurship and Food Service Management’ is worth 6 credits.

It emphasizes on the art of providing food, drinks aesthetically and scientifically to a
large number of people, in a satisfactory and cost effective manner. The course,
delivered in a face-to-face and laboratory environment, includes a mixture of theory
(4 credit, MFN-007), demonstrations, and practical sessions (2 credits, MFNL-007)
on the fundamentals of food service management and entrepreneurship. The
knowledge, information and experience gained through this course will help you
contribute towards the development of food services. Further it will help in developing
a professional approach backed by special skills, knowledge and vigilance at every
stage of food service operation.

This 4 credit course contains 19 units covering different aspects of food service
management. A brief review of these units follows.

Unit 1 deals with the history and development of food service organizations, the
factors that have played important roles in their development and today’s continuing
trends. Different types and sizes of establishments and the different approaches
which catering managers have used from time to time for managing their
establishments have been dealt in this unit.

To run a food service unit successfully we have to adopt various management

processes. Unit 2 focuses on management, the processes involved in management
and its significance. The concept of system approach and how the concept is operated
in a food service unit is described in this unit. The process of planning – the types
and the steps involved – how to prepare a planning guide or prospectus and how to
register a food service unit, this is the other aspect covered in this unit.

Planning and establishing the physical facility for a food service unit is a very
important exercise as it involves a large amount of money and very often considered
a one time investment. Food service managers are constantly involved in facility
designing or remodeling the work area to accommodate change or expansion as part
of their responsibility. In Unit 3 we will learn how to set up a food service facility,
and will be introduced to all aspects of organizing and establishing a unit.

Entrepreneurship or Self Employment is being increasingly recognized as a highly

effective and viable alternative to wage employment, which offers limited
opportunities. Unit 4 focuses on entrepreneurship and characteristics of entrepreneurs.
The unit describes the various components of entrepreneurship development and
helps identify the business requirement for food services. Few entrepreneurial ventures
have been highlighted as case studies for better insight.

You would realize that any food service project to be successful should be planned
properly and every phase of it chalked out meticulously. The activities that are
common in any type of food producing and serving unit are:

Menu planning → procurement → receiving → storage → preparation → production

→ holding/packing → service.

Unit 5 to 12 deals with these typical operations in a food service establishment.

Menu planning is the “heart” of any food service organization upon which all activity
is centered. Unit 5 covers the importance of menu planning, the types of menus and
their applications in food service organizations. The unit will, prepare our learners on
the points that need to be kept in mind while planning menu’s for a food service
organization and the methods to evaluate a prepared menu.

The menu determines the foods to be purchased, the equipment needed and the
personnel required etc. The success of a food service organization is largely dependent
on the menu. Once the menu has been planned, the next operation involved (in the
production of a finished product from its raw material) in any food service organization
is procurement. Unit 6 describes the food purchase and storage operation. Various
types of products are available on the market shelf. Which product to buy, how to
purchase foods and supplies in bulk in adequate amounts whenever needed and
which is the best buying technique in order to suit the needs for the smooth running
of the organization? These are the crucial aspects included in this unit. Once the
purchases have been done, how are the food items to be received, stored and issued
for supplies? What are the receiving procedures to be formulated and storage
conditions of the store area, so that spoilage of foods once purchased is minimized.
The storage activity is the second aspect covered in the unit.

Unit 7 focuses on food production which is considered the core of the overall food
service system. A major focus of food service management is the development and
maintenance of procedures that predict and control the functions of the production
systems. The key components of food production system management i.e. menu,
production forecasting, production scheduling are described in this unit. Further,
production control adopted to maintain the quality, standard and required quantity
of the final food product is emphasized. An important tool for production control is
the use of standardized recipe, which is highlighted in Unit 7.

Whenever cooking is done on large-scale considerable resources in the form of time,

human and money are at stake to yield a good, acceptable end product. Unit 8 deals
with the general procedures used in institutional and commercial food production.
Food production encompasses the preparation of large variety of items ranging from
appetizer to curries, roast, sandwiches, snacks, salads, vegetables, and beverages.
For each type of item, certain skills are needed and different methods of processing
are required to produce different types of dishes. Unit 8 focuses on these processing
techniques. Further, high level mechanized equipments/items are used for food
production to lessen time consuming procedures for pre-preparation etc. Unit 8
elaborates on the type of equipments required for preparing these items in food
service institution.

Irrespective of the kind of food service institution, good financial planning and
management are essential for the success of any food service establishment. A
budget is a good financial guide/plan that helps in daily, monthly and yearly operations.
Further, different records need to be kept for the different operations/processes in
a catering unit namely purchasing, receiving, and storage, production, service, income
and expenditure records. Unit 9 focuses on records specific to food management.
The concept of cost control and the factors affecting it including the checklist for
cost control is finally described in this unit.

Units 10 to 12 are devoted to the study of delivery and service in food service
institutions.

Unit 10 introduces the different methods of delivery service systems for meals in
different types of institutions and focuses on the various factors that may affect the
choice of a particular delivery system.

Unit 11 is a continuation of Unit 10 wherein delivery/service styles in food service

establishments are further elaborated. Different types of food service practiced in
restaurants, hospital setting, railway catering and other specialized forms of food
service such as hospital tray service, airline tray service, home delivery etc. are
described. A deep insight into the conventional, commissary, ready prepared and
assembly/serve service system is presented in Unit 12. What are these systems, their
characteristics, the food service organizations where these are in operation and how
these are carried out? These are the issues covered in Unit 12.

From food management we move on to personnel management. Unit 13 is the first

unit in the series of units presented in this course (Unit 13-15) dealing with manpower
or staff management. You would agree that without administrative leadership no
organization could achieve its goals and plans. The concept of administrative leadership
is described in Unit 13. What is leadership, who is a leader, what qualities they
possess and how they influence the success or failure of an establishment, are a few
issues included in this unit. Further the unit also discusses the different approaches
to leadership, focusing on communication as the key to effectiveness. The
responsibilities of food service managers and dietitians who are the administrative
leaders who assume the management of food service organizations is the focal point
of this unit.

Unit 14 focuses on the recruitment and selection process and also about staff training
as a crucial process in personnel function. How staff requirements are determined?
How people perform different jobs smoothly? What is the process of employment?
What is the employment policy? These are the crucial aspects covered in Unit 14.

Work productivity of personnel is the focus of Unit 15. A major concern in many
organizations is the decline of productivity. How best can we effectively use the
labour force is a major challenge facing managers in all types of food service
operations. This crucial aspect is critically analyzed and presented in Unit 15. Many
factors affect the performance of workers; the different techniques to analyze labour
productivity have been explained in this unit.

Productivity in food services depends largely on the skills of people, but the equipment
available to them and the training they receive in the operation and maintenance of
their equipment is equally important. Unit 16 deals with plant and equipment
maintenance in a food service establishment. The unit introduces some definitions
and general classification of different equipments, discusses the types used by various
establishments and ways of maintaining them in good working condition. Some
design and safety features have also been introduced along with methods of cleaning
and developing procedures for maintaining equipment to ensure sanitary practices,
as should be observed in their handling, use and storage.

Unit 17 focuses on the very important area of hygiene, sanitation and safety in food
service operations, which aim at providing clean and wholesome food to its customers,
visitors and staff. The importance of training people in hygiene, sanitation and safety
Entrepreneurship and Food and how to manage and conduct employee sanitation programmes in food operations
Service Management is emphasized. Further the government laws on sanitation and safety have been
identified and how food services formulate policies on sanitation and safety has been
described.

Unit 18 focuses on aspects related to worker safety and security. Issues related to
food borne infections and poisoning and different modes of transmission in food
service institutions have been highlighted. This aspect has also been covered in the
Food Microbiology and Safety Course (MFN-003). Hence do look up the corresponding
units in the course.

Sanitation and hygiene plays a very crucial role in food service operations – storage,
processing, preparation, holding, and waste disposal – which is the responsibility of
every food service worker. Negligence on the part of the food handler can result in
a large epidemic. Many a time unskilled personnel are involved in the handling of
food and these could be a major source of contamination. Therefore knowledge
about sanitary practices must be the basis of all training programmes involving food
handlers. The prime responsibility, as you would agree to break the chain of
transmission of disease from carrier to food and from food to the consumer lies
solely on the food handler. This important aspect has been covered in Unit 19 which
deals with issues in worker safety and security.

To help you go through this exhaustive study in the area of food service management,
we present a handy study guide.

STUDY GUIDE
1) Read each unit carefully before you go to the next unit, as concepts outlined in
the first unit will help in understanding the following ones.
2) Refer to the glossary of technical terms and abbreviations frequently until you
remember them.
3) Answer the questions in the self test and raise more questions and seek answers
to these with the help of the study materials.
4) The questions that elude you raise them during the contact hours with your
counselor at the programme study centre.
5) Refer to the Suggested Reading list given at the end of the course for further
reference on any of the topic covered in this course book.
6) Happy times learning.

8
 History and Development
UNIT 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF of Food Service System

FOOD SERVICE SYSTEM

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Food Service Establishments
1.2.1 History and Development
1.2.2 Factors Affecting Development
1.2.3 Recent Trends
1.3 Types of Food Service Establishments
1.3.1 Commercial Establishments
1.3.2 Non-commercial Establishments
1.4 Understanding Management
1.5 Approaches to Food Service Management
1.5.1 Traditional Approach
1.5.2 Classical Approach
1.5.3 Scientific Approach
1.5.4 Management by Objectives
1.5.5 Systems Approach
1.5.6 Quantitative Approach
1.5.7 Behavioural and Human Relations Approach
1.5.8 Contingency Approach
1.5.9 Just-in-Time
1.5.10 Total Quality Management Approach
1.6 Managing an Organization
1.6.1 Processes Involved
1.6.2 Principles of Management
1.6.3 Functions of Management
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This is the first unit of the Course on Entrepreneurship and Food Service Management
and deals with the history and development of food service organizations, the factors
that have played important roles in their development and today’s continuing trends.
When we think of a food service unit we think of hotels, restaurants, lunch rooms,
fast foods operations, catering services, schools, hospitals, institutional food services,
industrial and military food services and vending machines. All these places of food
services have become popular because of number of factors. These include:
• Eating out has become a necessity
• Convenience and quick service provided by an eatery
• It is steadily replacing drudgery of cooking at home
• Both the couples being engaged in earning they are forced to eat out
• Office goers, professionals prefer fast food joints to going home for lunch.
Different types and sizes of food service establishments are available today –
commercial, non-commercial, home-based. These different types of establishments
are covered in this unit.
9
Entrepreneurship and Food In addition, the different approaches which catering managers have used from time
Service Management to time for managing their establishments have been dealt with, keeping in mind the
research efforts that led to management thought over the years. Traditional, as well
as, modern management techniques have been presented.
Lastly, the processes involved in managing an establishment or institution have been
introduced to enable potential managers to learn about goal-setting, forecasting,
making decisions about resources, communicating, decision making and leadership
qualities necessary for goal achievement.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• define a food service establishment,
• trace the history and development of food service institutions,
• identify the factors that led to their development,
• discuss the different types of establishments that exist and their recent trends,
• describe the traditional and modern approaches to management that can be used
in an organization, and
• explain the principles and functions of management and the processes involved
in setting and achieving goals.

1.2 FOOD SERVICE ESTABLISHMENTS

As the name suggests, food service establishments are places set up primarily to
plan, prepare and serve food to a large number of people, who may be from different
regions, cultural backgrounds and represent various socio-economic levels of society.
The food is prepared and served in quantities far greater than those usually done in
homes and therefore they are also called food service institutions and vary from
small to very large establishments.

We shall begin our study about the food service establishments by first tracing the
history and development of these establishments followed by the recent trends.

1.2.1 History and Development

Historically food was served in large quantities in religious places for travelers or
pilgrims who needed rest and comfort on long journeys, which they performed
mostly on foot. In medieval times, quantity food production and service was considered
normal in abbeys in England and in dharamsalas in India. In fact, food services in
abbeys reached very high standards because the stewardship followed religious values
of discipline, love and free service to all who came for shelter and food. Similar
values were followed in the dharamsalas which were usually situated near places of
pilgrimage where people could rest for short periods and then move on. These
establishments provided food to sustain the hungry and the poor at fixed times and
to pilgrims who would donate money in return for the services provided and thus
sustain the activities of these shelters.

The factors which influenced the development of food service establishments are
discussed next.

1.2.2 Factors Affecting Development

A number of factors have affected the development of food service establishments
or institutions over time. These are presented in Figure 1.1.

10
 History and Development
of Food Service System
Tradition and
Culture

n
Re

tio
Fe ligi

za
rv ou

ali
ou s

ob
r

Gl
Factors
in development

Royal Statu
gical
Technolo ent of food services
cem
Advan

s
So
c ial strial
C ha Indu ment
ng lo p
es Deve

Figure 1.1: Factors in development of food services

Let us review each of these factors.

• Tradition and Culture: Traditionally, eating outside the home was taboo, and
people who went out for long hours to work, always carried their food with
them. It was religion, tradition and culture that always brought people together
in large numbers to participate in mass prayers, celebrate festivals, and enjoy
social occasions such as marriages, births and other festivities, all of which
involved eating together.
The traditional langars or mass distribution of food after prayers in gurudwaras,
the distribution of prasada in temples, the breaking of fasts together during
Ramadaan in mosques and feasting after mass at Christmas are all evidence of
large scale food preparation and service from early times.
Tradition and culture dictate that every activity be marked by festivity, whether
it is a birthday of a God or Goddess, the birth of a child in a family, or whether
it is to seek the blessings of the Lord for prosperity in general. Even in
bereavement it is traditional not to let sympathizers go unfed, irrespective of
their numbers. People, thus find several occasions to get together in large numbers
to express their feelings of love and support and satisfy their emotional and
social needs.
Have you ever visited a temple or gurudwara and partaken prasada or langar?
If not, go and see how food is prepared and served in such large quantities with
so much efficiency and how people eat with relish taking food as a gift from
God. Experience the feeling.
• Religious Fervour: Religion has always formed the central core of life not only
in India but all over the world generating activities based on moral values as
mentioned in sub-section 1.2.1, and exemplified by missionary fervour and zeal
in an attempt to propagate love, comfort and justice in society. Food services in
abbeys of England reached very high standards because its stewards followed
religious values of discipline, love, free service to all who came for food and
shelter. This was followed in other parts of the world too.
Some outstanding examples are the Missionaries of Charity, Ramakrishna Mission
and Vedanta centers for education, health care and much more, The Red Cross
Society, Sri Sathya Sai Trust which has propagated through exemplary fervour,
zeal and practice the importance of free education and health care and the
necessity of making potable water available to one and all, besides other social
and religious activities. All these establishments have depended on public
donations for their work, being guided solely by their strength and faith in the
11
Entrepreneurship and Food Lord, generating confidence and moral values in people, who then come forward
Service Management to donate to their causes.
Innumerable festivals and celebrations too brought people together who actively
shared in performing activities necessary to produce and serve food at mealtimes,
to all present irrespective of their numbers or cultural and social background.
Large scale catering has today, become a norm as large groups of people world
over get together to work towards set goals and need to be fed in an organized
manner.
• Royal Status: Centuries ago royal households had a large number of inhabitants
to serve the royalty who were placed in a hierarchy and had established food
allowances which were fixed according to their ranks and a large battery of staff
were employed for food preparation and service. The kitchens of these medieval
households showed high standards of hygiene with respect to food handling,
preparation, service and waste management techniques which largely depended
on natural recycling methods.
In India, the states were governed by royalties who resided in palaces and were
morally involved with the welfare of their states, which often competed for
excellence in development, uplift and care of the masses. The kitchens catered
to an endless stream of people including family members and guests, who were
fed from the palaces of the kings. Status differentiation was however evident,
those of higher economic status distributing food and durables to the have-nots.
Today, these princely states are only tourist attractions and mass community
feeding is restricted to places of worship or public places, clubs and hotels
where festivities may be celebrated. The catering was thus provided according
to the menu requirements of the host, whether an individual or an organization.
• Social Changes: In earlier days, the social aspects of food and eating were
satisfied within the households or family since the joint family system was in
vogue and each family comprised of at least 6-10 members. Being related
through their genes, love and care and working together for the achievement of
family welfare and its financial and other goals, their social needs were taken
care of amicably. The gradual shift to nuclear units and government policies of
small family norms deprived the family of its internal social interactions, which
have now shifted out to clubs, hotels, restaurants and the like.
The catering industry and entrepreneurs cashed on the changing needs of the
small family who could no longer entertain lavishly at home. Caterers offered
total event management as for kitty parties, birthday and marriage celebrations
and other festivities at virtually any location selected by the host. Social
organizations such as city clubs, athletic and sports clubs, country clubs all host
festive and sports events on a large scale, for which they are equipped with
respect to food production and service facilities. Visits to temples and religious
places too increased as social rather than purely religious events organized for
the explicit purpose of worship.
• Industrial Development: Industrialization brought in its wake, the need to feed
employees in factories, which led to the development of industrial canteens and
lunchroom facilities. Office goers too needed such facilities and office canteens
appeared on the scene. These have taken different forms with time and extend
from full to mini-meals and snack facilities that provide hot and cold meals
delivered on order to customers on trays or in boxes as individual or bulk-
packed meals.
An offshoot of industrialization was the development of roads and transport.
Industrialization also led to the creation of job opportunities for men and women
leading to a number of lifestyle effects such as migration from rural to urban
12
 settings in search of more lucrative jobs. This resulted in women spending less History and Development
time at home and therefore devoting less time and energy to meal preparation. of Food Service System
In addition, domestic help became scarce and entertaining at home decreased
enormously.

The development encouraged tourism, travel and eating out trends and
consequently led to the creation of varied types of catering options to offer
solutions to new needs in the form of commercial, semi-commercial such as
coffee shops, cafes and roadside motels and mid-way establishments to feed,
serve and rest the traveler.

Today, a large percentage of the population eat out at least once a month, and
the trend for home delivery of meals and snacks is also on the rise as evidenced
by the expansion plans of existing food services and a rise in the number of
multinational catering franchises showing interest in the Indian market.

In addition, a number of entrepreneurs are taking to supplying home cooked

food or single items for delivery including specialty foods of the different regions
and countries of the world. Outside catering has come of age in every possible
field of event management, entertaining and business conferencing.

• Welfare and Rehabilitation: The focus of the government was gradually drawn
to the large population not only as pure numbers, but their proportions in terms
of unemployment, access to literacy and educational facilities, medical and
healthcare problems of normal and handicapped citizens. To add to this was the
increase in crime rates and prisons swelled too, where proper food was needed
to feed the prisoners. This led to an increase in welfare and rehabilitation centers
and the concept of institutional food services came into the limelight to address
the needs of inmates of all kinds of institutions whether orphanages, boarding
houses, hospitals or others.

• Healthcare: Increase in health, medical care and welfare schemes gave rise to
hospitals, clinics, crèches, old age homes and welfare centers within which it
became necessary to operate catering facilities to fulfill the needs of patients,
staff and visitors.
In addition, welfare services were planned by the government to help eradicate
hunger and malnutrition in deprived areas through local public health centers,
anganwadis and schools. This led to the development of mobile catering and
health units in rural and distant areas to take care of health needs through
supplementary feeding and mid-day meal programmes for school children.

The need to take the food to the people provided an impetus to entrepreneurs
to start mobile and contract catering services even in the urban cities under
licensed schemes.

• Education: With more and more families sending children to schools, colleges
and universities, residence halls, dormitories and hostels providing boarding and
lodging facilities sprang up on the premises as a matter of necessity. When the
demand increased further, men, women and youth hostels came into existence.
Snack bars and cafeterias grew on campuses to provide food services to day
students, staff and visitors who were not permitted to use hostel facilities on a
regular basis.
School education also became distanced from homes and canteen and hostel
catering facilities became a necessity for the young and active clients. For
government schools where children could not pay for their food in canteens,

13
Entrepreneurship and Food subsidized mid-day meals providing at least 1/6-1/5th of children’s daily requirements
Service Management of essential nutrients was initiated. This scheme has yet to cover all school
children but the intention was to try and increase attendance in schools and
eradicate malnutrition to the extent possible, while educating them in the process.

• Unemployment: With the population of our country well over the one billion
mark, unemployment is a real problem even among the educated youth let alone
those who have little or no access to literacy or schools of learning. It is for
these masses that food vending provided the means of earning a living and gave
impetus to self-employment. Vending and other forms of self-employment is a
common sight in most residential localities where single food items in the form
of hot tikkis or two item meals like chana bhatura, dal roti and the like what we
call as street foods are made freshly and sold on demand. The main ingredients
are usually pre-prepared to the extent possible and then finished on demand.
Having reviewed the various factors which have lend to the development of
food service establishments, next we shall focus on recent trends in this area.

1.2.3 Recent Trends

National and international cooperation in the fields of trade, commerce, education and
sports have led to a spurt in conference catering, group living and feeding facilities.
This has brought people together from different geographical and cultural backgrounds
enabling catering to progress towards specialty food services.

If you look around when you go out to eat, it is common to find restaurants specializing
in South and North Indian food, Chinese, Mexican, Taiwanese, Japanese, Lebanese
and other regional and international cuisines. We are sure you have eaten at one of
the specialty restaurants. With globalization a modern form of self employment has
emerged with national and multinationals joining hands in the catering arena. This
form known as franchising comes with the total package of training to maintain the
standards of the parent company in terms of establishment design, production
procedures, raw material, product and service quality, accounting procedures and the
lot. Some restaurants and fast food outlets reaching out all over the country are
Nirulas, Moti Mahal, Haldiram among the national chains and McDonalds, Pizza
Hut and many more among the International chains.

Entrepreneurial catering ventures have developed and are seen in various forms as
take home meal counters, home delivery services and the like. Today women
entrepreneurs with special food preparation and management skills are working from
their homes to augment their income and deliver home made meals to those who
cannot spend that much time in their own home kitchens.

Technological advancements in catering equipment technology, communications and

accounting practices has made mass catering faster, more streamlined, less tiring and
improved in quality, safety and variety. Today, railway and flight base kitchens can
produce thousands of meals for travelers of various requirements around the globe.

We have entered the information technology era and the recent trends developing are
on-line catering, whether to order meals, download menus for ordering, examine
catalogues for purchasing equipment and so on, all at the click of the mouse. One
can visualize information technology (IT) being used for catering services in a
widely progressive manner in the future even by entrepreneurs supplying lunches to
offices taking orders through their networks and coordinating supplies as required
irrespective of location of the kitchens. The e-dabbawala is not far, as conceptualized
by the Director of e-business solutions at their Bangalore Labs. In time it is
expected to deliver sumptuous meals anywhere anytime.

14
Research and development efforts in the area of food processing and related technologies, History and Development
have already made it possible to package cooked ready to eat meal items that can be of Food Service System
picked off the supermarket shelf, heated or eaten as such. Have you seen such
products in the market? Look for them under the brand name of Taste bite or MTR
and see for yourself how easy it has become for institutions and householders to
present a meal to unexpected guests.
Tourism and travel is on the increase as modes of travel have graduated from the road
to sea and air. Food service establishments have tried to keep pace with the demand
of the traveler according to his or her needs through making night lodges available to
those on long pilgrimages to catering facilities on luxury bus, trains to sea and air liners.
Today catering institutions form the backbone of the tourist trade and are important
foreign exchange earners. The only drawback is that the industry is characterized by
a large number of small services which have mushroomed in response to the needs
of individuals and groups and have therefore not developed in an organized manner.
Such food establishments include the chai (tea), paan and chaat stalls, ice cream
parlours, vendors offering various food items or meals, fast food corners and mobile
services.
Recent developments in sports facilities, both leisure and competitive have also
generated special feeding requirements of clients, which pose challenges for food
and service providers at these locations. With the introduction of adventure sports
such as deep sea diving, mountaineering and so on, people are now being catered to
through constant research and development efforts in food and material sciences.
Today, ready-to-serve and eat foods of every region in the country, are available in
retort pouches that can withstand sterilization temperatures of 121°C without affecting
the quality of the food.
You must have traveled recently. Which food services did you see or use for meals
and refreshment on the way? Make a list and we will talk about them a little later.
Of course, you would not have gone on a space craft, but do you know that the food
industry also tries to meet the special needs of the astronauts and the military posted
in mountainous regions at freezing temperatures, and prepares light weight food
packages for them. You may recall studying about the space food systems and meals
in the Advance Nutrition Course (MFN-004) in the Unit 18 based on Nutrition
Requirement for Special Conditions.
Another important trend in recent times has been the promotion of national and
international trade and cooperation in every field. This has led to a spurt in conference
catering, group living and provision of feeding facilities for people with varying
geographic and cultural backgrounds. The exposure to different foods of various
countries has created a demand for specialty catering services which are now becoming
a common sight in the form of food service establishments serving regional foods.
You would have seen or even eaten at Chinese, Mexican, South Indian, North Indian
or even Japanese food services and fast food restaurants in the country.
While the type and number of food service establishments are increasing everyday,
the need to focus on relatively small scale establishments, feeding 50-200 customers
a day, in terms of providing professionally planned services is great, in order to
ensure a fair deal to customers in terms of health, satisfaction and enjoyment of food.
In India, with over 20 million middle class consumers and an increasing number of
catering training institutions, the scope for catering entrepreneurial development
holds a great promise. At the same time, this would increase employment opportunities
for the unemployed youth of a country whose population has already crossed the one
billion mark.
With a brief review on the history, development and the recent trends seen in the
food service establishment, let us now learn about the different types of food service
establishments.
15
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 1.3 TYPES OF FOOD SERVICE ESTABLISHMENTS
Food services basically fall into two categories, commercial and non-commercial. Let
us see what do both these entail and what are the differences between them.

1.3.1 Commercial Establishments

Commercial establishments are those that are set up mainly with a profit motive and
sell food and services for a price, irrespective of their size. They range from the
smallest tea stall, roadside eating place or dhaba to the coffee house, cafeteria,
restaurant, motel and hotels, the latter providing a wide range of dining and service
facilities. The customers who visit such establishments eat out for different reasons
such as hunger and thirst, pleasure, entertainment, leisure, business meeting and so
on. They are therefore willing to pay for the food, service and comfort received, thus
providing for the profit levels of these establishments as planned.

Other type of commercial food services found today are contract catering services.
These operate on behalf of anyone who wishes to celebrate an event according to
their own menu; at any place they want, whether in their home, in a lawn or a hired
hall in the locality or a community center. You must have seen such events as
marriages where all the arrangements are made by caterers, according to the menu
decided by the host. Can you think of any other functions you have attended where
the food is not prepared and served from the home kitchen but outsiders come and
arrange the food and the service and then also clear up after the party or function?
It is, therefore, clear that food establishments that are set up to make a profit from
the operations are called commercial organizations. Food services that make more
than 25 per cent profit fall into this category.

However, there are small establishments that do not have very high costs of staff
such as roadside establishments, vendors, or mobile services. These therefore, charge
less from customers and make profits within 15-25 per cent. Such establishments
are called semi-commercial services as they do not spend much money on furniture
or decoration to attract customers and thereby lower their total costs of operation.

From commercial, to semi-commercial, let us next review the non-commercial

establishment.

1.3.2 Non-commercial Establishments

Non-commercial services are those that have been set up with a social objective and
food preparation and service are only a complimentary part of the care giving aspect
of the establishment. Some examples are government hospitals, schools, prisons,
orphanages, old age homes and the like. Such institutions may however, carry on
activities that will enhance their income or charge a fee for services rendered from
those who can afford to pay for them.

These establishments cover all their expenses either through government grants or
subsidies or through public donations and generally do not aim at profits from sale
of the food and services provided. Financially they are said to breakeven, although
they may in part charge a price from those inmates/beneficiaries who can afford to
pay, such as for private ward patients in hospitals.

Having gone through the discussion so far, let us take a break and recall what we
have learnt so far by answering the questions included in the check your progress
exercise 1.

16
 History and Development
Check Your Progress Exercise 1 of Food Service System
1) Describe the term food service establishment. Highlight the factors influencing
its development.
……………………………………………………………………………..
...…………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
2) List the food service establishments you have seen on the way while traveling
from home to your place of work, leisure or play. Try and write down against
each, the type of establishments you think they are. For example: Restaurant
— commercial.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
3) How many times do you eat outside your home in a month? State the reasons
why you eat out. Tally your responses with what you have learnt.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
4) Match the food service establishments in column A with the reasons for their
development given in column B.
A B
a) Dhaba i. Education
b) Restaurant ii. Technology
c) Canteen iii. Road development
d) Air Catering iv. Tourism
e. Commercial Establishment v. Entertainment/leisure
5) Define a specialty food service establishment. Give three examples of such
services.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..

So, that was easy. It is important to understand that running a food service unit is
not an easy task. It requires management skills and knowledge. Next, we shall focus
on what is management and the approaches to food service management.

1.4 UNDERSTANDING MANAGEMENT

Management is classified and defined by different authors in the perception of its use.
Let us actually come to define the term management now.

Allen states that the definitions and interpretation of management vary widely. Some
see management as a complex of administrative and personal skills. Others view it
17
Entrepreneurship and Food as a technique of leadership. Still others define it as a means of co-ordination and
Service Management cooperation.

According to Drucker, it is management that enables the organization to contribute

a needed result to society, economy and the individual. Mary Parker Follett states
that management has been called the art of getting things done through people. It
calls attention to the fact that the manager achieves organizational goals by arranging
for others to perform whatever tasks may be necessary and not by performing the
tasks themselves. Management is a form of work that involves guiding and directing
a group of people towards organizational goals or objectives.
Haimann, Mc Farland and other writers have explained the term “management” in
three different ways:
As a noun, it refers to the individuals who exercise leadership in an organization,
i.e. the manager.
As a process, it refers to planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.
As a discipline, it refers to a body of knowledge and practice.
According to the Functional School, management is defined as an integrating process
designed to achieve organized and purposeful result. It is the process by which the
manager creates, directs, maintains and operates purposive organizations through
coordinated and cooperative human effort.

According to Human Relations School, management is a social process because

management actions are concerned with relations between the people. Lawrence A.
Appley cites management as personnel administration. According to Drucker
management is a task of making people capable of joint performance, to make their
strength effective and their weakness irrelevant.

According to System and Contingency School, management is an open system

consisting of interacting and interdependent parts, having a variety of goals in other
words the System theory. Management is also situational, that is, there are prevailing
environmental conditions according to which everything should be managed, termed
as Contingency theory. Management is a process of using resources to achieve goals
through various interacting elements including problems, needs, wants, values,
decision making, planning, implementing, communication and feedback, all operating
within an environmental context.

According to the Decision making School, management is a decision making body,

a rule making and rule enforcing body. According to Drucker, the life of a manager
is a perpetual choice making activity. This school underlines the role of thought
process in taking decisions, which are directed towards achieving goals. Thus
management is defined as a process of decision-making and control over the action
of human beings for the explicit purpose of attaining the predetermined goals.

Management is identified as a body of systematized knowledge, based on general

principles, which are verifiable in business practices. If management is a profession,
then the key problem is to decide what a manager does. Strong answers by saying
that a manager plans, organizes, delegates motivates, directs and controls. These are
some of the aspects of his work. He adds foresight, order, purpose, integration of
effort and effectiveness to the contribution of others. Therefore, we can say that
management is a process of planning, organizing, delegating, leading and
controlling the efforts of the organization members and by using all other
organizational resources to achieve the stated organizational goal. Gullick has
suggested POSDCORB an acronym for management created from the names of
seven functions, which include planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating,
reporting and budgeting.
18
Now that we have a clear view on what is management, let us review the approaches History and Development
to food service management. of Food Service System

1.5 APPROACHES TO FOOD SERVICE MANAGEMENT

Management thinking has undergone a number of changes in the last few decades
resulting in adoption of approaches that can be flexibly applied to management
situations in the fast changing business environment of today.

Management thought in India gained momentum after independence but developed

on the lines of western approaches followed in U.K. and U.S.A., where sociologists
have increasingly focused attention on various aspects of organizations studying
their structures, managerial practices, and people’s behaviour at work and why some
organizations succeed and others do not.

Manager’s have followed a number of approaches while managing their establishments,

depending on their own personality traits, position in the establishment and leadership
and decision making qualities. Further, the science of management has changed
through the decades to suit the changing needs and challenges of the business
environment. We will now see what approaches were followed and how they changed
over time. We begin with the traditional approach.

1.5.1 Traditional Approach

Traditional management was based on the rule of thumb principle which assumed
that whatever food and drink was prepared and offered to the customer would be
sold because food is a necessity for survival. Thus, management of food production
and service became a combination of certain cultural factors adapted to the
contemporary world, both through its own inertia and its relevance to the organization
and its environment. This combination often referred to as ethics determines actions,
decisions and behaviour of people at work and their role in an organization.

The traditional ethic is clearly depicted by the Confucian philosophy which originated
in China and spread to Korea and other countries. This defines five basic relationships
between people by which society can be organized at the social, political and economic
levels, as indicated in Figure 1.2. .

Master — subject
Husband — wife
Parent — sibling
Self — friends
Franchiser — franchisee

Figure 1.2: Five relationships at work in traditional management

Let us see what these relationships are and how they work in an organization where
a number of people interact at work.

Master-subject
This relationship is widely seen in catering enterprises where the owner is the sole
manager as in the case of small roadside establishments such as Dhabas, tea or
coffee shops, bakeries and so on. In such situations, the management style is
authoritative, and communication is one-way usually in a downward direction from
master to subject.

19
Entrepreneurship and Food Husband-wife
Service Management
Ventures started by couple’s exhibit this relationship in their management style which
shows male domination in management decisions in a traditionally male dominated
society. The advantage of this relationship is that it is based on love and understanding
and therefore division of work and effort is willing, participative and effective. The
skills are well used, the wife taking charge of food production and service while the
husband deals with external forces and activities such as purchasing, inventory
management, customer networking and finance. Examples of such services are
supply of meals to homes, offices, or take-away services from which customer picks
up the meals or food items, having ordered them telephonically in advance.

Parent-sibling
With this relationship, the establishment expands with the family, its members
contributing to the work according to their age, ability, skills which they gradually
learn from the parents on-the-job. Unity, loyalty and goal focus is assured because
of familial bonds between the members of the organization, which may be a cafeteria,
contract catering business, specialty or other restaurant.

Self-friends
Management thinking changed with time and greater investments were needed. This
was achieved by extending family businesses by joining with friends who exhibited
mutual loyalties, and were willing to share responsibilities of a business in terms of
partnerships for investment, risk and profits alike. The characteristics of this
relationship were care, concern and mutual respect which formed the basis of success
in running a food service organization such as a motel, hotel, lodge, hostel or
restaurant in partnership.

Franchiser-franchisee
This represents a contractual relationship between one organization and another, the
franchiser allowing the use of its established trade name in exchange for royalty
payments. The franchisee was however, trained by the former to ensure that standards
of food and service were maintained under the given trade name irrespective of the
location of the newer enterprise. Examples of such enterprises are Nirula, Pizza Hut,
McDonald, Sagar Ratna, Udipi restaurants and so on.
The traditional management arrangements, as discussed above, although still practiced
in some establishments, have gradually undergone changes resulting from behavioural
and social research on groups at work. The different approaches that thus evolved
are discussed as practiced from time to time.

1.5.2 Classical Approach

In the 1800’s when industry was being developed, child workers were employed who
worked up to 13 hours a day, even in England, and yet lived in poor conditions.
Classical approaches to management at the time treated productivity as a purely
engineering problem. It was Robert Owen who first conceived the manager’s role as
that of a reformist, because he felt that improving working conditions of employees
would lead to better production and profits. He truly believed that the best asset for
any manager was his workforce. Owen practiced his beliefs on his own workers by
reducing their hours to 10½, stopped employing children under 10 years of age and
started rating daily performances. In this way he instilled pride in people for their
achievement, discovered problem areas and introduced competition. Gradually
management skills began to be taught instead of only technical ones shifting the
focus from engineering to people at work.

The Classical organization theory resulted from the need to find guidelines for
managing complex organizations and Henri Fayol was the first to systematize them.
20
According to him, sound managerial practice falls into patterns that can be identified History and Development
and analyzed. This gave rise to the classical bureaucratic model that was followed by of Food Service System
managers in establishments. Many transitional theories with slight modifications followed
which were referred to as neo-classical approaches. Let us review this approach.

Neoclassical approaches
Neoclassical approaches evolved as a result of experimentation with improvements
tried by managers using human relations and behavioural approaches. Two theories
were developed by Douglas McGregor known as Theory X and Theory Y, which
were based on two sets of assumptions about the nature of people.
The traditional assumptions included in Theory X were that:
• Human beings have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it if they can.
• Most people need to be coerced, controlled, directed and or threatened with
punishment to get them to put in enough effort to achieve organizational objectives,
and
• Human beings prefer to be directed, wish to avoid responsibility, have little
ambition and want security.
Theory Y assumptions were stated as:
• The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or
rest.
• External control and threat of punishment are not the only means of producing
effort, and people will exercise self-direction and self-control to achieve objectives
or goals to which they are committed.
• The degree of commitment is proportionate to the size of rewards associated with
their achievement.
• Average human beings learn, under proper conditions, not only to accept but also
seek responsibility.
• The capacity to exercise a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in
the solution of problems, is widely distributed among people, and
• The potential of people is usually only partially utilized.

Now that you have gone through the two theories, can you suggest what the difference
between the two theories is? Write down the difference and tally your response with
the differences highlighted next.

Differences between the two theories

Theory X is pessimistic, static, and rigid and the control is external being imposed by
the superior. Theory Y is optimistic, dynamic and flexible, and emphasizes self-
direction and the integration of individual needs with those of the organization. There
is little doubt that each set of assumptions will affect the way managers perform in
any establishment.

Some important distinctive features of classical & neoclassical approach are highlighted
in Table 1.1. Going through this table you could also differentiate between the two
approaches.

21
Entrepreneurship and Food Table 1.1: Points of distinction in classical and neoclassical approach
Service Management
Points of Classical Approach Neoclassical Approach
Distinction
Focus Functions and economic Emotion and humans qualities
demand of workers of workers
Structure Impersonal and mechanistic Social system
Application Autocratic management and Democratic process
strict rules
Emphasize Discipline and Rationality Personal security and
Social demand
Work goal of Maximum remuneration Attainment of organization
worker and reward goal
Concept about men Economic being Social being
Content Scientific management, Hawthorne experiment,
administrative management human relation movement
and bureaucratic and organizational behaviour
management
Relation Formal Informal
Nature Mechanistic Organistic
Source: Rafiul M. & Sadrul M., 2013, Classical and neoclassical approaches of management, IOSR,
Journal of Business and management, volume 14, Issue 6, Bangladesh.

We will all agree today, that managers should behave respectfully to their employees
too, thanks to the research done and implemented by Owen, Fayol, and others in the
management field.
Next, let us review the scientific approach to food service management.

1.5.3 Scientific Approach

The scientific approach to management is also called Taylorism after its founder
F.W.Taylor who believed that management could be taught and practiced in a scientific
manner. He felt that an organization can be looked at scientifically from three points
of view – management, workers and the total organization.
Let us understand these three points of views.
Management
This approach assumes that management has always been interested in obtaining
control over the worker. This may not necessarily be for exercising power but to
increase output and efficiency. On the other hand, managers were happy to offer
definite rates and standards for jobs, which could be used to judge the performance
of people at work. This approach suggested by Taylor also helped managers to
calculate wage costs more accurately and avoid conflicts at work. In fact Henri Fayol
was the first to investigate managerial behaviour in organizations and systematically
grouped operations of an organization into six basic activities such as:
Security: This included safety of people and property.
Technical: This covered all production methods and products.
Commercial: Included all activities of buying and selling.
Financial: Involved the raising of funds and using capital.
Accounting: This involved recording and monitoring of all costs, profits and liabilities.
Managerial: This covered monitoring productivity, problem solving, coordinating,
controlling and so on.
22
Fayol, however, preferred to use the word principle instead of rules to build flexibility History and Development
in the way managers could react to situations using their own judgment. of Food Service System

Workforce
The views of workers was basically monetary gain and incentive pay which were part
of scientific management, although much harder work had to be performed to meet
the standards laid down.

Organization
The scientific approach enabled organizations to set clear goals and organize processes,
procedures and work areas more efficiently to achieve them. The result was that
efficiency and thereby productivity improved and profits got better ensured. Thus, a
value was placed on work performed which indirectly benefited the organization, as
it involved better planning, organizing and overall functioning of all staff in the
organization. While Taylorism grew out of experimentation and experience on the job,
a problem arose, that workers were afraid of completing a job too soon because they
believed that their pay would be lowered as a result. To remove these fears, Taylor
encouraged productive workers rewarding them by increasing their wage rates. Gradually
training schemes based on procedures followed by high performers were prepared,
skills required for various jobs were established for use in staff selection and evaluation
standards set up for each type of work. Management thus, started to become scientifically
researched and practiced.
Having understood the scientific approach, next we shall get to know the management
by objective approach.

1.5.4 Management by Objectives

Peter Drucker was the first to use the Management by Objectives or MBO approach
for management planning and evaluation, in situations where goals of managers were
set to be achieved within a predetermined time frame. In this approach, each manager
sets his own goals within the broader preset goals of the establishment and then works
to achieve them. The significance of this approach is that manager’s performance can
also be evaluated, in addition to that of the operative staff of an establishment. This
makes managers more committed to goal achievement.
The characteristics of the MBO approach are superior-subordinate participation in goal
setting, devising methods, reviewing progress and achieving results. Constant interaction
between involved staff is established but requires a good information system for
success, as the approach is totally result oriented. The positive features of the MBO
approach are employee satisfaction because it outlines what exactly is expected of
them and provides measurable objectives at all levels of the establishment. It also takes
into account profitability, competitiveness, efficiency and flexibility.
Next, we shall review the systems approach to food service management.

1.5.5 Systems Approach

The systems approach looks at organizations as systems composed of a number of
sub-systems which interact with each other and their internal and external environments
to achieve goals, and to satisfy the needs of the environment in which the organization
exists. The systems model therefore focuses more on those properties and processes
of the organization which are relevant to goal achievement.

The systems approach therefore, sees the organization as receiving inputs from its
environment and interrelating them through various job divisions or systems to produce
the products or service.s which flow back into the environment to satisfy needs. The
systems model is thus seen as inputs and outflows from one system to another as
shown in Figure 1.3.
23
Entrepreneurship and Food External
Service Management Environment

ng Organisa
Technical/Economic teri tio
System Ca Social System
Internal

n
Banks External
Institutions
Input Competition
Sub Systems Output
Customers
Government Suppliers

Environment
So
cio em
-technical Syst

Figure 1.3: Systems approach to organizations

Source: Reprinted with permission from Institutional Food Management, Sethi, New Age,
International, 2004.

For example, in a restaurant a system consists of the customer giving an order to a

waiter, who in turn takes it to the kitchen. The cook then prepares it and returns it
to the waiter who then presents it to the customer. Thus the activities of the customer,
waiter and cook are interconnected in the customer-feeding system. Such systems
show important properties of dynamism, the parts of the system constantly moving
in addition to interacting with one another. So if something occurs in one part of the
system its effect in some way gets transmitted through it to affect the functions of
other parts. We can therefore quote three main assumptions underlying organizations
as systems. These are:
 Systems are composed of interdependent parts.
 They have needs for survival, and
 They behave and take action
The systems concepts thus focus on interconnectivity so a change in one part
influences other parts as well but without showing any visible cause of disturbance.
Let us review the types of systems next.

Types of systems
There are basically three types of systems – closed, open and socio-technical systems.
Let us get to know these systems.

• Closed systems: Closed systems usually have few inter-relating parts which
operate on the assumption that the external environment is constant and does
not change to influence the functioning of the organization. When changes do
occur they are slower than the internal changes and organizations adapt to them
to bring back a state of equilibrium.
• Open systems: These are similar to closed ones except that they take into account
the interactions with the external environment as well.
• Socio-technical systems: In such systems the link is provided between the social
and the technical system by a set of activities, interactions and sentiments which
are partly molded by the technical system. One such factor is the division of work
developed in a system through which the task requirements interrelate to individuals’
24 needs, as an interdependent socio-technical system.
Thus, the systems approach helps to distinguish between productive, maintenance, History and Development
adaptive and managerial-political functions of an organization. There are however, of Food Service System
certain limitations of the systems approach. These limitations are highlighted next.

Limitations of the System Approach

The limitations of the systems approach include:

• It is purely functional and does not focus on people to a large extent.

• The model does not explain the prevalence of conflict at work.
• The approach can be misleading, as it suggests that all the parts of the system
cooperate at all times rather than compete or struggle for survival.
• The least convincing aspect is its inability to explain change that arises not from
the system, but from the interaction between motivated people.
• The approach looks at the organization from the viewpoint of managers and not
the workers.
• The needs of the environment are seen as impersonal processes, and therefore
organizations adapt to their environments at different rates, and
• The scope of employees’ participation in decision making is limited, since all
decisions are made within the formal structure of the organization.
Next, we shall focus on the quantitative approach.

1.5.6 Quantitative Approach

Quantitative approach is also called the mathematical or operational research (OR)
approach, because it involves the study of effects of all possible factors that can affect
potential outcomes, based on which management decisions may be taken. It involves
the building of models to project through computers a real situation or problem.
Basically, four types of models have been used namely, representative, analogous,
symbolic or mathematical and simulated models.
Let us get to know about these models.
Representative model: This is a scaled representation of the real situation as in a
photographic or mapped out model.
Analogous model: This involves using comparative properties of situations to illustrate
problems or the mechanisms involved in decision making in similar situations and
conditions.
Symbolic model: These consist of mathematical derivations using symbols for certain
components of the problem and then calculations are made to depict solutions from
which the best possible solution is arrived at. Symbolic models represent real situations,
are simple, convenient and economical to use for testing hypotheses. They help in
understanding and predicting conditions of uncertainty or risk and control decision
problems which are under consideration.
Simulation model: This model makes use of linear programming to solve problems
such as queuing which affect sales revenue of an establishment. Simulation helps to
search for an optimum solution by striking a balance between the cost of waiting,
customer loss and cost of reducing queues through allocation or reallocation of
additional resources.
Quantitative methods help to maximize resource use by providing solutions to technical
problems at operative levels. For managers, they provide a factual basis for guiding
them towards objective decision making.
The next approach covered in this section is the behavioural and human relations.
25
Entrepreneurship and Food 1.5.7 Behavioural and Human Relations Approach
Service Management
Behavioural and human approach is based on the belief that an organization is as good
as its people, because in-spite of scientific and other planned approaches, managers
continue to face problems. This was attributed to the changes in people’s behaviour
and therefore attention was drawn to social and psychological factors that operated
among working groups. Behavioural scientists suggested three ways of improving
productivity by:

• Selecting the best person for each job using psychological testing techniques,
• Creating the best psychological conditions, and
• Motivating employees.

The human relations and behavioural approaches had two basic objectives –
i) economic effectiveness, and ii) employee satisfaction which can further be extended
to customer satisfaction with respect to service organizations.

Today, a lot of attention is paid to motivation of employees through providing different

degrees of employee benefits and rewarding them with bonuses for increasing profits
of organizations, irrespective of their size. The working environment too is the focus
of attention of managers to provide workers with a comfortable work environment
and atmosphere.

After behavioural and human approach, we shall review the contingency

approach.

1.5.8 Contingency Approach

The contingency approach was the result of the efforts of managers to apply different
approaches to real life situations for making the most effective decisions. They
found that methods used in one situation did not succeed at other times. According
to this approach, managers needed to identify which techniques will work in a
particular situation under given circumstance, and at a particular time, to contribute
the maximum to goal achievement.

From contingency approach, we move on to the just-in-time approach.

1.5.9 Just-in-Time
Just in Time or JIT approach was the result of the increasing desire of managers to
enhance efficiency for achieving better profits. This approach is applied basically to
production management in an effort to control costs of storage space, time and
effort. The idea was to receive raw materials just in time for production as required
with minimum stocks being held on the premises.

The JIT approach was first developed by the Japanese in 1970’s and has since
inspired managers globally to adopt it to cut the costs of production. In food services,
this approach is followed when fresh, highly perishable foods, like meats, milk, fruits
and vegetables, are directly delivered to the kitchens for production of meals, rather
than stored in the establishment. The concept gains importance in India given the
seasonality of raw food production in different regions of the country, and the price
sensitivity of the consumer. Only in large establishments where the quantity delivered
is very large, these foods are stored for short periods under refrigeration or in cold
rooms, for issue as required.

The JIT approach results in appreciable cost reduction in terms of storage, handling
and staff costs, making the products and services offered by food establishments more
affordable for consumers and more profitable for the food manufacturing and catering
26
sectors. Savings of 5-10 per cent have been reported in inventory and storage costs History and Development
as reported by some researchers. JIT thus improves efficiency of production and of Food Service System
improves quality because foods are not stored excessively and deterioration is
automatically prevented.

JIT thus follows a demand pull rather than a supply push approach enabling managers
to schedule production on demand rather than have unsold products in the hope that
they will be demanded. Implementing the JIT approach has definite advantages. These
advantages are enumerated next.
Advantages of JIT
The advantages of JIT include:
• Direct cost reduction
• Staff and space reduction
• Decreases cost of handling
• Reduces or eliminates damages in storage
• Makes work flow easier, and
• Saves time and energy

Implementation, however, requires the establishment of sound communication networks

as suppliers need to be informed about requirements, consumer uptake all of which
needs documentation. Some establishments following this approach are McDonalds,
Dominoes Pizza, Cadbury India Limited which is linked with its depots, factories,
cocoa sourcing points by use of appropriate software. JIT is a management intensive
system, but once established is easy to monitor effectively.

Finally, let us study about the total quality management approach.

1.5.10 Total Quality Management Approach

Total Quality Management or TQM is a concept that fosters continuous overall
improvement at all levels of production and service in an establishment. This approach
emphasizes a systematic, integrated and consistent organizational effort involving all
resources at hand whether human or material, for the purpose of gaining competitive
advantage in the market. What then does TQM mean? Let us see. According to Ho,
1995, TQM is:
Total represents all people associated with an organization including suppliers and
customers.
Quality means that the requirements of customers whether expressed or implied, are
being met constantly.
Management implies that the managers of the organization are fully committed to the
continuous improvement of all facets of the organization from the smallest to the
largest link.
Many researchers have been linked with the development of the TQM approach such
as Crosby (1979), Deming (1986) and Juran (1988) who spread it worldwide. By
1992 the definitions kept on changing to include statements like performing jobs right
the first time, or defining quality as providing extraordinary customer satisfaction or
conforming narrowly to standards and so on. Juran developed the ideas of quality
planning, quality improvement and quality control.
According to the Japanese, TQM is a journey which never ends if an organization
has to succeed and survive in a competitive environment. Kondo (1995) focused on
27
Entrepreneurship and Food quality and people motivation and believed in creativity, physical activity and sociability
Service Management for expressing the joy of sharing pleasure and pain with colleagues.

Thus, the TQM, approach signifies a state of constant dynamism within an organization
because of technological advances and systems development which has made it
possible to monitor work and processes more effectively for constant quality
improvement.

With TQM, we end our discussion on the different approaches to food service
management. Surely, you may have found the discussion a bit technical but certainly
interesting. Do read this section once again for better understanding and
conceptualization. To help you recall what you have learnt in this section, we have
included few exercises in the check your progress exercise 2. Answer these exercises
and evaluate where you stand.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) What are the different approaches to management? List them.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Fill in the blanks:
i) Traditional management was based on the ………… of ………… principle.
ii) The scientific approach to management is also called ……….. because
………… founded it.
iii) Organizations can be looked at scientifically from ………. points of view
namely, management, ……….. and …………. .
iv) …………. school defines management as a social process.
v) Neoclassical approach evolved as a result of experimentation with
improvements using ……………… and ……….. approaches.
3) What are the five relationships at work in traditional management? Name
them and write against each the type of food service establishment you think
they are practiced in even today. For example:
i) Master subject …………… Dhaba
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
4) Write full names for the following short forms and define them.
i) MBO- ....................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
ii) JIT - ................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
28
 History and Development
iii) TQM -.............................................................................................. of Food Service System

.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
iv) OR - ...............................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

In the last section we covered the approaches to food service management. Next, we
shall study about the processes and principles involved in managing an organization.

1.6 MANAGING AN ORGANIZATION

In order to use the approaches highlighted in section 1.4 above, to manage an
organization, managers use certain processes and principles to perform their functions
in order to achieve goals. Let us see what these are and how managers succeed or
fail in different situations on their journey towards goals.

1.6.1 Processes Involved

The very concept of management involves the design of the environment in which
people working together in groups, using their different skills and talents strive to
achieve objectives of the organization. Design is thus, the application of knowledge
to a practical problem for the purpose of finding out the best possible way to achieve
results for that situation. The processes involved therefore aim to establish an
environment in which goals can be achieved with the least expenditure of time, money,
materials while using human resources most productively, and in a climate that fosters
harmony. Details of the different processes are dealt with in Unit 2.

Here, let us try and look at some decisions that you take almost routinely every day
to reach your place of work. What do you do when you wake up in the morning?
Possibly:
— Look at you watch and react by saying Oh! I’m late.
— Jump out of bed.
— No time for a relaxed cup of tea.
— Pull out some clothes and rush to get ready.
— Get stressed, miss breakfast.
— Run to catch your bus or drive fast unmindful of safety.
— Reach late and try to catch up with work throughout the day.
— Can’t achieve as expected.
— Reach home frustrated and disturb harmony.
Look at your reactions above and observe the processes that you have gone through
to make decisions at various points in time. You will find that you went through three
types of processes, physical, mental and emotional. Now reverse the situation and
wake up well in time. You will still go through the three types of processes but reach
office in time, eat well, be happier and satisfied at the end of the day. We all have
good days and bad days, so do managers but they still have to take decisions as the
situation demands.

In food service establishments, it is common for operative level staff to complain that
the manager draws more salary, has greater comfort at work and sits in a chair most
of the time ordering others to do the hard work. This is however, a misconception
29
Entrepreneurship and Food since managers are mainly involved on the mental plane, using their judgment in
Service Management particular situations and making decisions that help the organization towards its goals.
In order to operate efficiently, the managers follow certain principles which are briefly
outlined and discussed next.

1.6.2 Principles of Management

What do principles mean? George R. Terry has aptly defined a principle as .. a
fundamental truth providing a guide to thought and action. Thus, principles are
guidelines formulated on the basis of past experiences of managers in related situations,
through a process of recording mentally or in writing, the effects of decisions taken
in the past.
Certain basic guidelines can be formulated by every manager to help in the successful
management of his/her establishment, therefore there can be very different principles
that are applied in various organizations according to past experiences and judgment
of managers in their particular situations. This is also because no two situations are
exactly alike to demand prototype decisions taken in the past, and people involved
also change their behaviour at different points in time. Present decisions however, can
be based on the results of past decisions taken under fairly similar circumstances,
depending on future goals to be achieved.
Thus, principles are not rigid foolproof rules which can provide definite solutions to
problems or needs but are flexible, practical, consistent and relevant guidelines for use
in similar sets of situations. They help to predict the results of decisions taken when
used with the manager’s own judgment of when to apply or use them. When
managers take decisions that have constantly proved wrong, the fault does not lie with
the principles, but in the judgment made and the principle applied by managers in a
particular situation. Let us see how this works through an example.
Example 1
Suppose a catering manager follows the principle of serving lunches strictly between
12.30 and 2.30 pm every day, but one day finds that there is an unexpected rush
of customers, and meals get finished by 2.00 pm. How will he apply his principle to
manage the situation with respect to customers who habitually come to the establishment
between 2.00 and 2.30 pm?
Let us list what decision choices he has in the situation.
— Close down service at 2.00 pm on that day.
— Use some ready to serve foods held in stock to make up extra meals to cover
the demand between 2.00 to 2.30 pm.
— Request staff to make sandwiches and arrange for making eggs to order to make
up a meal platter for customers.
In this manner there can be many different reactions to a particular situation and it
may seem confusing to make a decision. But the principle if applied with a manager’s
value judgment helps to make decision making easier and more effective. Let us see
how different managers use their value judgments to make decisions.
i) A manager who places greater value on the goodwill of customers will not think
twice about keeping the food service open, and providing whatever he can to his
customer. He would not take the risk of turning away even a single customer.
ii) Another manager might value his own image vis-à-vis his staff, in which case he
will treat the situation as a challenge and think of quick preparations, being guided
by the principle of keeping the food service open till 2.30 pm.
iii) A third manager may value good relations with his staff and take the opportunity
to give them half an hour off, based on the fact that the number of customers
in the last half hour are not significant enough to make his staff prepare meals
30 all over again and create stress in the environment.
Which of the above decisions would you choose if you were the manager of the History and Development
establishment and why? It is possible that when you apply your value judgment you of Food Service System
may come up with a fourth decision absolutely different from that of the three
managers cited above.
So you can see that many possibilities come up in different situations according to
the many value judgments of people. Principles applied must therefore be flexible
enough to be used where goals change, no matter how far apart in time similar
situations may be.
Principles therefore represent the historical collection of cause and effect data obtained
from experiences gathered by managers in various situations, from which practicing
and potential managers can draw for making effective decisions. There are therefore,
no fixed numbers of principles that a manager may adopt as the basis for developing
an organization. As experience is gained very different guidelines emerge, some
principles helping to predict, others providing guidelines for decision making at various
levels of the organization.
According to Koontz, O’ Donnel and Weihrich, principles of management are descriptive
or predictive and not prescriptive. In other words, they do not tell a manager what
he should do, but only give him an idea of what may be expected if certain variable
interact in a situation.
There are 14 principles which have formed the basis for management activity, but each
manager may use as many as they think useful in a particular situation. In fact, every
manager can create principles to suit their own particular field of work which could
form reference points for success in the future. The basic principles are outlined in
Figure 1.4 and are self explanatory.

Authority
Division of and
work responsibility Discipline
Span of
control Unitary
command

Unity
Unitary
PRINCIPLES OF direction
MANAGEMENT

Individual
Initiative goals second to
organizational
goals
Work
stability Payment for
Loyalty work
and
devotion Orderliness Hierarchy

Figure 1.4: Principles of management

31
Entrepreneurship and Food Now let us see how these principles are used effectively in food service establishments.
Service Management
Division of work: The use of this principle in food services is based on the different
skills, knowledge and experience of staff. It is a fact that a worker washing dishes
cannot perform a cook’s job. This implies that jobs need to be divided between
people according to their abilities in every establishment irrespective of its size or
location. The use of this principle in organizing work, makes staff perform tasks
repeatedly, a process through which they become more efficient, gain confidence
and thereby production gradually speeds up thus increasing efficiency of the
establishment.

Larger organizations need to apply this principle more than very small operations
like dhabas, tea stalls etc. in which staff numbers vary from 2-5 only and require to
do all the tasks together, under the supervision of one manager. The principle of
division of labour however, needs to be applied with care in food services because
strict application might lead to staff becoming too specialized in their jobs to takeover
the tasks of others. For example, if a cook leaves the assistant cook may not be able
to produce the same quality food for the customer, to the detriment of the
establishment. Therefore a certain amount of job rotation also needs to be followed
to train others to fill in for staff that may be absent, sick or on leave.

Authority and responsibility: The principle of authority works in two ways one, it
is exercised because of the position in the chain of command of the organization, and
two, it is because of a person’s intelligence, experience and the sense of values he
holds. Both types of authority complement each other. In any work situation some
of the official authority may be delegated along with the responsibility a task carries
with it. For example the task of meal production and job distribution may be delegated
by a manager to the head cook, who then also gets the responsibility of ensuring
quality food to the customer. Authority may thus be dispersed or centralized for an
organization, depending on its size and location.

Discipline: The principle of discipline covers punctuality, courtesy, adherence to rules

and regulations, obedience and so on, all being essential where group activities are
involved and directed towards common goals.

Unitary command: Unitary command means that there should only be one manager
to give the orders or command at work in any area of the establishment under his
control. Application of this principle goes a long way in establishing loyalty towards
managers and the organization. Imagine if two or three people were to give different
orders or instructions for completing the same task. What would happen? There would
be confusion in the mind of the worker and questions like:
• Whose instructions should be followed?
• Will other managers go against me if I do not follow their orders?
• What should I do?

Apart from the mental confusion, many commands given together is time wasting to
implement, as well as, frustrating for the worker, lead to dissatisfaction and fatigue.

Unitary direction: This relates to coordination of activities to achieve a single goal.

Undirected or multidirectional goals lead to divided attention, lack of efficiency and
achievement.

Individual goals second: The principle of organizational goals being subordinate to

establishment goals is important for organizational success, because if every person
starts to satisfy their own personal goals first, the organization will have to close down.
This is because there is no end to individual needs and when one is satisfied another
will crop up, all at the cost of the food service.
32
Payment: All work must be paid for in order to motivate people to do their best. The History and Development
methods of payment agreed upon should satisfy employees and the organization, the of Food Service System
terms in principle being fair.
Hierarchy: The principle of hierarchy refers to the chain formed by staff at different
levels in an organization, and corresponds to the various levels of management. The
levels tell the worker who is their boss and who to go to when in need. This results
in a natural acceptance of authority that can then command respect if relationships
developed over time are cordial.
Orderliness: Orderliness saves time at work looking for materials and equipment and
leads to a smooth work flow through the establishment. In kitchens where raw, partly
prepared and ready to serve foods are handled it also prevents cross-contamination
and ensures food safety for all concerned. Orderliness with respect to staff is helpful
in placing people in positions so that the right person is in the right place at the right
time which is a reflection of a good organization.
Loyalty and devotion: Where people show a sense of devotion to work and loyalty
the work environment generates harmony, and a unified attachment to the interests
and goals of the establishment.
Work stability: Where there is work stability people stay and do not leave an
organization frequently. Where staff turnover is minimized it creates in people a sense
of security and confidence leading to pride in their association with the organization.
Initiative: Based on this principle staff are often encouraged to participate in making
decisions that affect them and their work. In such an interactive environment morale
is raised and people generate new and creative ideas to increase organizational
effectiveness. For example, if a recipe idea suggested by an assistant cook is accepted
for preparation by the head chef or manager and further liked by the customers it helps
to develop initiative in staff to become more creative.
Unity: The principle of unity emphasizes the spirit of group work and helps to establish
smooth communications between people, a healthy team spirit and positive group
behaviour.
Span of control: This principle suggests that every manager can only guide or supervise
the work of a limited number of people efficiently. This usually covers five to six
people having related jobs and is referred to as the span of control of a manager. It
may vary with the nature of jobs being performed, but with the advent of computers
and quick monitoring and evaluation techniques the span may be increased for each
manager.

From principles, we move on to the functions of management.

1.6.3 Functions of Management

The activities which a manager performs to get people to work harmoniously towards
the goals of the organization are termed as functions of management. There are
basically six functions that every manager performs as shown in Figure 1.5.

Organizing
Directing
Planning

MANAGEMENT
FUNCTIONS
Coordinating
Controlling Evaluating

Figure 1.5: Functions of management

33
Entrepreneurship and Food The functions illustrated are performed at all levels of the establishment, within the
Service Management span of everyone’s activity and control. These are not necessarily performed in the
order in which they are written, but according to their relevance to the situation at
a particular time.

Let us get a brief insight into these functions.

Planning
Planning is the continuous process by which a manager scrutinizes past performance,
reviews its applicability in the light of environmental changes, and forecasts future
trends. The planning process generally starts by an awareness of an opportunity or
a problem, which can be foreseen or forecasted in the future. In the light of forecasts
the manager then scrutinizes the establishments for its strengths and weaknesses,
and sets new objectives and goals on the basis of certain assumptions called planning
premises. These include forecasts pertaining to technological advancement, economic
and social factors, government controls, customer attitudes and competitive forces.
All planning involves the following three steps:
1) Gathering information relating to building, finances, and all other resources to
make a workable scheme.
2) Developing a blueprint of the structure indicating the arrangement of spaces and
details of activities to be performed in them, and
3) Setting goals or targets to be achieved in a set period of time, the goals being
closely related to a fairly accurate forecast of future events.
Planning is thus a continuous mental exercise of setting and resetting goals, which help
activities to proceed as realistically as possible towards them, in constantly changing
environments. Therefore any goal set must be clear to both planner and the staff
involved in activities for achieving it. This way, people know why they are doing what
and feel a sense of achievement in the end. Work then becomes purposeful, creative,
orderly, productive, cost effective and satisfying for all. Apart from benefits to the
organization, individuals benefit too, through better relations at work, economically by
getting bonuses for producing profits and personally by upgrading their skills and
experience, thus enjoying a sense of belonging to the organization.

There are basically three types of planning – short, medium and long term varying
from one to five to ten years. When the targets for achievement for each period are
set, written out clearly and understood by all staff concerned, the document is known
as a plan.
Planning food service operations involves stating objectives clearly by:
 Forecasting number of customers accurately.
 Knowing staff production and service skills.
 Judging customer expectations through information on their food habits, cultural
background and economic status or purchasing power.
 Determining menu composition and costs.
 Establishing profit policy keeping in mind inflationary trends, taxes to be paid,
subsidies and free meals of employees.
Accurate projections help to lay down general policies and goals that are achievable
over different periods of time. Planning therefore is advantageous. Let us get to know
how?

34
Advantages of Planning History and Development
of Food Service System
Planning has a number of advantages although some managers tend to think that
planning is a time wasting exercise. The advantages include:
• It helps to minimize time wasting activities like waiting for instructions,
ingredients and so on because of last minute purchasing, all leading to
uncertainties in task performance.
• Makes managers alert to changes and trends that may affect the activities of the
department.
• Helps integration of activities of various subunits or departments.
• Eliminates confusion if a plan is communicated well and in time to those
responsible for its implementation.
• Provides a basis for control through budgeting of time money, space and energy.
Time spent on planning therefore is time well spent provided it is not overdone.
From planning we move to the next function of management i.e. organizing.
Organizing
Once the goals have been set and understood by key people in each department, each
area of the plan has to be put into practice. In food services the key areas of
implementation revolve around the food production cycle, service areas, profit planning
and record keeping. Each department manager then translates his part of the plan into
clear-cut activities that are sequenced in a manner to flow smoothly. The ability to
coordinate the activities of staff according to their abilities and establish smooth work
flow is termed as organizing.

Let us learn what steps are involved in organizing.

Steps in organizing
There are five steps involved in the process of organizing. These are:
• Breaking down tasks into specific activities.
• Each action unit is then allotted to a manageable group of people and authority
and responsibility for its performance to a leader in the group.
• Staff are allocated to each action unit and placed in positions according to their
skills with levels of authority clearly defined.
• Resources are then allocated for each activity.
• Work is equally distributed to avoid stress and fatigue.

Organizing may thus be defined as putting together resources by matching skills to

tasks, within the structural and financial constraints of an establishment.
From organization, we move on to the third function i.e. directing.
Directing
Directing is a function that initiates actual performance of tasks and requires interaction
between people. This is done through five distinct activities such as:
• Instructing
• Guiding
• Supervising
• Teaching
• Reviewing
Let us review these activities briefly.
35
Entrepreneurship and Food Instructing: Instructing means communicating a plan of action to the people who have
Service Management to put it into action. Unless they understand exactly what is to be done, where and
how a plan can become useless. All instructions given by the manager must, therefore,
be clearly written out in a language understood by the staff, followed by verbal
communication so that if any one has doubts they can ask questions and clear their
understanding before work actually starts. Further, clear stepwise instructions should
be put up clearly at each work area for reference that will help staff to check
periodically that their activities are being carried out as instructed.

In kitchens and service areas the staff is from different religious, cultural and
educational backgrounds, therefore, communicating with them is not as simple as
managers tend to think. People understand instructions according to their own abilities
and experiences and a simple instruction may convey a different message to different
people. An example given herewith will illustrate this point.

Example: A manager gives a simple instruction to her peon – please bring me some
coffee. The message reaches the kitchen. Let us see how this instruction is acted
upon by different staff according to their understanding.
i) To a service staff it would mean the manager wants a cup of coffee.
ii) To kitchen staff it may convey that the manager wants to see the new brand
of coffee for sampling that may have just been received for use.
iii) To the storekeeper it may mean issuing a fresh tin of coffee.
iv) The manager herself might have meant that three cups of coffee be served as
she had two visitors sitting with her. Obviously the instruction was not clear and
left to staff who interpreted it differently.
So it must be evident from the example above, how confusion can be created if
instructions are not clear. Where such a disparity of backgrounds, languages and skills
occur, it is better to communicate to the head cook or dining room supervisor who
would then pass the instruction to concerned staff in the language they understand.
The instruction is also more likely to be received, understood and acted upon
immediately because the chef and supervisors work with staff, speaking their language
and constantly instructing them for various activities on a daily basis.

Guiding: The task of directing people involves guiding them in the performance of
their jobs in a manner that standards of performance desired are achieved, and in the
process the employee also develops himself. Guiding however, does not mean standing
on a workers head all the time, but keeping a close watch on how tasks are being
performed so that if improper methods are being used they can immediately be
corrected and the employee guided to work more efficiently.

There are a number of occasions when a worker does not want to admit that he is
finding a problem in his job, for fear of being under-rated by his colleagues or
superiors. In such cases supervisors will not be able to guide in time if they wait for
staff to ask for guidance. The result will be habitual use of incorrect methods being
adopted that will affect productivity. Therefore an important component of good
guidance is supervision. Let us understand this function next.

Supervising: Supervising means keeping a watch to detect discrepancies in work

behaviour or improper use of equipment and materials, or maintenance needs, correction
or modification of procedures that may need to be attended to for improving performance
and results of the organization.
Supervision can be carried out effectively in many ways. These include:
i) Viewing people’s work positively that is, looking for things they are doing right
and praising them. In this way keen observation of other people’s work too can
36
bring out areas where guidance and correction may be required.
ii) Taking regular rounds of activity areas just to say hello to people and find out History and Development
about their welfare. Observations or curiosity shown about the way work is of Food Service System
being done can often produce a response from which judgment of methods
being followed can be made.
iii) Maintaining records of production and sales. States of costs, sales and profit
margins achieved act as guides to the need for supervision. Areas that show
variances from expected results indicate the need for attention.
Good supervision helps in maximizing resource use and checking pilferage especially
in food services, since food is the most tempting commodity for those handling it,
especially if it is expensive and not afforded by staff.

Teaching: The person responsible for motivating people to achieve goals has got to
be able to demonstrate the work methods staff is expected to follow. Teaching people
to organize their work so that it is evenly spread throughout the day is important in
catering. This is because in food services there are periods of peak when activity at
its highest. This coincides with mealtimes when customer rush is experienced. It is
important to teach quicker methods for performing time consuming jobs to reduce
stress and perform better. A relaxed work environment also develops good learning
and working relations among staff and customers.

Reviewing: Reviewing the effect of every activity on individual and total performance
is the job of every manager. There are a number of strategic points in the production
and service cycle, which determine the quality of what is served to the customer.
Reviewing activities therefore, and modifying them when necessary to conform to
standards laid down, is essential for every food service small or large.

Leadership style, experience and ability to communicate with people, to a large extent
determines the degree to which staff can or will take instruction, be guided, supervised
and motivated to achieve and develop.

The discussion above focused on the directing function of management. Next, we shall
review the coordinating function.

Coordinating
Apart from directing the activities of staff, it is important to link them together, if group
efforts have to become meaningful. This process of linking is known as coordination.
Coordination can therefore be defined as the process of integrating the objectives
with the activities of different units of an organization in order to achieve goals
effectively. In fact Koontz defines management as an exercise in coordination, and
represents in a nutshell all the functions of management.

Constant coordination helps to tackle problems when they arise, gather ideas from
various experiences, anticipate problems and take timely action to prevent them from
recurring. The extent of a manager’s responsibility for coordination depends on the
organizations structure, policies and scope of his activity.

Henri Fayol considered coordination as the binding together, unifying and harmonizing
of all activities and efforts. The larger the organization the greater becomes the degree
of coordination required to keep individual departments together instead of alienating
their activities. Coordination results in establishing better interaction between subunits
and work is performed successfully under a single command. Good coordination
strengthens staff loyalty and a feeling of oneness permeates through the organization
resulting in greater understanding.

From coordinating we move on to the control function of management.

37
Entrepreneurship and Food Controlling
Service Management
Using all the functions of management discussed so far, there is no certainty that the
targets laid down will be consistently achieved, therefore control is necessary to give
the right direction to activities. This is because achieving is not a simple process that
takes place under stable conditions. The food service establishment is constantly
surrounded by a changing environment consisting of helping and hindering forces
some of which are indicated in Figure 1.6.
HINDERING FORCES
ESTABLISHMENT GOALS

Pr

Da ctur
St

i ce
Sh

rik

m
St
Ri
or

Sta

ag
s
Men

ru
e

sin
tag
Fo

e
f
Material

od

f
e

g
Customer

al
Money
Time satisfaction
Procedures Profits

ion f
Equipment

t
f

nt

en
Re Sta
G l od

Eq etter
me

ag d
em
Fo

M Go o
ut

ial
lat

uip
B
rd
Co

an
HELPING FORCES
Figure 1.6: Some helping and hindering forces

In Figure 1.6, you may have noticed, that helping forces move the establishment
towards goals, assisting in maximizing profits through accelerating the speed of work,
whereas, the hindering forces inhibit timely achievement of goals even though their
effects are not immediately noticeable. Constant monitoring of the changes is therefore
necessary in order to use opportunities creatively to achieve goals.

The controlling function in management is expected to increase the impact of the

helping rather than the hindering forces impacting on the environment. This can only
be done if managers make the best use of natural forces like a favourable crop, good
weather and holiday time to attract customers, motivate staff, invest on better equipment,
and provide a safe, healthy and happy working environment. At the same time every
hindering force needs to be counteracted as soon as it arises in order to ensure that
activities proceed towards their original goals.
The control process, therefore, involves:
• Measuring actual performance
• Comparing results with standards expected
• Pinpointing areas of deviation
• Determining reasons for deviations
• Taking corrective action

Controlling is a very specialized multifaceted function involving control of costs,

methods and procedures, behaviour of people at work both individual and in groups
all of which have been dealt with in greater details in the next unit.

Finally, the last function of management is evaluation, which is elaborated next.

Evaluation
Evaluation is a process of determining how well people have performed their
functions over time. Efficiency of production or service or of managerial effectiveness
is judged through evaluation, a process that measures how far set targets have been
achieved.

38
Evaluation procedures should be set up to monitor progress periodically to ensure History and Development
success. If it is done at the end of a project, deviations cannot be detected in time of Food Service System
to correct procedures or guide activities better. In addition, the use of resources
becomes inefficient if people have to search for what went wrong where and when
on the way to the goal.
The areas of evaluation in food service establishments are:
• Staff appraisal
• Work environment
• Work conditions
• Procedures
• Equipment and maintenance
• Food product evaluation
• Profitability
For evaluating all the above periodically it is important to establish evaluation forms
designed for use in every establishment according to its goal requirements.

With evaluation we end our brief study on the functions of management here. Let us
recapitulate what we have learnt on this topic by answering the check your progress
exercise 3.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) a) How did George Terry define a principle of management?
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
b) List ten important principles used by a manager to guide him/her to make
decisions for his food service establishment.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
2) a) What are the functions of management?
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
b) Name the six functions of management and write against each at least one
activity that a manager performs using the function. For example, menu
planning. Give another activity for planning not used in this example.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
39
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 3) What are the five elements for directing the activities in a food service
institution?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) Fill in the blanks:
a) According to Koontz management is an .............. in .....................
b) ............................... means keeping a ............................. .
c) The ability to establish smooth .................... in any production or
service area is termed as .......................... .
d) The process of determining how ......................... people have performed
their functions is called ............................
5) With which approach of management are the following people associated.
a) Juran .........................................
b) Japanese .........................................
c) Drucker .........................................
d) McGregor .........................................
e) Owen .........................................
f) Chinese .........................................
6) State whether the following statements are True or False by putting ‘T’ for
True and ‘F’ for False in the brackets provided against each.
a) Guiding means watching staff while they are performing their activities.
( )
b) Principles of management are prescriptive. ( )
c) McGregor is associated with theories X and Y. ( )
d) Controlling increases the influence of hindering forces
on the organizational environment. ( )
e) The leadership style, experience and ability to communicate
with people determine the degree to which staff will take
direction/instruction from managers. ( )

1.7 LET US SUM UP

This is the first unit of the course on Entreperneurship and Food Service Management.
It introduces the course by defining food service establishments and discusses their
history and development, in the light of changes that have affected our living, eating,
working and socializing patterns that have taken place over time. The factors that have
brought about the development of various types of establishments have been highlighted
along with recent and expected trends.

Food service establishments are basically set up to plan, produce and serve food to
a large number of people, who may come from different regions, religious and cultural
backgrounds and socio-economic levels of society all of whom may not have the same
purchasing or paying power.
40
In this unit we learnt that there are basically two types of food service or catering History and Development
establishments, commercial and noncommercial. The former are setup with the explicit of Food Service System
aim of making profits by selling food to customers, while the latter function for the
benefit of those who are challenged in some way and receive food as part of a
package of welfare and rehabilitation activities. The noncommercial establishments
provide the catering service as a supplement to welfare and are therefore only expected
to plan meals, so that expenses incurred are covered directly by customers or donations
from the public or subsidized by the government.

The evolution of management approaches has been traced right from traditional to
modern day approaches, and how they have affected management thought in India
after independence. Managers have followed some of these approaches either singly
or in combination to manage their food services, according to their personality traits,
position in the establishment and leadership and decision making qualities. Further,
the science of management has changed through the decades to suit the changing
needs and challenges of organizations.

A mention has been made of people who influenced management thought from time
to time and introduced theories that formed the basis of improvement in managing
abilities within organizations, according to their size, location and other factors that
may help to achieve goals as planned or hinder them. The advantages and
disadvantages of certain approaches have also been outlined to help managers to use
their judgment appropriately while making important decisions on behalf of the
establishment.

The principles and functions of management have been discussed in detail with
suitable examples of actual situations that can arise in food establishments to warrant
the use of judgment of managers to make decisions. The importance of planning,
organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and evaluation has been stressed for
improving efficiency of units and achievement of preset goals, whether, short term,
medium term or long term.

1.8 GLOSSARY
Abbey : a term usually used in England, for a religious place in
which missionaries or priests stay. However, in ancient
times travelers were given permission to spend a night if
they needed help, and were looked after.
Bhatura : a type of Indian fried bread made from fermented refined
wheat flour dough.
Chaat : a sour and spicy preparation in which a number of ready
to use ingredients are mixed together just prior to
consumption. The dish is spicy and makes a good appetizer
or an in-between meal snack.
Chai : hindi term for tea.
Chana : hindi word for Bengal gram, often used de-husked and
boiled in chaat and curries.
Dal : pulse preparation served with meals in India.
Dhaba : a traditional roadside food service establishment which
usually prepares and serves main meals commonly eaten
in the region.
Dharamshala : resting place for pilgrims in India. Usually built near
places of worship.

41
Entrepreneurship and Food Franchising : this is a process of leasing out the management expertize
Service Management of an establishment to the buyer who then pays a fixed
royalty to the parent organization. Examples are fast
food services like MacDonalds, Wimpy, Pizza hut,
Dominoes etc.
Gurudwara : place of worship of Sikhs.
Langar : the food distributed to all present at mealtimes at places
of worship of the Hindus.
Paan : beetle-nut leaf used in India, filled with a mixture of
digestives, usually eaten after main meals. Customers
choose the type of fillings they want, sweet or plain.
The leaf is then folded over and handed over to the
buyer for immediate consumption. In some regions
households offer it to their guests on arrival as a sign
of hospitality.
Prasada : food offered to the Lord in places of worship and then
distributed to all present as a token of His blessings in
temples and gurudwaras.
Ramadaan : is the holy month of the Muslims during which they fast
religiously. Roti : A type of chappati or Indian bread
rolled from wheat flour dough and cooked on a hot
griddle.
Tikki : name for a type of potato cutlet plain or stuffed, which
is shallow fried on a hot griddle.

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Food service establishments may be described as places set up primarily to plan,
prepare and serve food to a large number of people, who may be from different
religions, cultural backgrounds and represent various socio-economic levels of the
society. The factors influencing its development are tradition and culture, religious
fervour, economic status, industrial development, social changes, technological
advancement and globalization.
2) Restaurant — Commercial
Coffee shop — Semi commercial/commercial
School canteen — Commercial
Vendor/ tea stall — Semi commercial
Orphanage/old age home/residential blind school — Non commercial
You may give other examples based on your experience.
3) Answer on your own. A sample answer is given for your consideration.
Reasons for eating out in:
College canteen — to satisfy hunger
Fast Food Joint — for fun/socialize
Temple/place of worship — religious reasons
Roadside café — while traveling

42
4) (a) – iii; (b) – iv; (c) – i; (d) –ii; (e) – v History and Development
of Food Service System
5) Specialty food service establishment is one which specializes in the production and
service of foods typical of a region or country. Examples include: (i) Chinese (ii)
South Indian (iii) Italian.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) The different approaches to management include: Traditional, Classical, Scientific,
Management by Objectives ( MBO), Systems Approach, Quantitative, Behavioural
and Human Relations, Contingency, Just-in-Time (JIT) and Total Quality
Management (TQM).
2) i) rule, thumb
ii) Taylorism, F.W.Taylor
iii) three, workforce, organization
iv) Human relations
v) Human relations; behavioural
3) i) Master-subject: Coffee shop/dhaba/tea stall
ii) Husband-wife: Bakery/takeaway/home delivery service
iii) Parent-sibling: cafeteria/restaurant/contract catering business
iv) Self-friends:motel/hotel/lodge/hostel/restaurant
v) Franchiser-Franchisee: Macdonald’s/Nirulas/Udipi/Sagar/Pizza Hut
4) i) Management by Objectives (Refer to sub-section 1.5.4 and write the definition
on your own)
ii) Just in Time (Refer to sub-section 1.5.9 and write the definition on your own)
iii) Total Quality Management (Refer to sub-section 1.5.10 and write the definition
on your own)
iv) Operations Research (Refer to sub-section 1.5.6 and write the definition on
your own)

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) a) Terry defined a principle as a fundamental truth providing a guide to thought
and action.
b) The important principles used by a manager to guide him/her to make
decisions include: Division of work, Authority and responsibility, Unitary
command, Payment for work, Discipline, Orderliness, Loyalty and devotion,
Unity, Initiative and Work stability.
2) a) Functions of management are the activities that a manager performs to make
people work harmoniously towards the goals of the establishment.
b) The six functions of management are:
i) Planning — menus/spaces/policies
ii) Organizing — work areas
iii) Directing — staff
iv) Coordinating — activities
v) Controlling — resource use
vi) Evaluating — performance/profits

43
Entrepreneurship and Food 3) The five elements used for directing the activities of a food service establishment
Service Management are: Instructing, Guiding, Supervising, Teaching and Reviewing.
4) i) exercise, coordination
ii) Supervising, watch
iii) work-flow, organizing
iv) well, evaluating
5) i) Juran — TQM
ii) Japanese — JIT
iii) Drucker — MBO
iv) McGregor — Neoclassical
v) Owen — Classical
vi) Chinese — Traditional
6) a) False, b) False, c) True, d) False, e) True.

44
 History and Development
UNIT 2 PLANNING A FOOD SERVICE UNIT of Food Service System

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Management Process
2.3 Planning: What is it?
2.3.1 Steps in Planning
2.3.2 Types of Plan
2.4 Preparing a Planning Guide or Prospectus
2.5 Registration of the Unit
2.5.1 Registration of Food Business
2.5.2 Licensing for Food Business
2.5.3 Rules Regarding Grading of Hotels and Restaurants
2.6 Systems Approach in Food Service
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Glossary
2.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we learnt what a food service unit is, and reviewed the different
types of food service units operating in our neighbourhood. We also realized that to
run the unit successfully you have to adopt various management processes. This unit
will focus on management, the processes involved in management and its significance.
The other aspect covered in this unit is the process of planning – the types and the
steps involved – how to prepare a planning guide or prospectus and how to register
a food service unit. Finally the concept of system approach and how the concept
is operated in a food service unit is described.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the process of management and how it affects the planning of a food
service unit,
• enumerate the steps in planning of food service unit,
• formulate budgets to establish food service unit,
• describe the requirements for obtaining a licence to run a food service establishment,
and
• discuss the concept of systems approach and how it is applied in a food service unit.

2.2 THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS

Management is identified as a body of systematized knowledge, based on general
principles, which are verifiable in business practices. If management is a profession,
then the key problem is to decide what a manager does. Strong answers by saying
that a manager plans, organizes, delegates, motivates, directs and controls. These are
some of the aspects of his work as you may also recall studying earlier in
Unit 1. He adds foresight, order, purpose, integration of effort and effectiveness to
the contribution of others. Therefore, we can say that management is a process of
planning, organizing, delegating, leading and controlling the efforts of the organization
members and by using all other organizational resources to achieve the stated
45
Entrepreneurship and Food organizational goal. Gullick has suggested POSDCORB an acronym for management
Service Management created from the names of seven functions, which include planning, organizing,
staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting.
You may recall studying about these functions in the last unit. Let us briefly define
these here as well, before we move further.
Planning: The planning function according to Gullick is the basic function of
management on which others are dependent. It is on this premise that an organization
is able to clearly determine its objective and policies and formulate a plan of action
to delegate its employers and for smooth functioning of the organization. Planning can
be short term and long term. Day-to-day planning of activities can be referred to as
short-term planning. Another important concept of planning is forecasting. Forecasting
is an essential factor that allows future activities based on the goals and objectives
of present and past situations. We will learn about the planning function in greater
details later in section 2.3 in this unit. Now let us move on to the organizing function.
Thus, we can say that planning is the foundation for top management provided the
participants at each level execute their work effectively and sincerely.
Organizing: Through this proper structure of authority with which work is divided
and coordinated to meet the goals and objectives of the organization is achieved. This
function identifies various tasks of an individual organization and divides it into
positions, sub positions by clubbing workers of one particular skill and ability together
to bring about correct use of manpower and resources. Organizing serves as a link
between various other functions of management.
Staffing: This function involves employing and training of manpower and their
maintenance. The prime function of staffing is to hire skillful people that yield desired
results according to the need of an organization.
Directing: This function requires the skills and quick continuous process of decision-
making. This function essentially deals with delegating responsibility for distribution
of workloads along employees and in turn looking after their interests.
Coordinating: This function helps in interlinking and interconnecting various types of
activities for its smooth running as highlighted in Figure 2.1. This process of
compartmentalization and specialization can only bring about effective functioning of
work, which is the part of coordinating.
PLANNING ORGANIZING DIRECTING CONTROLLING

Spaces Performance
Kitchen
Work Standards
service area Staff
Staff Materials
Equipment Work
Facilities Methods
Policy on Customer
Services Costs
* profit
Safety, etc External forces
* purchasing
* safety

EVALUATING
Products
People
Resource use
Procedures
Customer’s tastes
Environmental
forces, etc
Coordination

Figure 2.1: Importance of coordinating in performing the function of management

Reporting: This involves keeping various authorities of a department such as managers,
executive etc. informed about various tasks through reports, papers, and records.
46 Reporting acts as a mean for smooth functioning of an organization plan.
Budgeting: This is an important part of any food service unit. All activities are planned Planning A Food Service
keeping in mind the monetary resources available on hand. It also involves fiscal Unit
planning as well accounting. It is also concerned with keeping the interests of the
employees and also at the same time the ability to direct and develop responsibilities.
Thus, management can be summed up as a process of planning, organizing, directing
and controlling to accomplish the organizational goals though a coordinated use of
human and material resources. It is the process by which human and non-human
resources are coordinated to accomplish the set objectives. Thus it is the efficient
utilization of resources. What are the resources that they manage? In general terms,
the six “M” – money, material, man, machines, minutes and markets.
With this basic recapitulation of the management process, we move on to study the
first function of management i.e. planning. Our focus here will be on how to plan a
food service establishment.

2.3 PLANNING: WHAT IS IT?

Having gone through the discussion above, it must be evident that decision-making
is an important function in any enterprise. A person who manages an enterprise is
called a manager. He has to take many decisions in running the unit. The function
of decision-making can be termed as Planning.
In all the management functions, the function of planning as described by Gullick
involves developing in broad outlines the activities required to accomplish the goals
of the organization in the most effective way. Planning is stated to be the prime
function from which all other functions evolve. It is a crucial part of management as
it involves assessing the pro and cons of any situation or condition and making
appropriate decisions. In this section we will learn what planning means, its significance
and the type of plans that are essential for any organization.
Let us begin our study on planning by considering an example. Suppose you have
decided to go for a picnic or a trip to a hill station, you will first sit down and consider
all activities that will facilitate you to complete this venture well. When you plan to
go for a picnic you will first think or decide about the place you would want to go,
think about the mode of transport, the activities you plan to do there, the food you
want to carry and what each member of the family will do to ensure that all things
go well. This exercise is called Planning.
During the process of planning you realize, we ask certain questions such as: What
to do? Where to do? When to do? Who will do it? How to do it?
When we find answers to these questions we are planning our work to achieve our
goal. This kind of fact-finding helps us to foresee how things will turn out before they
actually happen. So it helps not only to see the end result but also gives scope to plan
alternative course of action if some plans do not work out the way you anticipate.
The basic objective of planning is to think ahead, clearly determine
the objectives and policies and determine and select the course of action towards
the accomplishment of goals. We shall now look at the various steps involved in
planning next.

2.3.1 Steps in Planning

While planning, we first gather information about all the activities that have to be
undertaken, such as the money needed, the raw material that will be used, people who
will do the work, the place where the work will be done and the tools needed to do
it. This means we start looking at the resources we have and seek information about
it, and then chalk out a scheme to use them optimally to accomplish our goal. In other
words we gather information about the resources and assess both the external and
internal factors which will influence and affect the use of it. Seeking information about
our resources will enable us to take the right decision.
47
Entrepreneurship and Food The next step is to use this information to chalk out all the activities that will enable
Service Management to accomplish our goals. Goals are targets that have to be achieved within a pre-
determined time. The goals must fairly reflect the accurate forecasting of events.
Goals are of many kinds, some short and long term. Short-term goals would be some
activity that has to be done and outcome realized in a short period of time. Certain
other goals are termed long term as they are tangible or accomplished after a long
time. For example if a caterer produces food and sells it each day it is a short goal,
and the profit he generates from this exercise can be termed as a long term goal. It
is here that you have to know the different types of plans that are evolved when we
plan. So let us get to know about the types of plan next.

2.3.2 Types of Plans

To understand the different types of plans let us trace the life experience of Ramu
who desires to be an entreprenuer. What do we mean by the term entreprenuer? Unit
4 later in this course focuses on this aspect.
Ramu was a young man who was desirous of becoming an entrepreneur. This desire
of his life can be termed as Purpose that motivated him to think in the direction in
which he could become an entrepreneur. When he looked around at some of his
friends and neighbours, he found two of them successfully running catering units.
He realized that he too had the interest and aptitude to take up catering as vocation.
So he surveyed the market for the right opportunity and realized that there was scope
of producing and delivering packed food to office employees. To do this he then spelt
out his objectives.
Objectives were a set of formulated plans drawn up to achieve his goal of catering
to the specified target. In establishing his objective he spelt out who his target would
be, what kind of food he will make and deliver, where and how he would make it,
the type of facility and people needed to do it and at what price he would sell his
product. From this exercise it will be clear to you how when you spell out the
objectives it brings about clarity of thought processing which is the essence of
planning.
Ramu realized that to run his enterprise he has to establish certain basic Rules, which
had to be abided by all. In any enterprise it is essential to formulate certain rules or
directive, which has to be adhered to by all to ensure that the work is coordinated
towards attaining the goal. Some of the rules he enforced were of punctuality of
worker and delivery, ensuring hygiene and quality of product.
For the maintenance of standards that Ramu had established he had to spell out the
procedures for the activities that had to be taken. Procedures are step-by-step instruction
of activities to be undertaken. This gives a sense of direction, clarity of work to be
done and consistency in the work that is done. Some examples of procedures he used
were standardized recipes, instruction manual for use of the food processor and use
of purchase order.
When procedures are formulated it has to be devised considering the environment in
which it has to be executed. Some times there is more that one way of doing a thing,
for example, if you have to purchase commodities it can be done from retail market,
whole sale market, or from the manufacturer or even get it delivered by a dealer. In
such a situation taking a decision becomes difficult. So if some guidelines are prescribed
to limit your choices then planning becomes much easier. This parameter within which
decision can be made is termed as Policy Guidelines. The policy guidelines that Ramu
adopted for purchase was to buy from fair price shops like Mother Dairy vegetable
shop and Kendriya Bhandar.
In the catering unit which Ramu established, he found that when a series of procedures
was put in a sequence, a Programme was devised. This is best illustrated in seeing
how his unit is operating. He had one procedure to purchase, another to store the
48
raw material, one or more procedures for cooking and then finally packing the food. Planning A Food Service
When all these were performed in the right sequence a programme of food production Unit
was accomplished. So in any food service unit, programme such as these have to be
undertaken to realize the goal.
Very often the procedures and programme planned for a unit is influenced by both
internal and external factors. These factors may alter the plan. Therefore, it becomes
necessary to plan alternate plans, which can be adopted to suit the situation. This
is termed as evolving a Strategy. A strategy may be needed when you do not get the
desired item and it calls for thinking of an alternative, a strategy for promotion of
products have to be thought of in your sales decline. Evolving alternate plans to meet
your goals is termed as developing strategy.
The final plan that you draw up which gives a bird’s eye view of operation and
management of your resources is the formulation of the Budget. The budget is the
numerical expression of your plan. It is a plan that reflects the monetary value of your
resources and indicates your income as cent per cent and the expenditure as fractions
of it.
You would have by now realized how a simple plan like objective finally culminates
in the holistic plan called budget. Given in Figure 2.2 is a schematic reference of types
of plan.
PURPOSE
( Desire to do something)

OBJECTIVE
( Clarification of thought)

RULES
( Certain steps to be followed)

PROCEDURES
(Prescribed steps for action)

POLICIES
(A guideline for decision making)

PROGRAMMES
(A compilation of procedures)

STRATEGIES
(A course of action)

BUDGET
( a numerical expression of plans)
Figure 2.2: Schematic reference of types of plan
So then the planning function of management is quite clear. Take a break here and
try to answer the check your progress exercise given next. This will help you assess
your understanding regarding the planning function.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Define management and list the functions of the acronym POSDCORB.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
49
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 2) What is planning? Give the significance of this function of management
process.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) What are the different types of plan which evolve in the planning process?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

In the last section we learnt about the planning function and the types of plans. Next,
we shall review the aspects to be considered while preparing a planning guide.

2.4 PREPARING A PLANNING GUIDE OR PROSPECTUS

The first step in the planning process is to prepare a planning guide. Let us first of
all define a planning guide or what we call a prospectus. A prospectus is a formal
summary of proposed work; in other words a written description detailing all aspects
of the situation under consideration. The prospectus becomes a good communication
tool, which spells out all the course of actions and making available all information
pertaining to the operations to other team workers.
In the context of planning a food service unit, a prospectus will be developed around
questions such as:
• What type of food service is planned?
• Who are the clientele?
• What kind of menu to be offered?
• How many will be served at a time?
• The type of service
• The time of service
• How and where from will the raw materials be purchased?
• What storage facilities will be needed?
• What kind of equipment will be needed?
• What kind of manpower will be needed to run the unit? Their number, qualifications
and skills.
• What kind of facility in terms of space and furnishing has to be provided?
• What are the safety measures to be incorporated?
• What are the cost limitation and projected income?
• What energy sources are available?
The prospectus must be written clearly, concisely, yet in detail. Usually it has various
parts. The major divisions being:
A) Rationale
This preliminary section of the prospectus needs to be defined first. It includes
the project title, goal, objectives, policies and procedures. This has been discussed
50
 as plans to be drawn out earlier in sub-section 2.3.2. Recollect, in our example Planning A Food Service
earlier how Ramu had drawn up these and formulate these. Unit

B) Physical and Operational Characteristics

Physical characteristic relate to the architectural or design features such as an
appropriate structural facility compatible with the type of food to be served. For
example, for Ramu to produce the Indian menu and pack it in the unit, he has
to plan the space and equipment needed for it. Operational data refers to the
activities pertaining to the production of food and the menu is the key item of
concern. Other operational characteristics are the hours of service, volume of
business and the number of clientele who would dine in the unit. The customer
profile is necessary to plan the menu and the space. The employee profile is also
to be considered to determine the number, shift and facilities necessary for them.
All these information is necessary and need to be included in the prospectus.
C) Regulatory Information
This is an essential component and deals with knowing all the regulatory information
pertaining to running the food service unit. Information about the license to
operate, insurance and information on food, labour laws, standards of sanitation
and safety and use of energy resources have to be ascertained. The person who
writes the prospectus and later helps to implement it should be a professional food
service manager and should have the knowledge and authority to make the
decisions.
D) The Planning Team
It is necessary to include the experts in the field to draw up the prospectus so
that all aspects are thought off and included in the plan. Generally the owner or
administrator who has the authority to spend the money and give approval, the
foodservice manager, the architect, foodservice design consultant, equipment
representative and any others who can help with specific information are included
in the planning team. The prospectus should clearly spell out the planning team.

E) Market Survey
The prospectus must mention the type of food service unit to be established. Let
us look at the experience of Ramu, who is currently running a canteen, and see
how he decided to open his food service unit.
How did Ramu decide to run a canteen? Ramu was a young graduate who wanted
to venture out in food business. So he first undertook a survey of the various
food service units in his neighbourhood, he observed its working and spoke to
the managers of the places to learn about its operation. He realized that in this
field some technical knowledge which can be acquired through academic pursuit
and some working experience is essential to run a unit. Having taken a course
in catering management and also having worked in a restaurant for a few years,
he felt confident in starting his business.
During his survey he found a dhaba, eateries attached to sweet meat shops, few
restaurants some offering all kinds of food and others specialize in certain cuisine,
a kiosk in the market place and in the theatre complex, a canteen in the school.
He also saw that a district center was coming up and many firms were shifting
their office to the premises. He realized that most of the units were running well
and saw no point in opening a similar one. But he saw scope in opening a canteen
for the office complex or establishing a catering unit to supply packed food to
office workers. This exercise where he surveyed the market to analyze the type
of food service units that exist and learn about their profile and operation, and
also to discern the scope for new venture is called a market survey. Thus market
survey is an important aspect of a project plan.

51
Entrepreneurship and Food Next, aspect to be considered while planning a prospectus is the profile of the
Service Management clientele, their food choices and preferences.
F) Identifying Clientele
Having decided the type of food service unit that is to be opened, it is now very
important to study the profile of the clientele, know their food choices and
preferences and design your food service to suit their need. How did Ramu get
to do this? During his survey he had visited canteens in both government offices
and in office complexes and observed its operations. He saw the type of people
that work in the offices and the kind of food they eat. He had also seen people
who worked in offices but not having a good eating place depending on road side
vendors to buy snack items. In his interview with a few people working in the
offices he was able to gather information about the type of food they would like
to eat and buy. After gathering this information he got a handbill/promotional
leaflet made which gave the profile about his catering institution and his ability
to provide hot nutritious meals to office employees. In this handbill he listed all
the items that he can provide with its approximate cost. His menu was depicted
to be unique as it was similar to home food, hot and nutritious as it included more
of vegetables, fruit and curd. He priced the packed lunch at Rs 30. He distributed
this handbill in the office complex. This served as a first point of contact with
his customer, generating in them an interest to try him as their source of food
supply.
Along with identifying the client, surveing their preferences is also an important
consideration. This aspect is highlighted next.
G) Customer Preferences
Knowledge about customer preference is important while planning a food service
unit. Let us see how it can be done by looking at Ramu’s example. After the
handbills were distributed, Ramu checked with the people in the offices as to who
were willing to patronize him for their meals and also got the tally of items they
would buy. He made a proforma of the items and requested his probable
customers to tick their preferences. With others he found their choice verbally.
And thus was able to enlist information about the customer’s preference and
choice.

Having gone through the discussion above you would have got a fairly good idea
about the components which form a planning guide. We surely can learn from
Ramu’s experience.

Now that Ramu knew who his clientele would be and had a fair idea about their
food preference he set about to formulate the plans for starting his food service
business. Let us review this next.

The first thing Ramu did was to list down the resource that would be essential
in running a food service unit. As you know now, Ramu has undertaken a
business and finds himself in the role of a manager; so what would be the
resources that he would have to plan. Let us say he has to Plan the 6 “M”.
What are the these? You may recall studying earlier, that for any enterprise to
be established or run some Money is needed, this helps to buy the Material that
has to be processed, who does the processing – the Manpower and he will have
to be facilitated by Machine. All this has to be done with a time structure so the
next resource to manage is Minutes and all this is done to capture a good Market.
So to start or run any enterprise we will need money to buy all our resources
and also plan the exact detail of our resources. This process is called budgeting,
which is explained next.

52
H) Budget Planning A Food Service
Unit
Planning our money to utilize it for procuring all other resources is an exercise
known as making the budget. It is also defined as a numerical expression of all
your expenditure. In making the budget we look at our proposed income and allot
a certain percentage of our income for each head of expenditure. First of all let
us identify the heads of expenditure. Let us do so by taking Ramu’s example.
To be able to offer ready meals Ramu will have to buy raw food material which
is termed as food cost, he will have to hire people to do the work so incur labour
cost, to run an establishment he will have to pay for fuel, electricity, water,
insurance etc, all these are categorized as overhead expenditure. He will also have
to set aside some money for maintenance of his building and equipment and
repayment of loans as percentage of income allotted for maintenance cost. This
whole exercise of running an establishment is for the sole purpose of income
generation, so he has to design for profit and build in the profit in planning the
expenditure. Ramu being a commercial operator will plan a budget, which will be
as given herewith.

Ramu’s Budget
Proposed Income is = 100%. ( Rs 1,75,000) Rs 35 per meal from 200 customers for
25 days in a month).
This will be allotted as;
Food cost : 50%
Labour : 15%
Overhead : 10%
Maintenance : 5%
Profit : 20%
Using the budget breakup presented above, Ramu will run his enterprise once he starts
his operation. But before that he has also to plan a budget to start his enterprise. This
needs identification of all the resources and costing of it, to know the capital investment
needed and also the recurring expenditures.

Let us first look to see where he proposes to run his enterprise. Initially when he
started contemplating to start the business he spoke to some of his friends and one
of them suggested that a premise where a hosiery factory was running had to shut
down (as it was situated near a residential colony) and was now available for rent or
sale. So he negotiated with the owner and was able to lease the premises for five
years (a good enough time to try his hand also). So now the building was available
to him on a monthly rent of Rs 10,000. The building had to be redesigned to provide
the necessary work place and equipment. He met an architect and found the approximate
cost of remodeling the unit. Ramu now had to decide the equipment that would be
necessary to make his unit operational. During his survey he had observed and made
a note of the different types of equipment used in food service units. He made a list
of them in light of the menu that he was to produce and the delivery system he was
planning to adopt. He went to the dealers and found the prices of all these and
estimated the cost of these equipment. Then he also calculated the cost of the wiring
and electrical installation and other utility cost. This estimated cost
(Rs 1,25,000) was labeled as capital investment.

He then had to calculate the cost of raw material to be purchased, the labour cost
in terms of wages and benefits and the overhead expenditure as rent and utilities
incurred in a month when he undertook production and sales. These are termed as
recurring expenditure. The total money needed by Ramu to start his unit can be
summarized as :

53
Entrepreneurship and Food INVESTMENT TO START AN UNIT
Service Management
ITEM COST (Rs)
Cost of remodeling the premises
and purchase of equipment 1, 25,000 (Capital investment)
Recurring expenditure
Food cost for producing a meal @ Rs 15.75 (50% of Rs 35)
for 200 persons for 25 days in a month 87,500
Salary for 5 persons for 1 months 25,000 (15% approx.)
Overhead as rent and utilities pm 17,500 (10%)
Maintenance pm 8,750 (5%)
Profit 35,000 (20%)
Total recurring expenditure 1,38,750 (total of recurring
excluding profit)

Ramu realized that the anticipated income of Rs 1,75,000 (i.e. Rs 35 per person
from 200 customers in a month (25 working days) will be slow in coming to cover
all the expenditure, so he planned the finances needed for 3 months of operation
which amounted to 5,41,250 lakh rupees (1,25,000 + 1,38,750 × 3 ) to start this
venture.

So the next question is how he found the finance. Usually when a person starts a
venture he invests some personal money in the business. Ramu’s family supported
him with one lakh rupees given from personal savings and loan from his father. Now
this was not enough so he took the advice of one of his friends in the bank who
mentioned that loans can be obtained from banks for specific purpose. He also visited
the office of small scale industries to find out the scope of them financing him. He
was advised to make a project report showing his anticipated income and expenditure
and his modus operandi of repayment of loan and submit the proposal to a national
bank, which had a scheme for self-employment for youth. He developed a project
proposal seeking a loan of 4.5 lakhs and indicated repayment of loan in a period of
4-5 years by repaying Rs 10,000 per month as part of profit generated. He mortgaged
his father’s house to the bank as security for the lease of loan and he was thus able
to start his venture. This is only one way of planning the finances; there are other
source of finance and financial institutions.

So then having gone through the discussion above, it is clear that budget forms an
important part of a planning guide. Arranging the finances and planning the expenditure
in advance is crucial for setting up a food service establishment. One another aspect
which is crucial for Ramu is to register the unit and obtain a licence for running the
same. This is discussed in section 2.5. Before we move on to the licence section, let
us recapitulate what we have learnt so far. Answer the questions given in the check
your progress exercise 2.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Explain briefly the steps you would bear in mind before planning a food
service unit.
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54
 Planning A Food Service
2) What is a rationale? Why is it important for a food service unit? Unit

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................................................................................................................
3) How important is a market survey for an individual to start a food
service unit.
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4) Briefly discuss the following:
a) Budget
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b) Identifying clientele
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2.5 REGISTRATION OF THE UNIT

According to Food Safety and Standard (Licensing and registration of Food Business)
Regulations, 2011, all the food business operators, on a small scale or large scale,
have to get themselves registered and obtain a valid license. Any person, who owns,
operates or maintains a food service establishment in violation of these regulations,
will be subjected to enforcement actions including monetary fines. But, it is to be
noted here that every petty food business operator has to obtain a registration
certificate under these regulations and on the other hand, large scale business operators
or other than petty operators need to have a valid license. Let us first discuss about
registration of a unit.

2.5.1 Registration of Food Business

First let us understand what is meant by the term petty food business operator. Petty
food business operators, operates their business on small scale and includes the
following production units:
55
Entrepreneurship and Food a) Who manufactures or sells any article of food himself or a petty retailer, hawker,
Service Management itinerant vendor or temporary stall holder; or distributes foods including in any
religious or social gathering except a caterer; or
b) Food business including small scale or cottage or such other industries relating
to food business or tiny food businesses with an annual turnover not exceeding
Rs 12 lakhs and/or whose
• production capacity of food (other than milk and milk products and meat
and meat products) does not exceed 100 kg/lt per day or
• procurement or handling and collection of milk is up to 500 lt of milk per
day or
• slaughtering capacity is 2 large animals or 10 small animals or 50 poultry
birds per day or less

All of the above operators have to obtain a registration certificate with a photo ID
by submitting a form (given in annexure I) after paying predetermined fee of Rs. 100.
The procedure of registration will continue after successful submission of application
form by one of the officials notified by the state food safety commissioner. After
complete satisfaction of the official, regarding points of hygiene and sanitation
(highlighted in Box 2.1), a registration certificate and a photo ID are issued within
30 days which have to be kept at premises at any given time.

Box 2.1: Sanitary and hygiene requirements for food manufacturer/

processor/handler
1) Surroundings of the premises should be clean, free from insects, muddy areas,
and polluted areas.
2) Premises should be adequately ventilated and proper lighting should be
maintained with easy to clean floor, ceilings, walls and furniture. Disinfectants
should be used whenever required but not during the conduct of business.
Instead fly swaps/flaps can be used.
3) Equipments which can cause metallic contamination are injurious to health
and should not be used. Cooking, storage and serving of food should not done
in utensils of cadmium, lead, non food grade plastic and other toxic material.
Copper and brass lining should have proper lining.
4) Drainage facilities and waste disposal facilities should be available. Potable
water supply should be adequately met.
5) A covered bin should be there for disposal of garbage and cleaned regularly.
6) Personal hygiene of workers should be maintained properly and transported
foods should be maintained at required temperature.
Apart from above points, sanitary and hygiene requirements for street food
vendors and unit other than manufacturing/processing includes following:
7) Surroundings should be clean, free from rubbish, waste water, stray animals
that can posses’ serious hazards to health.
8) Surface of vending carts should be protected properly and cover with corrosion
resistant material.
9) The location of the vending unit should be in a place approved by the local
authorities and not blocking traffic or pedestrians or near unhygienic locations.

From registration, we will now move onto licensing of a unit. As already informed,
license has to be obtained by large scale business operators or other than petty
56 business operators mentioned above.
2.5.2 Licensing for Food Business Planning A Food Service
Unit
Any business operator or entity that does not classify under petty food business
operators needs compulsory FSSAI license which can be applied by filling a form
(given in annexure II) along with self attested declaration form and copies of documents
(refer to FSSAI website, https://www.fssai.gov.in/cms/food-safety-and-standards-
regulations.php). License is granted after fulfillment of sanitation and hygiene
requirements as given in Box 2.1. FSSAI license is classified into two types:
a) Central FSSAI license
b) State FSSAI license
Depending upon the size and nature of business, the licensing authority would change
accordingly. In general, a large scale food business operator require central FSSAI
license whereas medium sized manufacturer, processor or transporter needs state
FSSAI license. Information regarding, which unit comes under central FSSAI licensing
authority is given in box 2.2 and units other than given in box 2.2, comes under state
FSSAI licensing authority. The license is granted for a period of 1 to 5 years. Longer
the duration of license, higher would be the application fees. An amount of Rs 7500
has to be paid for central FSSAI license and Rs 3000-5000 for state FSSAI license.

Box 2.2: List of food business comes under the category of central licensing
authority:
• Dairy units handling 50,000 lts of liquid milk/day or 2500 million tons of milk
solid per annum.
• Vegetable oil processing units with oil expeller unit having installed capacity
of more than 2 million tons per day.
• Slaughter houses slaughtering more than 50 large animals or ≥150 small
animals (including sheep and goat) or ≥1000 poultry birds per day.
• Meat processing unit which processes ≥500 kg of meat per day or 150 million
tons per annum.
• 100% export oriented units.
• All importers importing food items including food additives and ingredients
for commercial use.
• Operators operating their food business in two or more states.
• Food catering services in establishments or units under Central Government
Agencies like Railways, Air & Airport, Seaport, Defence etc.
• All food business operators manufacturing any article of food containing
ingredients or substances or using technologies or processes or combination
thereof whose safety has not been established through these regulations or
which do not have a history of safe use or food containing ingredients which
are being introduced for the first time into the country.
So in our discussion so far we have studied how to apply for a licence or registration
and the aspects which are considered by the local authorities for issuing the licence/
registration.

Next, we shall focus on the rules regarding grading of food service establishments,
particularly the hotels and the restaurants.

2.5.3 Rules Regarding Grading of Hotels and Restaurants

Grading of hotels and restaurants is based on the points scored by the respective food
service establishment with respect to the parameters/rules specified in the schedules
given in Box 2.1. Grading is done totally on the basis of 100 points as depicted 57
Entrepreneurship and Food herewith. Out of 100 points, 75 points are given for matters specified in Schedule C.
Service Management The remaining 20 points are for aspects specified in Schedule A and 5 points for
facilities as per Schedule B.
Points
Schedule A 20
Schedule B 05
Schedule C 75
Total 100

If the licencee does not observe the rules and conditions specified in the licence, he
or she shall be refused licence. If the licencee observes the rules and conditions as
per schedule A, B, C, he or she may be given points and graded accordingly as shown
in the grading matrix herewith. If the licencee does not observe special and important
rules, he or she may be given minus points, as observance of these rules are legally
binding on the licencee.

Grading

Points Grading

35-50 C

51-80 B

81-100 A

If any hotel/restaurant does not qualify for any of the above grades then the concerned
liencee is liable for prosecution, or the concerned licence may be suspended or
cancelled or the concerned hotel shall be permanently graded C.
Box 2.1: Grading Schedules
Schedule A: Grading chart for maintaining general cleanliness at hotels and
eating places:
S.No. Points
1) A place providing for cleaning with detergent or soap and disinfecting and
air drying of cooking vessels, cups, saucers, etc. 3
2) A place providing for washing with soap and water and disinfecting
of hands and feet of employees. 3
3) Physical cleanliness (daily baths, care of hair and nails, clean uniform,
etc.) of employees. 3
4) An independent rest-room for employees and a locker arrangement for
their clothes, etc. 3
5) An arrangement to keep off flies from the place of storage of food stuff
and the kitchen. 3
6) Cleaning with disinfectant of floor and walls (up to height of 1.8 m (6 feet))
1
7) A separate place for service of eatables and regular cleaning of tables. 1
8) A place with a location to transfer garbage from the area of activity, at
least thrice a day. 1
9) A wash place with soap and clean towels for customers. 1
10) Hygienic cleaning of trays used for service of eatables. 1
58
 Planning A Food Service
Schedule B: Grading chart for maintaining a special arrangement to augment Unit
natural light and ventilation:
1) Arrangement to maintain a reasonable temperature or artificial
ventilation. 2
2) A coat of oil paint on all walls at the work place. 1
3) Chimney or an exhaust to reduce suffocation due to smoke where coal or
coke is used. Where coal is not used as a fuel, one additional point each
for 1 and 2 be granted. 2
Schedule C: General Rules:
S.No. Points
1) The licence must be displayed at an early visible location. 1
2) Eatables and beverages must be prepared at a completely separate
location. 3
3) A wash place of necessary measurement must be built at the work place
and be connected with a municipal water supply with a meter; drainage from
the wash place must be appropriately connected to the municipal drainage
system. 2
4) The floors must be tiled or impervious to disallow seepage; this floor
must be washed once a day. 10
5) Vessels, cups and saucers, glass and other equipment must be thoroughly
clean before and after use. 10
6) Employees clothing must be kept clean, people suffering from contagious or
skin diseases must not be employed; employees must be provided with towels
and soaps; they must not serve or handle items on sale without cleaning their
hands. 10
7) Garbage must be colleted in containers coated with tar, inside and outside;
such garbage must be emptied at least twice a day at a municipal garbage bin
and cleaned. 2
8) Walls and ceilings must be white washed twice a year (i.e. first week of April
and October); if walls are oil painted or varnished, they must be cleaned
suitably. 10
9) Eatables must be stored in glass cases that keep flies and dust away; eatables
must be prepared only in the kitchen. 10
10) Drinking water must be stored in a clean vessel which is placed at least
39 cm above the floor and should have tight fitting lids with a tap. 10
11) The licenced premises must not in any way be connected with a lavatory or
open drainage; the licenced premises must not be used as boarding. 5
12) General cleanliness must be maintained. 2

The grading should be done every two to three years as specified in the municipal
health laws.
With this we end our study regarding registration and grading of food service
institutions. Next, we shall learn about the systems approach in food service.

59
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 2.6 SYSTEMS APPROACH IN FOOD SERVICE

Food service units are establishments or organizations that need to adopt good
management techniques to meet their objectives effectively and efficiently. Basically
there are three types of approaches. These include:-
• Classical or traditional
• Human relations
• Systems approach
In the classical style the premise is on division of work, which will be executed by
a specialized person. It has a formal structure where responsibility and authority is
defined; having unitary command and a span of control and coordination of the work
is the responsibility of the manager. In this style the emphasis is placed more on the
accomplishment of tasks and goals. It becomes mechanical and does not recognize
the interaction of groups.

Human relation theory was evolved to compensate the deficiency in the classical
approach. Here the emphasis is given more on social systems and human behaviour
and it recognizes the existence of informal groups in which workers align themselves.
This is reflected in organization that has employee participation in decision-making
which yields positive effects in terms of morale and productivity.

In the modern world, the emphasis has to be placed equally on both the task and
people and a new approach has been evolved integrating the advantage of both the
classical and human relation theory with a concept of systems. What is the systems
approach? Let us find out.

Systems Approach: What Is It?

Basically, a System can be stated to be a set of inter dependent parts that work
together to achieve a common goal. Coleman states it more concisely “A system is
a set of interrelated parts with a purpose”. The interrelated parts are known as
subsystems, each dependent on the other for achieving the goal. Each subsystem
contributes to the whole and receives something from the whole while working to
achieve the common goals. The management’s role here is seen as a systemic
endeavour that recognizes the needs of all parts and decision is made in the light of
the overall effect on the organization as a whole and its objectives. This type of
leadership is called systems approach.
The word system has five fundamental implications that should be understood and
accepted. They are:-
• A system must be designed to accomplish an objective.
• Each element (subsystem) of the system should have a specific work and
character.
• Interrelationship must exist among the subsystem, and they should be synergistic
in nature.
• The basic ingredients of process i.e. the flow of information, energy and material
are more vital than the basic element of the system.
• Organization objectives are more important than objectives of the elements.
Organizations perceived as systems are made up of a variety of subsystems. The
most common subsystems found in most of the organizations are:
• Operational subsystem – the activities and people who perform the primary
functions
60
• Management subsystem – all people and all activities that plan, control and take Planning A Food Service
decisions Unit

• Information systems – the collection of people, machines, ideas and activities that
gather and process data to provide formal information.
All these subsystems operate within an environment both internal and external of the
organization and with supporting resources such as money, material, time, equipment
utilities, facilities and personnel. These together with the information are the inputs
into the system. The work that is performed is known as operations, transforms the
raw material to the finished products or services. These are the outputs. The outputs
provide the information on how the operation has worked or failed or how it should
be changed or modified. This information is known as feedback and provides the
management with data as base for decision making.

Interrelationship and Interdependency are key concepts in system theory. Generally

a change in one part of an organization affects other parts of that organization. So
any change that is to be taken has to be done in light of its effect or repercussion
to other departments. System theory contains the doctrine that the output of the whole
of the structure is more that the sum of its parts. This is called wholism. The
cooperative, synergistic working of the sub systems often yields a total product that
exceeds the sum of individual contribution.

This concept can be made clear though this schematic presentation given in Figure
2.4 and understood better with an illustration using a food service unit.

Raw material Finished

Inputs Operations Outputs goods
Information
Energy People Services
Ideas

Figure 2.4: Interrelationship and interdependency in systems theory

Let us now see this concept in operation in a food service unit. A food service unit
is an organization. In modern term to be successful it should adopt a Systems
Approach. How does a food service unit qualify as a system? Let us look and match
the fundamental principles of systems approach to a food service unit. Every food
service unit has a specific objective, that is, to use some raw material and other
resources such as energy, people and utilities to transform into finished good and
services. To do so the unit should have many subunits like purchase department, store,
preparation unit, production and service centers which function independently but in
a sequence and is interrelated and interdependent on each other. For example, the
purchase department must buy the material for the production unit to process it. The
food that comes into the unit has to be received, then stored, issued, produced and
served. A pattern that is sequential and interrelated.

When each unit is given some freedom to function independently the work gets done
faster, but all decision has to be taken in consonance with other departments, for
example if the purchase department decides to buy pineapple in bulk it has to see if
61
Entrepreneurship and Food appropriate storage space is available and that there are suitable recipes to utilize them.
Service Management When there is free flow of information and ideas through record keeping and feedback
the information can be utilized to generate more patronage and profit. Any unit that
subscribes to these principles is said to be practicing a systems approach.

We hope the discussion presented above should have given you a good insight into
what is systems approach and the concept in operation in a food service unit. With
this we end our study of this unit.

Now attempt the questions given in the check your progress exercise 3 and recapitulate
what you have learnt so far.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) What do you understand by systemic approach? Briefly explain.
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2) List any five conditions which a food service unit should fulfil to get a licence.
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3) How are food service units graded?
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2.7 LET US SUM UP

This unit focused on how to plan a food service unit. We learnt that to run the unit
successfully we have to adopt various management processes. The types and the steps
involved in the planning process were also described with a focus on how to prepare
a planning guide or prospectus. Finally the concept of system approach and how the
concept is operated in a food service unit was explained in this unit.

2.8 GLOSSARY
Budget : the numerical expression of a plan.
Planning : set of objectives one decides upon to achieve goal.
62
Purpose : the desire to carry out a plan. Planning A Food Service
Unit
Procedures : are step-by-step instructions of activities to be undertaken.
Policy guidelines : the realm or the perimeter within which decision can be
made.
Objective : set of formulated plans drawn to achieve a goal.
Rules : set directives an organization must adhere to in order to
ensure that work is coordinated towards attaining the
goal.
Rationale : the preliminary section of the prospectus needs to be
defined first. It includes the project title, goal, objectives,
policies and procedures.
Strategy : alternate plans thought out to implement a given goal.

2.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Management according to Allen is a complex of administration of personal skills.
Another definition by Drucker states that it is management that enables the
organization to contribute a needed result to society. The functions of POSDCORB
include – Planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and
budgeting.
2) The human relations School of Management is a social process because
management actions are concerned with relations between the people. However,
according to the Decision-making School of Management is a decision making
body, a rule making and enforcing body. Hence the difference lies in the basic
fact of management as a social process and a enforcing body.
3) a) Division of work is based on the concept of specialization of skills and the
amount of work done by an individual. In other terms it is assigning of
quantum of work to every employee of the food service unit.
b) Hierarchy is the chain of command drawn between the staff at the different
levels in the organization. It is the sequential and chronological arrangement
of ranks of different employees based on experience, remuneration and
amount of work done, as well as, skill of the individual.
c) Discipline can be defined as mean maintenance of punctuality, adherence to
rules and regulations, obedience, courtesy and loyalty towards an organization.
This is absolutely essential for smooth functioning of an organization.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Before setting up a Food Service Unit an individual should gather information
about all activities required to be undertaken, raw materials to be used, people
to be employed, setting-up place of the organization and most importantly chart-
out the budget to start such an idea.

2) A Rationale can be defined as a preliminary section of the prospectus which is

defined first. It includes the project title, goal, objectives, policies and procedures.
It is important for planning the budget as it gives an overview of the goals and
policies of the organization.

3) A Market survey is an essential activity that gives you a idea as to what prevailing
trends are. What are the needs and wants of the people and how to go about
63
Entrepreneurship and Food organizing and planning them. Market survey is like a preliminary research carried
Service Management out to have prior knowledge of all basic information needed to begin an organization.
4) a) A Budget is aptly called the numerical expression of plans. The budget is
a document that describes the monetary resources on-hand and that can be
utilized for performing various tasks in a food service organization.
b) Identifying clientele is part of all food service organization. Here an individual
like in a survey can plan and focus the type of clients the food service unit
would like to cater to: For example, a food kiosk in a cinema hall can cater
to all groups of people especially targeting the youth, by selling attractive
fancy foods.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Systems approach can be defined to be a set of inter dependent parts that work
together to achieve a common goal. These are also referred to as a set of
interrelated parts with a purpose. The interrelated parts are subsystem
each contributing to the goal. This type of approach is referred to as System
Approach.
2) Refer to sub-section 2.5.1. Any 5 of the following:
— authorized construction/premises.
— free from sanitary defects.
— contagious or infectious diseases should not be present in the employees.
— food items suitable for human consumption should only be sold & stored
in the premise.
— cooking medium should be clearly indicated.
— no food article should be stored near a toilet, urinal, drain or garbage dump.
3) Grading of food service units is on the basis of the parameters or rules specified
by concerned authorities. Refer to sub-section 2.5.2 for details and list the
parameters on your own.

64
 Planning A Food Service
UNIT 3 SETTING UP FOOD SERVICE UNIT Unit

Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Layout and Design: Definition
3.2.1 Factors Influencing Layout Design
3.3 Planning Team
3.4 Planning of a Layout: Various Phases
3.4.1 Gathering Information or Development of a Prospectus
3.4.2 Determining Work Centers
3.4.3 Equipment
3.4.4 Developing Overall Plan
3.5 Architectural Features
3.6 Evaluation of Plans
3.7 Energy and Time Management
3.8 Financial Status Analysis
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Glossary
3.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2 entitled Planning a Food Service Unit, we learnt about the importance of
planning, steps in planning, identified the resourses and realized the importance of
planning and the use of resources. In this unit, we will focus on how to set up a food
service facility, and will be introduced to all aspects of organizing and establishing a unit.

Planning and establishing the physical facility for a food service unit is a very
important exercise as it involves a large amount of money and very often considered
a one time investment. The building and equipment is reflected as the asset of the
business. You would recollect how we formulated the plans in Unit 2, wherein we
discussed the budget, and how to plan the money needed for establishing physical
facility. Food service managers are constantly involved in facility designing or remodeling
the work area to accommodate change or expansion as part of their responsibility.
What is meant by facility design and layout? What is their significance while setting
up a food service unit? We will focus on these aspects here in this unit and study
the various phases involved in planning a layout.
Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• define layout and design,
• discuss factors that influence the structure of the physical plant,
• describe what planning team is,
• enumerate the phases in planning, and
• explain about energy and time management.

3.2 LAYOUT AND DESIGN: DEFINITION

In discussing the physical facility, the terms layout and design is used. Let us begin
our discussion by first understanding the terms layout and design. Layout would spell
65
Entrepreneurship and Food out the space allotted for the different operations and also indicate the work centers
Service Management and equipment. It is the blue print of the facility.

Design would mean providing all the architectural features and making the unit an
operational one. Before formulating the facility plans, one should look at the factors
that influence the structure of the unit. What could be these? Let us read and find
out next.

3.2.1 Factors Influencing Layout Design

Though the process through which the raw material has to move to become a finished
product is similar in any food service unit, there are certain factors, which make each
unit specific in design and different from others. These factors are objective or type
of the food service unit, profile of clientele, the menu offered and its operations and
the delivery system. Let us see how these operate.

The facility plan first of all is influenced by the purpose of unit, for e.g. if the unit
is a restaurant or hospital, the facility for production and service of food for each will
be different. In the same manner, the customer’s profile will also determine the type
of unit design and its ambience. You will observe that a canteen for a college student
is different in design from that of a hospital or a restaurant. The menu will influence
the kitchen design, in the type of work centers that has to be established and the
equipment that has to be installed. A kitchen that makes an Indian or Chinese or even
a Continental will differ in its choice of work centers and equipment. Finally, the type
of service greatly influences the space needed for service and the style of service that
can be adopted. In a limited space, the service of food may be from a counter where
as if space is available tables with seating can be provided for customers. The space
available will also determine volume of customer that can be entertained at a time.
So when one plans the choice of site for a facility these aspects have to be considered.

Next, let us review the various phases we need to consider for designing an effective
layout. But first a word about the planning team.

3.3 PLANNING TEAM

You would recognize how important the task of planning and setting up a food service
facility is. This job can be done only if efficient people constitute the team. The team
should have the
• Owner or administrator who has the authority to spend money for the project,
• The food service manager, who is knowledgeable about the operations,
• Architect, who translate ideas into structural plan,
• Food service design consultant who gives detail and specific information,
• Equipment representative, to discuss the choice of equipment available, and
• Building contractor who ensures that the construction goes according to plan.
The planning team formulates the floor plan, selects material, and writes specifications
cooperatively. It is important that every detail that is included, is specific and that
nothing is left to chance. These plans have to be checked by all team members before
actual construction takes place. It is important that all of the team members work
together. The team can be facilitated in their work if the phases of planning is outlined,
which will include the drawing up of the prospectus, establishing the work centers and
installation of equipment and working out the work relationship between unit.

Next, let us review the various phases of planning a layout.

66
 Setting up Food Service
3.4 PLANNING OF A LAYOUT: VARIOUS PHASES Unit

A systematic process of planning has to be undertaken for designing an effective

layout. This can be done if the following six phases of planning are adopted. These
include:
• Information gathering or developing a prospectus,
• Determining work centers,
• Determining equipment,
• Developing overall plan,
• Giving detail – features or architectural considerations, and
• Evaluating plan.
Let us go through each of these steps in details.

3.4.1 Gathering Information or Development of a Prospectus

You have learnt that any decision made, especially where large amount of money is
to be spent, should be based on thorough research in the field that gives you the
understanding of the task that has to be accomplished. Seeking this information is the
exercise of developing a prospectus

A prospectus is a formal summary of a proposed work i.e. it is a written description

detailing all aspects and elements of the project undertaken as you may recall
studying in Unit 2 earlier. It is a communication tool that is shared with and used by
all who constitute the planning team. It aids in their understanding of what is required
and desired in the design that has to be developed. The prospectus should give a good
picture of the physical and operational aspects of the proposed facility. It may be based
on questions such as:
• What type of food service is planned?
• What is to be accomplished?
• How many people and what age groups are to be served? How many are to be
served at a time?
• What will be the hours of service and the style of service?
• What is the menu pattern?
• In what form will food be purchased and how often? What kind of storage facility
will be needed? How much of refrigerated storage is required?
• What are the equipment and of what capacities will be required for the preparation
and service of the menu?
• What are the desirable space relationships?
• Will safety precautions be incorporated?
• What are the energy sources and how economical are they?
• What is the cost limitation? What is the projected income available?
The prospectus is developed when you give answers to these questions. It must be
written clearly, concisely and yet in detail. Usually it is done in the three parts. These
are enumerated herewith:
1) Rationale that includes the title, reason or need of project, goals objectives
policies and procedures.
2) Physical and operation characteristics include suggested or desired architectural
designs and features, details of menu, food preparation and service, employee and
customer profile and anticipated volume of business.
3) Regulatory information includes built in sanitation, safety and noise control
features and energy and type of utility used. 67
Entrepreneurship and Food From developing the prospectus, we move on to the next phase which deals with
Service Management determining the work centers.

3.4.2 Determining Work Centers

In any facility planning physical and operation characteristics play an important role
in determining the work centers. As mentioned earlier under the influencing factors,
the menu, the food preparation and type of service and anticipated volume of
customers will determine the work centers. Before designing the work centers, certain
criteria for design development have to be kept in mind. They are:
• Operations should have a smooth straight flow.
• Work flow and relationship between work centers.
• Prevention of criss crossing, bottlenecks and back tracking.
• Adequate space for men and machines.
The work centers should be determined on the basis of the operations involved in
the production of a finished product from its raw material. This must have a sequential
flow and ensure smooth operations. The activities that are common in any type of
food production and serving unit may be illustrated as:
Menu planning → procurement → receiving → storage → preparation → production
→ holding/packing → service.
Each of these operations will become a work center where this activity can take place.
The space, equipment and manpower needed would further determine the total area
to be allotted. Let us see what the specific needs of each operation are:
• Menu planning: It is the first activity that requires an office room.
• Procurement: It is the next activity that is done from outside the premises. So
the first activity that operates in the kitchen is the receiving of raw materials that
are purchased.
• Receiving: Receiving area should have an access from the outside for vehicles
to enter and unload large volume of commodities at a time. Yet it should be
protected from weather and space and equipment provided for physical verification
of the commodities.
• Storage: The raw material after checking and sorting has to be stored appropriately
in stores. Any institution should have basically two types of stores– the dry and
cold. The dry store should be specific for food material, linen, crockery and
glassware and cleaning agents. The cold store should have both cool and cold
room. It can be reach in or walk in, depending on the volume to be stored.
Ideally, they should be placed on either side of the receiving or sorting area.
• Preparation: Raw food items have to be issued from the store for preparation.
The preparation area calls for processing of a variety of raw material hence
ample space and washing facility should be provided. There should be separate
space to process vegetable, poultry, fish, meat and their products. A separate unit
should also be provided for the preparation of items that need not go through
production unit; for example a space called pantry is earmarked for salad,
sandwiches and cold platter. Space also needs to be provided in installing labour
saving processing equipment.
• Production: The heart of the kitchen is the production unit where the actual
cooking takes place. The production unit also can be divided into work stations,
depending on the menu. For an Indian menu, space has to be provided for rice
cooking in terms of steam kettles and chappati making unit. Usually the production
units are also kept specific for vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. For oriental
or continental cooking, the work station has also to be specific and suitable for
the menu. These units should be provided with space to stock the pots and pans
and also a cook’s table to assemble food. Different arrangements can be possible
68
 for the cooking area. Figure 3.1 gives four suggested arrangements for a cooking Setting up Food Service
area. As you would have noticed in Figure 3.1, the arrangement can be straight Unit
line or L-shaped or double or back-to-back or a U-shaped arrangement. Note the
amount of aisle space and total floor space required for each arrangement.

Main Cooking Unit

ovens ovens range, etc. 3½ 3 decks range 3½ grill

of ovens kettle
4
4 kettle
cook’s table cook’s table 2½
cook’s table 2½ kettle
(a) Straight Line
kettle
cook’s table 2½

4’ steamer
(c) L-Shape
ovens ovens ranges, etc. 3½ fryers
2 range grill 3½
steamer
kettle
4
Steamer
4 cooks table 2½ kettle

cook’s table 2½
(d) U-Shape
(b) Double or Back-to-Back

Figure 3.1: Four Suggested arrangement for a main cooking area

The relationship of main cooking unit to other work areas in a conventional food
service system is also highlighted in Figure 3.2.

Receiving Trash
Removal
Refrige
rated Dry
and Freezer Storage
Storage

Main Clean
Pre- Cooking Pot and Pan
Preparation Unit Storage

Pot and
Salad Dish
Preparation washing
Serving
Area

Figure 3.2: Relationships of main cooking unit to other work areas

Next, let us get to know about the specific needs of the holding/packing and
dishwashing areas. 69
Entrepreneurship and Food • Holding/Packing: Holding area or packing station has to be designed in consonance
Service Management with the objective of the food service unit. If it is a hostel for students this area
will have a counter space with a baine-marie installed; for a cafeteria it may have
more than one counters serving each specific item as you may have seen at the
Nirula’s food joint. Whereas in Railway base kitchen, a packing station with
counter space to pack 100-200 meals has to be provided. In a hospital, where
centralized food service is adopted, it may even call for a conveyor belt to
assemble the trays. Thus, you have seen each unit will need careful scrutiny to
design its work centers.
• Pot and Pan and Dishwashing area: Washing area for large utensils and also for
the serving dishes has to be planned and clearly earmarked as it needs space,
water facility and storage. Usually separate rooms are provided for this activity,
especially if mechanical dishwashers are used.
• Service: Service of finished food or menu item is a specialized activity. On
premises service calls for separate space called dining area as seen in restaurants,
hostels or canteens where table service is adopted, with paucity of space you may
just provide counters as seen in fast food joints and if no space is available, you
may have off premises service where food is served to the customer at their
place. Sometime off premises service has to be adopted to suit the customer as
in rail or air travel or to patients in bed.
Look at Figure 3.3 which gives the layout plan showing preparation, service areas of
an institutional food service. In planning the placement of work centers, work flow
and space relationship has to be established. Figure 3.4 presents the flow chart
diagram showing desireable work area relationships and progression of work from
receiving goods to serving with little cross traffic.

Working
table
Tandoors Water Water pans
boiler
Working
table
Working
Grill table
oven
Chapatti Kitchen
plate Working
table
Hot food
cabinet

Figure 3.3: Layout plan showing preparation, service areas of an institutional food service
70
 Setting up Food Service
Trash Unit
Receiving Area
Removal

Refrigerated
Dry
and
Storage
Freezer Storage

Pre-preparation Main Bakery

(Vegetables) Cooking Preparation
Area

Pot and
Salad
Pan Wash and
Preparation
Dish-washing

Serving Unit

Dining Room

Figure 3.4: Flow chart diagram showing desirable work area relationship

The amount of floor space and how it should be divided for food service activities
is difficult to state because each operation differs. When designing work stations or
units the space requirement should also be considered keeping in mind the activity and
the volume that has to be handled, all the equipment that would have to be provided
and comfortable work space for personnel and traffic aisle. One procedure often
followed is to calculate dining room area. Fairly accurate estimates for dining area can
be calculated if the type of service and number of persons to be seated at a time are
known. Likewise the seating capacity can be determined by the use of generally
accepted standard number of square feet per person for different kinds of institution
food service. A suggested guide is given herewith:
School lunch rooms 9-12 sq.ft per seat
Cafeteria 10-11 sq.ft per seat
Industrial cafeteria 16-18 sq.ft per seat
Restaurant 12-15 sq.ft per seat
Hotel with table service 14-16 sq.ft per seat
Once the dining room is known the kitchen size may be estimated as one third or
one fourth of the dining area. This is a rough estimate as many variables are involved.
A school cafeteria and fast food restaurant may serve the same number of customers
but the school cafeteria may need more space for kitchen and dining as a larger
number have to be served during meal time, whereas the restaurant has a more spread
lunch time. The same with hospital kitchen which will have more kitchen space than
dining area. Mayfield has suggested a better method for calculating the space required.
In this method variable such as type of food service, delivery system, number and
variety of meal produced, functions and task of each unit, traffic aisle needs, equipment
needed and its space, employee scheduling, work space requirement, storage requirement
and office and rest rooms were considered. Here the calculation was made by grouping
71
Entrepreneurship and Food all the equipment and staff into work unit with reasonable space for each. This is more
Service Management realistic and sometimes works out lesser than what is calculated on the basis of seating
arrangement.

There are certain guidelines prescribed for provision of space. The main traffic aisle
should be a minimum of 5' or wide enough to allow passage of cart without
interference on both sides. A clearance of 10" should be provided. The aisle space
between equipment and work table should be at least 3'. In case of oven or kettle
that open out, the work space should be about 3-4'. The work height are generally
36-40" for standing and 28-30" for sitting position. A minimum of 4 linear feet of
worktable space is recommended for each employee. The maximum reach over a
table without stretching is 20" so the equipment should be placed with that arc. Those
equipment that are frequently used should be placed near proximity of the work space.
An overall integration of areas is necessary in planning. Figure 3.5 shows some
standard for work space.

5’ Maximum
Reach
41”

Light Work
16”
24”

3”
Average Height 3”
of workable Heavy Work
Women 37” - 39”
Men 39” - 41”

ere
i s Wh
ht s
Heig Bend
st st
Be Wri
36” Standing
28” Sitting

4”

4”

Figure 3.5: Standard for work space

Having established the work centers let us look at the equipment that are necessary
at each unit to make it operational.

3.4.3 Equipment
Any work center is made operational only when it is facilitated with the appropriate
equipment. Therefore it is important to plan the choice of equipment and this has to
be done after studying the following consideration:
• Need of the particular food service as determined by the menu and the complexity
of food served
• Number and type of patrons to be served
• Form in which the food is purchased
• Style of service and length of serving period
• Number of labour hours available
• Ability of the employee to do the work
72
• Accessibility and cost of utilities Setting up Food Service
Unit
• Budget and amount of money allotted for equipment
• Floor plan and space allotments.
The need for equipment is basically determined by the menu which prescribes what
is needed to process the raw material to make the finished product. As mentioned
earlier the equipment needed in an Indian menu will be different from Continental or
Oriental one. Though there is some basic equipment which is common in food service
units, each menu also seeks specific equipment.
The volume or capacity for food to be handled at a time will be determined by the
volume of patrons and number that is to be catered at a time. A banquet that serves
500 people will require different equipment when compared to a restaurant that has
an a-la-carte menu. We will learn about this menu later in Unit 5.
The form in which the raw food material is purchased will influence the choice of
processing equipment. If it is a conventional kitchen that processes all food from raw
material, a large number of processing equipment will be needed where as a nursing
home which only assembles the processed food in tray to dispense to patient will not
require any such equipment.
The number of employees and their capacity to do the work will also determine the
need for equipment. If there is adequate labour to perform work then the choice of
equipment is limited where as if skilled labour is sparse or expensive or the time
available is not sufficient then one has to invest in equipment that speeds up work.
When planning the equipment it is also necessary to make the decision in consultation
to the space available to accommodate them in the kitchen. Ultimately the final
decision to buy the equipment will rest on the money available. Yet it is important
to keep these considerations in mind when buying equipment.
Let us now familiarizes ourselves with the type of equipment that we need to buy
for an institutional kitchen. You will find a detail review on plant and equipment later
in Unit 16. Here a brief summarization follows. Equipment can be classified as:
• Cooking equipment can be gas operated or electric e.g. cooking range, griddles,
broilers, fryers and ovens. Some may be also steam operated as double jacketed
kettles and pots, pressure cookers or cabinets.
• Non cooking equipment: These are basically the labour saving devices that are
needed in large kitchen. In this category you have, mixing machines like dough
kneader, food processor, slicers, choppers, mincers, wet grinders, refrigerators,
dish washers and waste disposers.
• Non-mechanical equipment is also necessary for kitchen these include tables,
weighing scale, carts, storage racks, cabinets, utensils and sinks.
• Serving equipment includes crockery and cutlery and serving dishes and mobile
serving carts.
• Modular equipment are equipment that are complete in all its operations and kept
in a centralized unit for more persons to use it and also it is mobile allowing space
utilization.
The features of equipment should be the basis which governs the selection of its
purchase. The criteria is as follows
• Design and function
• Size and capacity
• Material
• Construction
• Installation, operation, performance
• Maintenance and replacement
Design and function both have to be integrated in making equipment. Beauty and
utility should be combined in food service equipment. There should be simplicity in 73
Entrepreneurship and Food design and it should serve the function it is designed for. The size and capacity of
Service Management equipment is determined by the volume to be produced. Standard sizes are available
for each type of equipment but if a specific need is to be met in size or space,
equipment can even be custom made, in other words, designed by giving its own
specification. The choice of material of the equipment should be determined by the
function, maintenance and also cost. Today there is large variety of material available
so a thorough study of material has to be done before making choice. For e.g.
cooking pots will be available in aluminum, alloy, brass, steel, teflon ( non-stick
material ). The construction should also be checked for its finishes. It should ensure
durability, be attractive and ensure sanitation. The welding or edges should be done
well and be safe for use. Any equipment should facilitate ease of installation and
operation and have a good track record of performance. Usually branded company
equipment is a measure of good performance. Any equipment will be worth its
investment only if it can be easily maintained and replacement of worn out parts are
possible. So when selecting, use these criteria as a check list and then decide to buy
that equipment which satisfies these measures.
To purchase the equipment one has to undertake a market survey, collect quotation
from companies that manufacture it or dealers that sell it. Then compare the brands
using the check list and then put in your order for purchase. When you receive the
equipment it is also important to check it against your order, see to the installation,
get a trial run and have a contact of maintenance from the company. Some of the
companies that make equipment for institutional kitchens are Continental, Hobart,
Kenwood, Narang, Sumeet and many others.
Once the equipment planning is done, the next phase involves developing the overall
plan. Let us see how.

3.4.4 Developing Overall Plan

You have now decided upon the work centers and the equipment. The next step is
to draw the overall plan with the work centers and equipment. This is where the
architect will design the blue print for you. In making a blue print certain technical
drawing are adopted to indicate wall, windows , doors, work centers and equipment.
It is usually drawn to scale. The next step is to obtain the templates or to scale model
drawing of each equipment and is placed on the layout to give it a three dimension
effect. Figure 3.6(a) and 3.6(b) presents a schematic layout of a hospital kitchen.

Electricity Generator Service Yard Canteen

Payed Courtyard
18’-0’’

Toilet Toilet Put & Pan Cooking Spare

Wash
Pyt. Ward Section

Chapati Making Prepreparation

18’-0’’

Staff
Store Rest General Ward Walk in Dry
Room Section Weighing Cooler Store
1 2 3
To Wards
18’-0’’

Equip- Daily Fume Hood

ment Interns Dietitian Steward & Walk in
Store Store Store keeper Cooler

Figure 3.6(a): Schematic layout of a hospital kitchen

74
 7.86 M 5.00 M 4.83 M 11.49 M 11.49 M 13 M Setting up Food Service
Unit

MAIN KITCHEN OF LNJP HOSPITAL

Office

4.32 M
D Store
Preparation Area-I Preparation Area-II
D Cooking Centre
Therap- Room

3.18 M
D D eutic D Pot & Pan
Cold Store Kitchen Washing Area
D D D D D D
W W W W W W W W
W Corridoor
D D
Store
Partition
Opening Covered by wire gauge
Receiving Centre

6.40 M
(Dead) Prepa-
D D
ration
Area
O Boiler House
D
Store Gas
Open Store

5.00 M
(Dry) D D D D
D
Road

Figure 3.6(b): Schematic layout of the main kitchen of LNJP hospital, Delhi
Computer assisted design planning facility is also available to help design a layout. It
facilitates a visual presentation of layout with all the work centers and equipment. One
can add in all architectural features and run all the operations before finally deciding
the plan.
In the discussion so far we have looked at the various phases involved in a layout design.
We suggest you take a break here and answer the questions given in the check your
progress exercise 1. This will help you recapitulate what you have learnt so far.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Briefly list the factors that affect layout design.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
2) What are three essential components of a prospectus? Explain briefly.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
3) Describe the following in 2-3 lines.
a) Holding area
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
b) Major consideration before buying equipments
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
c) Production unit
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
d) Receiving area
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
75
Entrepreneurship and Food From lay out design we move on to the architectural features next.
Service Management

3.5 ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

The architectural features add body to the layout. This would mean deciding the kind
of floor, walls, ventilation, lighting, plumbing, electrical facilities, heating and cooling
facilities and acoustical measures. In an institutional kitchen the choice of these
features should be appropriate so as to serve the purpose. So to make a good choice
one should know the variety available in the market, be knowledgeable about its
function and make a wise choice. Let us review some of these features.
Floor: It should be impervious to grease and dirt, durable, non slippery and sturdy
to wear and tear yet easy to clean. Floor can be laid using a simple reinforced concrete
to a choice of tiles. The various floors available are: RCC, Mosaic, Terrazo, Vinyl,
Linoleum, Kota, Marble, Granite, Tiles-clay, rubber brick, synthetic Spartac. The best
being Terrazo or kota stone as it prescribes to most of the needs.
Walls: The walls again should be similar to the floor, being heat resistant, cleanable.
Hard plaster with enamel finish is suitable. Preferably it should be tiles till a height
of 7' if it is near steam and cooking media. The finish to the wall in each area should
be suited for ease in function.
Ventilation: Adequate ventilation is a must in kitchen to prevent contamination and
spoilage and it should be facilitated by the provision of doors and windows. In addition
as the kitchen has tendency to accumulate fumes, chimneys or hoods with exhaust
fans at work station should be provided. The windows should have wiring netting and
if possible certain areas can be air conditioned also.
Lighting: Lighting is important in a kitchen to ensure safety of food. Natural ventilation
to some extent provides some light. But if not adequate both direct and diffused
lighting has to be provided. Today in the market there are many kinds of light fittings
available such as fluorescent, filament and mercury. Thirty-forty watt is recommended
for diffused lighting and about 80 watt for filament light per square meter area. All
lighting should be installed over work surface and not behind it and care taken to select
energy efficient and effective light.
Plumbing: Facility for portable water, water for washing and drainage should also be
included. As the institutional kitchen is a facility that needs water at many work station
careful planning of its supply and flow of used water has to be planned. It is necessary
to build it in the layout design and choose fitting that suit the purpose. Even the slope
of the floor has to be planned to prevent water logging and backflow.
Electrical fittings: The kitchen calls for heavy duty equipment that needs special type
of electrical installation. Each section should be facilitated with points and if there is
a modular utility provision a panel with various kinds of switches should be put in
place. Provision for heating and cooling system should be planned in the structure also
while selecting the equipment.
Work areas: If constructed with brick and mortar it should be laid with marble or
granite. However in kitchen, stainless steel is by far the best as work surface. The
work surface should be easy to clean and maintain and ensure ease of work.
Acoustic measures: As the kitchen is a noisy place certain measures should be taken
to reduce noise in the room. In areas like dish washing room, it can be partitioned
by using hollow brick for walls or rubber tiles can be used for floor.
Safety and Sanitary Measures should also be built in the structure. This can be done
by the right choice of material, which is non-inflammable and also that which can be
easily cleaned and kept clean. In laying of floor, walls and ceilings care should be
taken to avoid cracks crevices and too much contours.
76
The consideration of all these architectural features may be done in consultation with Setting up Food Service
the architect and choice made only after samples seen and tested. The architect may Unit
have to make a series of plans showing the work centers with equipment, and one
with plumbing, electrical installation, respectively and details of each area with the
description of architectural features.

Once the architectural features are put in place, it is appropriate to evaluate the plan.
Let us see how this is done, next.

3.6 EVALUATION OF PLANS

Evaluation in simple terms means “to judge the value of something”.

Evaluation is a systematic and scientific process, determining the extent to which

an action or set of actions were successful in the achievement of pre-determined
objectives. It involves measurement of adequacy, effectiveness and efficiency. In the
context of the food service establishment, it would be ideal if an evaluation of the plan
is done to ensure:
• Work relationship
• Flow of work
• Energy management
• Time management
There are basically some tools available to test the efficacy of the plan. Work
relationship can be assessed by making a flow diagram indicating the area and the
proximity measured by drawing line between them. A cross chart can be formulated
to show the number of times the material or worker had to move between the two
areas. This will help place the area that have maximum interaction near each other.
Figure 3.7 illustrates flow of work in a hospital kitchen.

7.86 M 5.00 M 4.83 M 11.49 M 11.49 M 13 M

MAIN KITCHEN OF LNJP HOSPITAL

Office

4.32 M
D Store
Preparation Area-I Preparation Area-II
D Cooking Centre
Therap- Room
3.18 M

D D eutic D Pot & Pan

Cold Store Kitchen Washing Area
2.21 M

D D D D D D
W W W W W W W W
W Corridoor
D D
Store
Partition

Opening Covered by wire gauge

Receiving Centre

D
6.40 M

(Dead) Prepa-
D D
ration
Area
O Boiler House
D
Store Gas
Open Store
5.00 M

(Dry) D D D D
D
Road

Figure 3.7: Flow of work in hospital kitchen

As you may have seen in Figure 3.7, the flow of work can be assessed by drawing
the path of activity on a layout diagram or by using a string chart. In a string chart
the layout of a work unit is drawn on graph paper and pins put at work centers. A
77
Entrepreneurship and Food string is used to trace the path taken for an activity. If the picture shows criss crossing
Service Management or a point of congestion it can be corrected. The total length of the string shows the
distance traveled to accomplish the job.
Process analysis is a technique to assess energy management of both man and
material and the tool used is the process chart. The process chart provides a
systematic description of the work cycle, with sufficient detail for analysis and to
develop methods for improvement. A process chart classifies the activities, which
occur during a process such as, operation, transportation, inspection, delay. Standard
symbols are used to depict these activities, as shown in Figure 3.8. Process chart
involves selecting key operations for critical examination, determining the requirement
for detailed recording and establishing logical sequence of activities in a process like
assembly line. These charts are used for pointing out wasteful activities, material or
manpower movement. Figure 3.9(a) and 3.9(b) show the use of process chart for
vegetable making that was adopted and its modification after analyzing it using a
process chart.
Thus you see the objective of evaluating a layout is to check whether the placement
of work centers and equipment is such that it facilitates smooth operation of the
activities in the quickest and best mode. This type of analysis is now possible in the
computer aided designing of layout which helps to run through the operations and also
enables to shift work centers and equipment till the most appropriate or correct plan
is obtained.
Evaluation of the plan also ensures energy and time management. Let us study about
the energy and time management in further details.

3.7 ENERGY AND TIME MANAGEMENT

Energy conservation is considered as energy management. This has to be planned
while selecting the architectural features especially in the choice of lighting, heating
and cooling systems. The proper maintenance of equipment also leads to conservation
of energy that is utilized in its running. e.g. a thermostat, proper insulation, regulators
are all mechanics that conserve energy. Human energy also has to be conserved, and
providing the right work height and facilities of temperature and humidity can do this.
Thus the energy management would involve a good schedule for utility energy
conservation and management of human energy for optimal output. An e.g. of
conservation of energy for oven is highlighted herewith:
 List all the items that have to be baked in the oven
 Note the temperature needed (350-250°C)
 Pre heat the oven to the maximum temperature needed
 Assign the baking schedule of items from maximum heat required to lowest heat
 Use the heat available after the oven is switched off for making bread crumbs
 Put items in the oven to keep warm.
So you see how the heat energy is conserved here. Very often you may find a heater
on or the gas on high flame when not in use; ensure that it is put off when not needed.
One can enforce both external and internal control.
Any plan that ensures smooth flow of work also ensures that work is executed in the
short period of time available and thus facilitates time management. The right choice
of labour saving devices also helps to use time optimally. The process chart identifies
wasteful movement and suggests the necessary operations for any activity. The work
schedule which plans the production of menu will also facilitate optimal time utilization.
Finally financial status analysis is crucial for setting up a unit. Let us learn more about
this aspect.

78
 Setting up Food Service
Unit
PROCESS CHART
Present Proposed
1951- HQ Davidson File Number Page
SUMMARY No TIME
( ) Task of Job: Dishwashing Procedure, Operations I
Operations 1546 Scrapping Trays

Inspections 0 Dept: 10th Floor Pantry

Moves 99 Equipment Tools, etc: Scrapping counter, prerinse counter
Delays 70 with disposal unit trash can, carts cloth

Units produced 70 trays Operator: Pantry Maid A

Total distance moved Analyst Date March 20, 1963
Descriptive Notes Activity Dist Time Analysis Notes
Rinses cloth at sink Damp cloth is used to wipe trays

Carries cloth to scrapping table 8’ 6”

Brings loaded cart into pantry from hall 5’ 6” Positions cart at left of operator.
Each cart holds 6-9 trays
Moves to side of table
Takes tray from cart and places on
scrapping table
Moves around in front of table 1’ 0” Convenient position for working
Changes position of tray

Places tray on stack of empty trays

Pulls menu rom trays
Places name card on tray at extreme Name cards in attacks by section
Department of Industrial Training - Ohio State University

right of scrapping table

Picks up salt and pepper with left hand
Places salt and pepper on tray with
name cards
Empties coffee pots into disposal
Places empty coffee pots on
prerinse counter
Picks up plates and scrapes waste
into disposal
Adds plate to scrape prerinse counter
Picks up creamer and empties contents
into disposal
Places creamer on prerinse counter
Places cup and saucer on prerinse counter Saucers attacked
Removes glasses from tray and empties
contents into disposal
Places empty glasses upside down in
wash rack in prerinse counter
Picks up bowl with right hand
Transfers bowl to left hand Unnecessary handling
Scrapes waste food from bowl with
spoon into disposal
Stacks bowl on prerinse counter

Figure 3.8: Standard symbols in process chart

79
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management

PROCESS CHART 3.9A

Operation : Vegetable preparation
Method : Original

Distance (m) Symbol Explanation

3.0 Drags the bag of vegetables from receiving
area to the weighing machine

4.3 Weighs the vegetable

Drags the bag to the preparation area

Remains in the area till the time for pre-preparation

7.6 Gets a container from cold store to pre-preparation area

Transfers the vegetable in the container

45.0 To work top in chappati making area. (Operation repeated 5 times).

Removes inedible portion

Chops the vegetables

59.6

PROCESS CHART 3.9B

Improved

Distance (m) Symbol Explanation

3.0 The vegetable bags transported in a trolley to weighing machines

Weighs the vegetables

4.3 In a trolley near top in pre-preparation area

Washes the vegetables

2.5 To work top

Removes in edible portion

Chops the vegetables

59.6

Figure 3.9(b) and 3.9(a): Use of process chart for vegetable making

80
 Setting up Food Service
3.8 FINANCIAL STATUS ANALYSIS Unit

As mentioned in the beginning of the unit, planning a layout is a capital intensive

venture. Therefore one has to plan the finances well. This requires listing all components
of layout design and planning the finances for it. There are three options in planning
the layout. These include:
• One where the land has to be procured and building made
• Second where land is available and building has to be constructed
• Remodeling of the existing physical facility.
Each of these venture will require different capital investment. In the first option
money will be needed to purchase land, construct the building and buy and install
equipment. Second option needs money for building and equipment. It may cost less
than the first. Third option will incur some demolition cost and the remaining cost will
depend on the extent of work undertaken.

Usually the costing of the layout is done by the architect considering the cost of
building material and features cost and quoted as rate per sq m. In addition you will
have to add the cost of equipment and installation cost. Other than these certain other
cost for utilities such as electricity, water and sewage has to be made to the corporation.
Registration and legal cost also has to be included in the total cost. A systematic way
of planning cost is to review the current market prices for construction and material
and keep a watch on the actuals spent. As the time gap between the conceptualizing
and budgeting the plan, getting it approved by government agencies and finally
completing the construction is usually large sometimes even a year it is better to add
about 15% as escalation of price. After planning the budget one should also be sure
from where the funds will come and should ensure a steady cash flow. So you see
that to set up a food service unit it is not only necessary to plan the action but also
ensure that it is implemented well and within cost.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Enumerate briefly the architectural plans you would bear in mind before
setting up the food service unit.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
2) Explain the importance of the following in 2-3 lines.
a) Acoustic measures
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
b) Ventilation
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
c) Safety and sanitary measures
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................

81
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 3) Explain what do you mean by financial status analysis.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

3.9 LET US SUM UP

This unit focused on the setting up of a food service unit. The major points emerging
from this unit were:
• Factors such as purpose of the food service unit, customer’s profile, menu and
type of services have a major role to play in setting up a food service establishment.
• Planning a suitable layout is another essential component to set-up a food service
establishment. These as we have read earlier in this unit include prospectus
formulation, determining work centers and equipment, overall plan development,
planning architectural features and finally evaluation of the plan.
• Conservation of energy along with time management is a extremely important
goal for a food service unit, as both these parameters in their own respect spell
out monetary savings and go long way in meeting the budget requirements of
a food service unit.
• Finally, financial status analysis is the key for procuring a land and building a
food service unit. It is also required for remodeling of the existent physical
facilities apart from securing the necessary legal approvals before setting up the
food service institution.

3.10 GLOSSARY
Holding area : is the place where the food of any food service unit
such as hostel dining area etc. is kept (held) before
they are doled out.
Menu : a printed list given to the patrons that enlists the various
foods served in the food service organization along
with its unit cost.
Preparation area : is where the food especially raw food after being
washed, and cleaned is processed to form a product/
dish.

3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) The major factors that affect layout design are:
a) Purpose of the unit: that is whether the food service unit is a hospital,
restaurant, production or service unit.
b) Customer’s profile: This deals with the kind of people one needs to be
catered to
c) Menu - the document that lists the food items
d) Type of service.
82
2) The three essential components of a prospectus are: Setting up Food Service
Unit
— Rationale that includes the title, reason or needs of project, policies and
procedures
— Physical and operation characteristics - that include architectural designs and
features and,
— Regulatory information that includes safety and noise feature, type of
utility etc.
3) a) Holding area or packing station is the place or area where food is served
and is kept (holding) before service eg: Baine maries in a hostel.
b) Major considerations include:
— Equipments needed as per the type of service, menu and food service unit
— No. of labour hours available
— Accessibility and cost of utilities
— Budget of food service unit and,
— Floor plan and space allotment.
c) A production unit is that area of the food service unit where actual cooking
of food items takes place. Here production of food items occur as per the
menu and can be divided into Indian cooking, continental and so on.
d) Receiving area is that place from where loading of food items can be directly
done into the food service unit and can be weighed and channelized to store
area.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) The major architectural features that need to be kept in mind before setting up
a food service unit includes. Floor, walls, ventilation, lighting, plumbing, electrical
fittings, work area, acoustic measures or sound proofing and safety measures.
2) a) Acoustic measures are soundproof measures that need to be included in a
kitchen architectural plan to reduce noises that arises from cooking,
dishwashing and machineries.
b) Adequate and good ventilation is necessary for all kitchens to prevent
contamination, odour development. This is done by making provisions for
windows, doors, ventilation fans, chimneys and if possible air conditioning.
c) Safety measures should be in-built in an architectural plan. Choosing non-
flammable, easy to clean materials does this. Safety measures for a kitchen
plan helps ensure safe cooking for all employees. Proper drainage and
cleanliness of kitchen premises is equally important.
3) Financial status analysis is a comprehensive plan to check monetary needs of a
food service unit. This analysis tells you about money on hands and amount used
on purchases and should be saved for future use.

83
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management UNIT 4 ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND FOOD
SERVICE MANAGEMENT
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 A Conceptual Perspective of Entrepreneurship
4.2.1 Defining Entrepreneurship
4.2.2 Who is an Entrepreneur?
4.2.3 Characteristics of Successful Entrepreneurs
4.3 Creativity, Innovation and Entrepreneurship
4.3.1 The Creative Process
4.3.2 The Process of Innovation
4.4 Business Requirements for Food Products
4.4.1 What an Entrepreneur Needs to Consider
4.4.2 Government Requirements
4.4.3 Marketing
4.4.4 Developing the Business Plan
4.4.5 Determine the Resources Needed
4.4.6 Managing the Business
4.5 Entrepreneurship Development and Training
4.5.1 Approaches to Entrepreneurship Development
4.5.2 The Selective Method
4.5.3 The Shotgun Approach
4.5.4 The Multiplier Method
4.5.5 Intervention as an Approach
4.6 Merchandising Skills Specially for Entreprenueurs
4.6.1 Know Your Client
4.6.2 Responding to Requests
4.6.3 Marketing Your Business
4.6.4 Pros and Cos of Yellow Pages Advertising
4.6.5 Client Feedback
4.6.6 Competition
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Glossary
4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
Case Study 1
Case Study 2

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2 and 3 we learnt about the importance of planning, the steps involved in
planning and the modalities involved in setting up a food service establishment. Having
gone through these units certainly you have a better insight into planning and establishing
the physical facility for food service unit. An entrepreneurial venture in catering
services is a fast growing ground. A classical example is the Oberoi group of hotels
which started small by an individual as an entrepreneurial venture but has grown into
a large business today. Unit 4 focuses on entrepreneurship and food service management.
Entrepreneurship or Self Employment is being increasingly recognized as a highly
effective and viable alternative to wage employment, which offers limited
opportunities. Entrepreneur is society’s single most productive force and chief instrument
of economic progress. The entrepreneur, by definition is a change producing force in
84
the economy. “The Theory of Economic Development,” 1934, stated that Entrepreneurs Entrepreneurship and
do things that are generally not done in the ordinary course of business. They are Food Service Management
business leaders, who by virtue of their initiative accomplish extraordinary results. This
unit therefore focuses on entrepreneurship and characteristics of entrepreneurs. The
unit will describe the various components of entrepreneurship development and help
you identify the buisness requirement for food services.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• define entrepreneurship and characteristics of entrepreneurs,
• describe how entrepreneurship has influenced economic development and
productivity in recent years,
• discuss the concept of creativity and innovation relating to entrepreneurship,
• identify business requirements for food products and services,
• explain the various components of entrepreneurship development, and
• enumerate the merchandising skills specially for entrepreneurs in catering ventures.

4.2 A CONCEPTUAL PERSPECTIVE OF

ENTREPRENEURSHIP
The kind of work that entrepreneurs do and for that matter is about to start is just
not easy to pinpoint. They are also a class of people that are not easy to identify.
However these are the professionals that you may come across as running a one-man
industries and ranking in good amount of monetary profits. Look out for the vendor
in your local market selling dal, vegetable, hot chappatis for catering to the socially
less privileged like labourers, mechanics, shopkeepers etc. who can get a hot meal on
demond. Or for example the next door neighbour who provides packed lunches to
office goers and single individuals. You would come across many such entrepreneurs.

Entrepreneurs are the individuals that carve a niche market, and make sure that this
niche does not conflict with their overall business plan. For example, a small bakery
that makes cookies by hand cannot go after a market for inexpensive, mass-produced
cookies, regardless of the demand. However, it can have its own patrons of cookie
eaters and buyers. Therefore how should we go about defining an entrepreneur, let
us find out in our next section.

4.2.1 Defining Entrepreneurship

Robert Ronstadt, defines entrepreneurship as “The dynamic process of creating
incremental wealth.” This wealth is created by individuals who assume risks in terms
of equity, time, and/or career commitment of providing value for some product or
service. The product or service itself may or may not be new or unique, but value
must some how be infused by the entrepreneur by securing and allocating the
necessary skills and resources. Schumpeter, however described entrepreneurship as a
force of “creative destruction,” whereby established ways of doing things are challenged
or destroyed by the creation of new and better ways to get things done. The changes
may be marginally small, but can be extraordinarily powerful, like the transformation
of crude oil into an energy resource.
Next, let us get to know who is a entrepreneur?

4.2.2 Who is an Entrepreneur?

Despite the above definition, it is not easy to identify entrepreneurs or determine what
they do? Is a local garage owner an entrepreneur? Is a franchise an entrepreneur?
Is a computer retailer an entrepreneur? Is a real estate agent an entrepreneur? Or is
85
Entrepreneurship and Food a food service provider an entrepreneur? There are no short answers to these
Service Management questions and there are no formal guidelines for classifying entrepreneurs. According
to economists, entrepreneurs bring resources together in unusual combinations to
generate profits. Psychologists view entrepreneurs in behavioural terms as achievement
oriented individuals, driven to seek challenges and new accomplishments.
So then what are the characteristics of an entrepreneur? Let us find out.
4.2.3 Characteristics of Successful Entrepreneurs
Using extensive surveys and interviews, John Hornaday of Babson College, U.S.A.,
developed a composite list of entrepreneurial traits, shown in Figure 4.1.

• Self confident and optimistic

• Able to take calculated risks
• Respond positively to challenges
• Flexible and able to adapt
• Knowledge of markets
• Able to get along with others
• Independent minded
• Versatile knowledge
• Energetic and diligent
• Creative, need to achieve
• Dynamic leader
• Responsive to suggestions
• Take initiative
• Resourceful and persevering
• Perceptive with foresight
• Responsive to criticism

Figure 4.1: Characteristics of successful entrepreneurs

The characteristics mentioned above are specific to successful entrepreneurs. Do you
possess these skills/characteristics? If yes, you have it in you to be a successful
entrepreneur. We shall dwell further into what role does creativity and innovation has
to play in entrepreneurship next.

4.3 CREATIVITY, INNOVATION AND

ENTREPRENEURSHIP
According to Peter F. Drucker: “Admittedly, all new small businesses have many
factors in common. But to be entrepreneurial, an enterprise has to have special
characteristics over and above being new and small. Indeed entrepreneurs are a
minority among new business. They create something new, something different; they
change or transmute values.” This viewpoint helps us to explore how entrepreneurs
create wealth by creating something new or different and how opportunities arise.
Very often the terms “Creativity” and “Innovation” are used inter changeably. Webster’s
dictionary defines creativity as “the ability to bring something new into existence”.
This emphasizes ability, not activity. A person may conceive of something new and
visualize how useful the idea will be, but not necessarily take action to translate it
into a reality. Innovation on the others hand is the process of doing new things. This
distinction is important. Ideas have little value until they are converted into new
products, services, or processes.
We shall now examine the two concepts in some detail.

86
4.3.1 The Creative Process Entrepreneurship and
Food Service Management
Ideas generally evolve through a creative process, where by imaginative people
generate ideas, nurture them and develop them successfully. This is depicted in the
following model of the creative process illustrated in Figure.4.2.

Idea Generation Preparation Incubation

Subconscious
The seeding stage of a Conscious search for assimilation of
new idea. knowledge information

Illumination Verification
Application or test to
Recognition of the
prove the idea has
ideas as being feasible
value

Figure 4.2: The creative process

Let us review these processes. We begin with idea generation.

Idea Generation
Most creative ideas can be traced to an individual’s interest or curiosity about a
specific problem or area of study. An entrepreneur can even create a business out
of a hobby. For example, if a housewife experiments with new dishes as a hobby.
She may one day perhaps create a home-based business out of this hobby. Ideas for
new market offerings can come from any of the following sources: (a) Present work
environment, (b) Vision of opportunity (c) Improving existing technology, product,
service (d) Brain storming (e) Trade publications (f) Focus groups (g) Technology
transfer agencies.
Preparation
The next stage is a conscious search for answers, seeking more information about the
problem and how others have tried to resolve it. It may involve market research or
laboratory experiments to find out more. This may be termed as an idea screening
stage, for assessing the opportunities available for putting the idea into practice. The
questions that need to be asked are: Is this something that has been overdone? Has
it been executed poorly in the past? Has anyone else thought about it?
Incubation
Notwithstanding, brilliant, sudden flashes of genius, very few ideas come from
thunderbolts of insight. Most of them evolve in the minds of creative people, while
they are involved with other activities. The subconscious mind is allowed to assimilate
information and mull over it. When we are relying on the subconscious, our minds
are unhindered by limitations of human logic. The subconscious mind is open to
unusual information and knowledge that we cannot assimilate in the conscious stage.
In short, the idea is allowed to incubate, often leading to a resolution of the problem.
Illustration
There comes a moment in time when a creative individual may exclaim “Oh I See.”
Clearly these are people who seem to have an uncanny ability to spot and exploit
opportunities. Art Fry of 3M company created Post-it-notes, as a result of trying to
make nonsolid book markers. He spent several years working on the idea, requiring
extraordinary work and commitment, before the mist finally cleared. This is
“Illumination”. Illumination may be triggered by an opportune incident, like Fleming,
when, we watched his penicillin attack infectious bacteria under a microscope.
The important point here is that, creative people go through many cycles of preparation
and incubation, searching for that ‘spark’ of illumination to give their idea full
meaning.
87
Entrepreneurship and Food Verification or Validation
Service Management
Entrepreneurial effort is essential to translate an illuminated idea into a verified and
useful application. Verification is the development stage of refining knowledge into
application. This is often tedious and requires perseverance by an individual committed
to finding a way to “harvest” the practical results of his or her creation. Figure 4.3
depicted herewith serves as a checkpoint for validating the idea.

Does the Fill a Need? Show evidence of

Opportunity product
acceptance?

Show that a Show a gain

market exists? Reflect that your potential?
idea is better than
the competitor’s?

Figure 4.3: The process of idea validation

It is important to understand that quite often a good idea has already been developed
and the aspiring entrepreneur finds that competitors already exist.
In the discussion above we reviewed the creative process relating to entrepreneurship.
Next, let us study the innovation process.

4.3.2 The Process of Innovation

Joseph Schumpeter concluded, “If creativity is the seed that inspires entrepreneurship,
innovation is the process of entrepreneurship”. Innovation implies action as mentioned
earlier, not just conceiving new ideas. It is the transformation of an idea or resources
into useful applications, which results in new products, services or processes. The
elements in the process of innovation are shown in Figure 4.4.

Analytical Organizing Commercial

Implementation
Planning Resources Application

– To Identify – To Obtain – To Accomplish – To Provide

– Product Design – Material – Organization – Value to Customers
– Market Strategy – Technology – Product Design – Rewards for Employees
– Financial Need – Human Resources – Manufacturing – Revenue for Investors
– Capital – Services – Satisfaction for founders
Figure 4.4: Translation of creative idea into a useful application
Analytical planning, organizing resources, implementation and commercial
application are the elements in the process of innovation. For an idea to have value,
it must be proven useful or be marketable. To achieve either of these, the idea must
be developed.
Before we move further, let us recapitulate what we have learnt so far. A recap of
the important steps in the creative process is already given herewith. Answer the
questions given in check your progress exercise 1 and recapitulate your understanding
of the concepts discussed so far.
RECAP: Important steps to remember in the creative process.:
• Idea Generation
• Preparation
• Incubation
• Illumination
• Verification or Validation
88
 Entrepreneurship and
Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Food Service Management

1) List some characteristics of successful entrepreneurs.

.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
2) Identify a few major sources of new product ideas.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
3) Explain briefly as to what do you understand by idea generation?
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................

Now that we are aware about the concept of entrepreneurship and the
characteristics of an entrepreneur, next let us focus on business requirement for food
products.

4.4 BUSINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR FOOD PRODUCTS

Going into business can be very confusing. Starting a food processing or service
business adds more complications. Hundreds of new products are introduced each
year in the food industry. A new product can be defined in many ways. One accepted
definition is “A product or a service which is offered to the customer for the first
time”. A new product may be a brand, a line of products or an addition to the existing
line of products. The purpose of developing and introducing a new product or service
is to achieve success, which is measured by profit. The initial and repeat purchase
of the food item is the ultimate key to profitability. Let us then consider the questions
an entrepreneur needs to consider before he/she starts a business related to food
product.

4.4.1 What an Entrepreneur Needs to Consider

There are three basic questions that an entrepreneur needs to answer, before he/she
begins his/her journey into the food business. The answers to these questions will
change as the business grows. There are things to consider how the business will
operate initially. The Three Basic Questions include:
WHAT is the entrepreneur’s product?
— What are the specific ingredients?
— What are the sources of these ingredients?
— What are the costs of ingredients?
— What is the availability of these ingredients?
HOW will this product be processed and packaged?
— How will the product be packaged and determining the cost of packaging?
— How will the entrepreneur obtain and maintain a production facility and
equipment?
89
Entrepreneurship and Food WHO will be the ultimate consumer of the product/service?
Service Management
— Who will actually deliver the product to the customer?
— Who will be the intermediaries in delivering the product and how much will they
charge?
Besides considering the above mentioned questions, government requirements are also
to be considered. Let us read this aspect next.

4.4.2 Government Requirements

Both, manufactures and food service providers, as stipulated by the Ministry of Food
Processing Industries, will generally be required to state the following, depending upon
regulatory laws in force at a given point of time:
• Proposed equipment listing
• Layout of the facility
• Plumbing specifications
• Lighting specifications
• Source and storage of ingredients
• Processing steps
• Quantity control checks
• Food safety and sanitation training.
The labeling requirements as discussed next are also crucial.

Labeling Requirements
Generally all food labels must contain the following items:
• Product Identity – What exactly is in the package in common terms? For
example, Pineapple jam, Garlic pickle etc; it must also include the form of food
(e.g. sliced or whole).
• Net Quantity – The weight of the actual product in the package must be stated
in grams. “The weight should be rounded off ”.
• Ingredient/Content list – Includes all items used in creating the product. Common
names should be used. Food colouring and preservatives must be identified.
• Name and Place of the Manufacturer/Packer/Distributor – All relevant details
should be included.
• Universal Product Code (UPC) – Wherever applicable, a twelve digit numeric
code, which identifies a particular product, must be specified. It also helps in
inventory control and tracking sales.
Refer to Figure 4.5 which illustrates a food label.

Figure 4.5: A food label

90 The issues related to marketing are discussed next.

4.4.3 Marketing Entrepreneurship and
Food Service Management
Marketing is the act of communicating the existence of a product with all its benefits
to the customers and making them want to buy it. It also includes getting the product
to the place where the customer can buy it.

The process of marketing is broken down into four elements, known as the 4P’s, or
the Elements of the Marketing Mix. The 4P’s are:
• Product – What is being sold and how it is packaged.
• Price – How much is the product being sold for?
• Place – How will the product reach the end user? This process is commonly
known as distribution.
• Promotion – Also known as marketing communication. How will the customers
get to know about the product and make them want to buy it?
Let us further review the 4P’s in greater details.
A) Product: It has to be decided how the product will uniquely satisfy the customer’s
needs. This can be done through taste, conveniences, packaging, image, price,
quality, source of ingredients, processing and many other characteristics. Important
things to consider in product development are: quality control, sourcing of
ingredients, packaging, labeling and storage etc.
B) Place (Distribution): This refers to where the target customer will buy the
product, and how the entrepreneur decides to reach his customers. Factors which
influence these decisions, may include: product storage (frozen,
refrigerated, shelf stable) transportation, and warehousing. The players involved
in distribution could include:
a) Food Manufacturer: The person who adds value to the raw material and
makes the actual (final) product.
b) Broker: Is a person or organization who sells the product to distributors,
wholesalers or retailers on a commission. For small business, a broker
sometimes works as a sales person.
c) Distributor: This channel buys the product in bulk at a discounted price and
resells them to wholesalers and retailers.
d) Retailer: This business sells the product directly to the customer. It may
require support from the manufacturer in terms of sales force, merchandising,
advertising and promotions.
C) Price: In the food Industry, pricing decisions can be fairly complicated. Pricing
can be set to position the product in the market place. It can determine the image
of the entrepreneur’s product and/or company in the market place. When fixing
the price, the following cost components need to be considered:
• Cost of Goods Sold:
— Cost of ingredients/raw materials
— Cost of packaging and labeling
— Direct labour
• Cost of Marketing:
— Cost of shipping (transportation)
— Broker’s commission
— Distributor discounts
— Retailer discounts.
Since cost of goods sold and cost of marketing are incurred per unit of the product,
they may be considered as variable costs. Any set of costs, called Fixed Costs, which
91
Entrepreneurship and Food have no relationship, whatsoever with the number of units produced are the following:
Service Management
— Rent
— Utilities
— Salaries
— Insurance
— Equipment
The price determined by the manufacturer (provider) will be determined by three
factors: (a) Cost per unit of the item (b) Price charged by competitors and (c) Product
uniqueness or positioning strategy (should the product be a premium, high priced
offering or a quality bargain).

Profit margins are used in the food industry to establish price. This means that
distributors and retailers take the entrepreneur’s price and mark it up by a specific
percentage to get their profits.
D) Promotion: As stated earlier, an entrepreneur has to communicate to his target
audience about the benefits of his product or service. This, in business parlance
is termed as promotion.
In terms of food products, there are several, standard promotional tools:
— Product Literature: There are two types of customers here; Trade (distributors,
retailers etc.) and consumers. Each audience will be interested in different
facts about the product. Trade literature focuses more on features of the
product, whereas, consumer literature includes, price, testimonials and product
facts.
— Publicity: Publicity is unpaid advertising. It is often perceived as more
credible than paid advertising. Hence it may be a good idea to use press
releases and promotional opportunities to capitalize on available publicity.
— Advertising: This involves mass communication directed towards a specific
audience. Since it is an expensive form of promotion, the target market and
marketing objectives must be clearly defined, for it to be effective.
— Trade Shows: Trade shows give direct access to a target market. People
attending trade shows are usually serious, potential customers. They also
provide an excellent opportunity for networking in the industry to identify
distributors, retailers, brokers and competitors.
All aspects of promotion can be very expensive. That is why it is imperative that
the entrepreneur must establish his marketing plan, before he embarks on any
promotional campaign.
In this entire process you would have noticed that the customer is the crucial link.
Let us get to know more about this.

The Customer
The entrepreneur must identify his target market specifically in terms of who will
actual buy or consume the product. It should include demographic information such
as – Age, Sex, Family Size, Income, Occupation, Education, Social class etc. – related
to the customer.

It should also include information on lifestyle and attitudes of prospective customers.

With this information, the entrepreneurs can refine his distribution and promotional
decisions, so that he spends his money and efforts on products/services that will reach
the customers most likely to buy his products.This information can be obtained
through product research, by way of taste tests at festivals or social gatherings. This
way we can get a general idea of the population to whom the product appeals.
92
Information on general trends in the food industry can be sourced from food publications, Entrepreneurship and
Government agencies and the internet. Food Service Management

Once the entrepreneur knows who the target customers are, he should also find out
what the alternatives are in terms of competitors.
Competitors
Competitors may not offer exactly the same product, but their offering may fulfill the
needs and wants of chosen customers either equally or better. Competition can be
analyzed through trade publications or observation. The internet can also be put to
effective use for this purpose.
Once the different aspects related to the product, government requirements and
marketing have been taken care of, the next step is to develop a buisness plan. Let
us next see how this is done.

4.4.4 Developing the Business Plan

Developing the business plan, involves asking the right questions: Once an opportunity
has been identified, decisions must be made regarding performance and staffing. Who
is going to do what? How will decisions be made? The business plan should fully
capitalize on all the company’s assets, while also maintaining flexibility. It should be
sufficiently broad to include unexpected changes in the aim, for success and profitability.
Let us next consider a business plan.

The Business Plan

A business plan charts the current and future components of the business. It must
address the following questions: How far will the business have to go? What is the
exact destination or goal? How will the goal be reached? How long will it take to reach
the goal and various sub goals along the way?
A good plan helps in the following ways:
• Determines the viability of the business and application in selected markets.
• Provides guidance in planning and organizing the activities and objectives.
• Serves as a vehicle for obtaining finance and human resources for the business.
A business plan, in fact, is the backbone of a business. This document guides the
entrepreneur at three critical junctures: (a) It simplifies decision making during terms
of crisis, (b) It is the road map at points of indecision, and (c) it is a motivational
guide during setbacks and down turns.
The business plan compels an entrepreneur to carefully examine the prospective nature
at its initial planning stage before significant capital is invested. If the plan reveals
flaws, which are difficult to overcome, the entrepreneur may need to abandon the
opportunity.
To start a business an entrepreneur also needs to consider what resources shall be
needed. Let us consider this aspect next.

4.4.5 Determine the Resources Needed

For a start up business that uses new technology or process for its service or its
product, identifying what resources are needed, is crucial. The new venture must
have the skills to match and triumph, over competition. Let us then consider the
resources needed. These include:
• Networking and Personal Contacts: Resources are needed to identify, contact,
and establish a network with appropriate clients and vendors. Who will meet
people personally? Who will do the telephone work? Who will be in charge of
93
Entrepreneurship and Food e-mail correspondence? Time for networking may be a daily task, high on the
Service Management priority list.
• Financial Requirements: Sufficient capital is required to sustain the company for
a specific length of time, possibly a one or two year period. The entrepreneur
has to carefully consider the financial elements required for implementing the
plan:
— How much capital is needed? What resources are needed for financial
support?
— How long can be the new business be self financed, if necessary, and still
withstand initial losses?
— How long will it take to make the business profitable?
— What kind of profit margin will eventually result from the product or service?
— How can the revenue and financial model be presented to investors for their
involvement in business?
• Technical Skills: The entrepreneur may not possess the creative process and
innovative technical skills necessary to implement the business idea. In such
cases, he may need to hire skilled people. Training costs for such people need
to be calculated into start up costs.
From our discussion above it is evident that resources are needed in terms of financial
requirements, technical skills and personal and networking contacts. Having identified
the resources, next, let us learn how to manage the business.

4.4.6 Managing the Business

Managing the business entails running the business, applying a specific management
structure and style to any questions, difficulties and road blocks to successes that may
arise. Substantial time, money, experience and energy have been invested in setting
up the company. The entrepreneur has to break off from the beaten path and invest
in people, operating procedures and information technology which:
a) Deliver a total solution – Small companies have traditionally assumed unchallenged
territory and special distribution channel, for their products. Today however all
companies play in the same markets and provide an entire range of services for
their customers. Investors and customers are now looking for a total solution
product or service.
b) Cultivate advanced resources – Highly skilled workers laid off from large companies
create an important opportunity for start up companies. These trained personnel
bring with them rich experience and business skills, much needed by a new
venture.
The entrepreneur may also need to look at the cash flow forecast, revenues and
disbursements. These issues are discussed next.
Cash Flow Forecast
A cash flow forecast shows the amount of cash coming in (receivables) and going out
(payables) during a certain month. The forecast also shows what additional working
capital, if any, the business may need. In addition, a cash flow forecast provides
evidence that there will be sufficient cash on hand to make interest payments, on
borrowings or to cover shortfalls when payables exceed receivables. You may recall
studying about Ramu venture in Unit 2 and how he planned his budget and cash flow
forecast.

Cash Flow Revenues

The first thing is to find a realistic basis for estimating sales each month. For a start
up company it can be the average monthly sales of a similar sized competitor in a
94
similar market. For existing companies, sales revenue for the same month in the Entrepreneurship and
previous year would be a good basis for forecasting sales in the same month in the Food Service Management
following year. For example, if the industry trend indicates a growth of 5% in the
succeeding year, it would be entirely acceptable to project each months sales 5%
higher than the actual sales in the previous year.

Cash Flow Disbursements

The method adopted, is to project each of the various expense categories (shown in
the ledger), beginning with a summary of the cash payments to wages, rent and
equipment, cash etc. (accounts payable) for each month. Each month shows only the
cash that is expected to be paid each month to suppliers. For example, if supplier
invoices are paid in 30 days, the cash pay offs for January’s purchases will be shown
in February. If longer terms are obtained for trade credit, cash outlays will appear
two or even three months after the stock purchase has been received and invoiced.

Reconcile Revenues and Expenses

This shows the balance carried forward from the previous month’s operations. To
this the net inflows and outflows or current months receipts and expenses will be
added. This adjusted balance will be carried forward to the next month’s entry to
become the base, to which the next month’s cash flow activity will be added or
subtracted.

Cash flow forecasts must be constantly modified as new things are learned about the
business and as venders, are paid. Small cash flow forecasts will be used regularly
to compare each month’s projected figures with each month’s actual performance
figures, it can from the basis for “Variance Analysis,” which is an excellent indicator
for the financial health of the enterprise. It may be signal for revising the various
projections, accordingly. A specimen cash flow statement is show in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Specimen cash flow statement
(Rs. Lakhs)
Months
1 2 3 4 5 6
A) Cash inflows :
1) Cash sales (10% of total) 4.00 5.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00
2) Receivables collection - 17.64 39.68 48.50 52.92 52.92
3) Interest received 1.00 - - - - 1.00
4) Dividends received - - 2.00 - - 2.00
5) Sale of shares - - - - - 160.00
Total (A) 5.00 22.64 47.68 54.50 58.93 221.92
B) Cash outflows
1) Purchases 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.00
2) Labour 6.00 7.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 6.00
3) Manufacturing overheads 13.00 13.50 14.00 14.00 14.00 13.00
4) Administrative expenses 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
5) Distribution charges 2.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 2.00
6) Raw materials (30 days credit) - 14.00 15.00 16.00 16.00 16.00
7) Interest paid 0.40 - - - - -
8) Dividends paid 2.00 - - 2.00 - -
9) Installment of machine - - - - - 20.00
10) Repayment of loan - - - - - 80.00
Total (B) 26.40 41.00 45.00 48.00 46.00 140.00
C) Net Receipt or Payment
(A) – (B ) (21.40) (18.36) 2.68 6.50 12.92 81.92 95
Entrepreneurship and Food Having reviewed Table 4.1, you would have got a good insight regarding the cash flow
Service Management statement. Let us also recall what we have studied so far.
The salient business requirements to be considered with particular reference to the
food industry include:
RECAP:
1) There are 3 basic issues that need to be addressed – (a) what is the entrepreneur’s
product? (b) How will the product be packaged and processed? (c) Who will be
the ultimate consumer of the product or service?
2) Compliance with Government requirements
3) Labeling – relating to product identity and contents etc.
4) Marketing – should include the elements of the Marketing Mix, viz; product,
price, place and promotion.
5) The customer – his profile, characteristics and buying behaviour.
6) Competition – Relative strengths & weaknesses of the competitors in relation to
your own.
7) Developing the Business Plan – to assess viability of the business and its
application in selected markets. This is the backbone of the business and helps
in obtaining finances and human resources for the enterprise.
8) Identify Financial and Technical resources needed.
Next, answer the questions in check your progress exercise 2 and assess your
understanding about the aspects covered so far.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) What are the three basic questions an entrepreneur needs to consider, before
launching a business?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Give a brief description of the elements of the marketing mix.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) What are the three ways in which a business plan helps an entrepreneur?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) List the labeling requirement of a food product.
...............................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
96
In the discussion above we looked at the business requirement for food products. Entrepreneurship and
Next, let us review the various approaches to entrepreneurship development. Food Service Management

4.5 ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT AND

TRAINING
There are various approaches to entrepreneurship development, which policy makers,
development planners, trainers and others involved in the development may choose
from.

There are essentially four major pre-requisites for the creation of a climate for
entrepreneurship. These are (a) An open and competitive social structure, (b)
Development of an appropriate attitude and behaviour among individuals in society;
(c) Provision and extension of adequate support programmes for the enterprise and
the entrepreneur; and (d) The presence of a stable and good Government. It is a
complex process that requires a great deal of logic and careful planning before being
set into operation. But before an entrepreneurship development programme can become
tangibly operational, it is imperative that a conceptual framework be developed first.

The basic questions that need to be addressed are: (i) who is an entrepreneur? (ii)
Is entrepreneurship relevant to our culture and social system? (iii) Given the state of
the national economy, are there sufficient opportunities to stimulate entrepreneurship?
(iv) Does the system have enough infrastructures to support entrepreneurs? (v) Which
should be developed first, infrastructure or entrepreneur?

Having considered the basic requisites, let us now get to know about the approaches
to entrepreneurship development.

4.5.1 Approaches to Entrepreneurship Development

Entrepreneurship development in terms of method and coverage is the formulation of
strategies or courses of action to be adopted in the promotion of entrepreneurship.
Before an approach is selected, two major points of view for developing entrepreneurship
should be considered:
a) Entrepreneurship is generated through the development of the human factor – the
entrepreneur himself.
b) Entrepreneurship is stimulated through Government interventions, like policy
measures for the creation of an environment where entrepreneurial activities can
flourish and grow.
Development of the human factor is carried out in three dimensions. The first is the
cultivation of the attitude or desire for achievement in the individual. The second is
the development of capabilities to perceive future environmental changes. The third
is to acquire skills and abilities to solve problems, which are likely to occur in the
future. Once it is understood who an entrepreneur is and what his functions are in
society, relative to his development, entrepreneurial activity can be identified, stimulated
and nurtured. On the other hand, an understanding of the environment is useful in
developing appropriate programme, necessary for the perpetuation of entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurship in most developing countries is developed by way of four commonly
used methods. These are explained in the subsequent sub-section(s).

4.5.2 The Selective Method

The selective method involves the identification and selection of individuals with latent
aptitudes and appropriate attitudes towards entrepreneurial careers. Such
persons are considered as desirable receivers or beneficiaries of entrepreneurship
development programmes.
97
Entrepreneurship and Food There are many organizations involved in entrepreneurship development, each offering
Service Management its own specialized service to satisfy a special need of the entrepreneur. These
organizations offer an integrated package of assistance from project conceptualization
through to its implementation and operation. This approach presumably increases the
chances of success of the development scheme.

4.5.3 The Shotgun Approach

The shotgun approach may be described as a multi directional approach, but is
wanting in coordination and integration efforts. The result therefore can either be a
hit or a miss. There may be an attempt to develop programmes, but there is a lack
of operational machinery to carry them out effectively and thoroughly. An example
is that of Hong Kong a few years ago with a “laissez faire” economy, where enterprise
development was the owner’s responsibility, and did not require government intervention.
Although there were semi government and other organizations to help small and
medium enterprises, their functions were not coordinated. This resulted in a duplication
of efforts on the one hand, and unsatisfied needs of small enterprises on the other.

4.5.4 The Multiplier Method

The multiplier method involves intermediaries or catalysts of change – trainers,
extension officers, consultants etc. These intermediaries propagate and promote
entrepreneurship, through their respective functions, which in turn trigger off a chain
of events leading to the development of entrepreneurship. The training of a trainer
for instance, sets off a chain reaction. It develops the trainer’s skills and personality
and at the same time increases the productivity level of the enterprise he serves and
the overall process of entrepreneurship development.

Quite obviously, not only the conceptual framework of entrepreneurship will influence
the choice of approach, but also by the availability of resources such as funds and
qualified human resources such as trainers, consultants etc.

4.5.5 Intervention as an Approach

Intervention as an approach involves introduction of concrete activities or specific
interventions to develop and promote entrepreneurship. These activities could be one
of the following: (a) Training (b) Consultancy, and (c) Sectoral Intervention. Let us
review these activities in greater details.

A) Training
The initial and most basic, requisite for developing entrepreneurs is awareness
development. Through this intervention the target public develops a keener awareness
of the business environment and an understanding that opportunities can be translated
into income generating realities. Hence the individual’s interest in setting up his own
enterprises is stimulated. Entrepreneurial careers can take shape through awareness
development, achievement motivation, management skill(s) development, attachment
training and training of trainers. A good example of this approach is, entrepreneurship
seminars and promotional talks conducted by a host of Government agencies, under
the aegis of the Ministry of Small Scale Industries, Government of India.
Entrepreneurship awareness among the general public is also propagated through mass
media. The increasing sophistication and expanding mass media, makes it a very
effective medium for this approach. Due to its basic nature, awareness development,
supplements and lays the ground for other types of interventions for entrepreneurship
development.

There are three important components of entrepreneurship training. These are highlighted
next.

98
i) Achievement Motivation: According to David McClelland the need for achievement Entrepreneurship and
has a direct co-relation with entrepreneurial development and hence with economic Food Service Management
development. Through achievement motivation as an intervention, entrepreneurs
undergo training, which is designed to increase their levels of confidence and
achievement orientation. The training aims at developing in the individual, proper
psychological preparation and mental attitudes towards business endeavours. It is
expected that this training would result in positive behaviours such as a quest for
excellence, learning from feedback and moderate risk taking. Likewise it strengthens
the ability of an individual to generate alternatives and to solve problems creatively.
It also develops the ability to define and set goals in life and business. Therefore
this kind of entrepreneurship development is viewed as behaviourally oriented.
The success of this training intervention depends largely on the fact that it is
experience based. It is generally believed that in entrepreneurship development
training, learning by discovery is usually preferred. But in experiential training a
person learns from his actions and behaviour. Thus the learning forces become
a positive reinforcement. The overall objective of any type of achievement
motivation training is to transform the entrepreneur into a new person.

ii) Support Systems: A very important component of entrepreneurship training is a

module on information about support systems available to entrepreneurs. This
normally includes topics on business plan preparation, developing project reports
and proposals for obtaining credit from banks and other financial institutions. The
trainees are exposed to procedures for approaching banks, financial institutions,
technical consultancy organizations, industrial service organizations and other
institutions providing technical, marketing and financial support. A linkage between
the training institute and the support system agencies is normally established
through the participation of these agencies in sponsoring and financing
Entrepreneurship Development Programmes (EDP’s). Hence, Credit, Service, and
implementing Institutions form the core support group. McClelland suggested that
increasing opportunity improves business performance regardless of motivational
levels, provided the government can increase the probability of success from low
to moderate by way of positive assistance.

The types and level of support required varies from entrepreneur to entrepreneur.
Hence the types of inputs, their degree and training are customized to the needs
of the entrepreneurs at various stages of their development, as illustrated in Figure
4.6.

In Figure 4.6, you would have noticed that there are four important stages in
entrepreneurship development. These are (a) Selection and Training (b) Pre
Investment (c) Operational, and (d) Post Launch evaluation. A wealth of valuable
information on support systems, Government Schemes and Policies, is available
from the Ministry of Small Industries, from their websites: www.laghu-udyog.com
or www.smallindustryindia.com. Next, let us review the third component of
entrepreneurship training.

iii) Management Skills Development: A common problem with most entrepreneurs

is a lack of management skills to deal with management problems of the enterprise.
This generally inhibits the success and growth of the enterprise. In many small
businesses, the entrepreneur stands alone. He does not have the means to employ
specialists in production, finance or marketing to run his business. He has to be
his own specialist in all these fields. Since the owner manager of a small enterprise
is engaged in all tasks of management, without the assistance of specialized staff,
most of the management problems are inherent in small business. But, being
small, need not be a deterrent to growth.

99
Entrepreneurship and Food Stage Support Entrep. Dev.
Service Management
Prog.
Selection &
Training Training
Skill Trg. if
required

Mkt.
Assessment

Product
Institutional Identification
Pre-
Investment & Social
Network Facilities &
Prototype
Testing
Feasibility
Studies &
Reports.

Finance

Infrastructure
Facilities
Govt. Support
Operational Equipment &
Agencies &
Technology
Infrastructure
Human
Resources

Org. &
Management

Marketing
Strategies

Service Channel
Post Launch Support Partner

Facilities
Extension

Reinvestment

Figure 4.6: Support systems in entrepreneurship

One way to overcome stagnation and open the door to growth is learning management
skills, which can be employed not only in day-to-day operation, but also in business
expansion and diversification. While designing the curriculum for management training,
the focus is always the trainee. Most institutes involved in training entrepreneurs in
management, bear in mind, that inputs and methodology must cater to the unique
personality of the entrepreneur, who is generally, an out of school, mature individual.
Hence the emphasis of such training is pragmatic discussion of concepts, group work
with minimum guidance from the trainer and business games.

In some Asian countries, there are support organizations, which arrange for on-the-
job, or attachment training in small units, where the entrepreneurs gets practical know
how and guidance on how to operate and manage an enterprise. The three components
of training mentioned above can be depicted as a 3S Model of Entrepreneurship
Development, shown in Figure 4.7, where the three S’s stand for stimulate, support
and sustain.

100
 a) Entrepreneurial education Entrepreneurship and
Food Service Management
b) Planned publicity for entrepreneurial opportunities
c) Identification of potential entrepreneurs through scientific method
d) Motivational training to new entrepreneurs
e) Help and guidance in selecting products and preparing project reports
f) Making available techno-economic information and products profits
g) Evolving locally suitable new products and processes
h) Availability of local agencies with trained personnel for entrepreneurial counseling and
promotions
i) Creating entrepreneurial forum

1) Registration of unit
2) Arranging finance
3) Providing land, shed, power, water etc.
4) Guidance for selecting & obtaining machinery
5) Supply of scarce raw materials
6) Getting licences/import licences
7) Providing common facilities
8) Granting tax relief or other subsidy
9) Offering management consultancy
10) Help marketing product
11) Providing information

1) Help modernization
2) Help diversification/expansion/substitute production
3) Additional financing for full capacity utilization
4) Deferring repayment/interest
5) Diagnostic industrial extension/consultancy source
6) Production units legislation/policy change
7) Product reservation/creating new avenues for marketing
8) Quality testing and improving services
9) Need based common facilities center

Figure 4.7: Entrepreneur development cycle

Thus we have seen that intervention as an approach involves introduction of

concrete activities to develop and promote entrepreneurship. These activities
could be (a) Training (b) Consultancy, and (c) Sectoral Intervention. We have
reviewed the training component in the last section. Next, let us study about consultancy.

B) Consultancy
There are other interventions, which will supplement for a more complete and fuller
development of entrepreneurship development. Small entrepreneurs not only require
training but also need consultancy and extension services as well. What do we mean
by consultancy?

Consultancy as defined by M.Kubr as “the service provided by an independent and

qualified person or persons (an organization) in identifying and investigating
problems concerned with strategy, organizational procedures, and methods
recommending appropriate actions and helping to implement these recommendations.”

Consultancy begins when an entrepreneur, seeks the advice of a consulting organization

or when field consultants visit a small firm and makes contact with the owner-
101
Entrepreneurship and Food manager. After the initial rapport is established the consultant studies the operation
Service Management of the firm, analyses the strengths and weaknesses and suggests measures to improve
its operations. In particular, the need for consultancy in developing countries is acutely
felt by small businesses, which cannot afford to hire the services of specialized staff
to perform various management functions.

The last component of intervention as an approach to entrepreunership development

includes sectoral intervention. Let us get to know about this next.

C) Sectoral Intervention
As a vehicle for developing entrepreneurship, sectoral intervention, singles out a
particular sector or industry for development. On the basis of its potential and
contribution to the economy, an industry is identified and is then provided with all
kinds of assistance it needs: finance, training, marketing and technology.

An important part of sectoral development however, is the setting up of industry desks

manned by consultants. These desks serve as media or channels to facilitate the
disseminations of technical and process information required by entrepreneurs in the
selected growth industry. The technical information made available to entrepreneurs,
generally includes: state-of-the art reviews, market shows, feasibility studies, case
studies, laws and regulations, patent information and others. The adoption of this
sectoral intervention improves the delivery system for entrepreneurship development
and at the same time increases the number of recipients of the services.

The food processing industry sector in India is one of the largest in terms of
production consumption, export and growth prospects. Through a number of fiscal
reliefs and incentives to encourage commercialization, the Government through the
Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MOFPI), has accorded this sector a very high
priority. As a result of several policy Initiatives undertaken by the Government since
1991, the industry has witnessed fast growth in most segments. As per the latest data
available, the Indian gourmet food market is estimated at US$ 1.3 billion during the
financial year, 2017 (April 2016) and is growing at a compound annual growth rate
(CAGR) of 20%. India's organic food market is expected to increase by three times
by 2020. (Source: APEDA Export Statistics and Annual Report 2017-18, MOFPI).
Details relating to schemes, policies and sectoral incentives offered by the Government
of India can be obtained directly from the Ministry of Food Processing Industries,
Panchsheel Bhawan, August Kranti Marg, New Delhi – 110049, or by logging on to
their website: www.mofpi.nic.in

With sectoral intervention we end out study of the approaches to entrepreunership

development. Let us recapitulate what we learnt in this section.

RECAP:
1) These significant approaches to entrepreneurship development are (a) selective
method (b) shotgun method, and (c) multiplier method.
2) Intervention as an approach will include Training, Consultancy and Sectoral
Intervention (Govt. Schemes and Incentives)
3) Four important stages in Entrepreneurship development are (a) Selection and
Training (b) Pre Investment (c) Operational, and (d) Post Launch evaluation.
4) Training as an intervention follows the 3S model – Stimulate, Support, Sustain.
Let us further take up an exercise to check our knowledge up till now. Answer the
questions given in check your progress exercise 3.

102
 Entrepreneurship and
Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Food Service Management
1) Briefly enumerate the three basic approaches to entrepreneurship development?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Explain the following in 3-4 lines
a) Consultancy
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
b) Management skills development
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
c) Achievement motivation as an intervention
..........................................................................................................

We shall end our study on entrepreneurship development by reviewing few

entrepreneurial case studies given at the end of the unit.
But next, let us review another interesting aspect i.e. merchandising skills required
specially for entreprenurs.

4.6 MERCHANDISING SKILLS SPECIALLY FOR

ENTREPRENEURS
In this section, we will focus on the merchandising skills especially for entrepreneurs
in the catering venture. Before we begin, let us first understand what we mean by
the term merchandising. Merchandising refers to the promotion of merchandise sales,
as by coordinating production and marketing and developing advertising, display, and
sales strategies. In this section we shall review these aspects, skills required for
merchandising. Let us begin with the first skill which deals with know your client.

4.6.1 Know Your Client

Selling services is much more difficult than selling a tangible item. Catering services
are especially tough because its such a significant monetary output for the buyer and
because it is often a significant event in the buyer’s life, something that can never be
rectified if it is not perfect. The possibility of a bad choice in a once-in-a-lifetime
event, like a wedding causes enormous stress. Even if it is a small bunch of 15 guests,
a poorly chosen caterer can turn the event into a disaster or, at the least, an acute
embarrassment to both guests and host.
In other services, like shoe repair, the biggest consequence is annoyance for poor
service and the fault is usually easy to remedy. At stake is a relatively small amount
of money. For catering even the smallest event, hundreds of rupees are on the line,
and for larger events thousands are at stake. To add to the pressure, the merchandise
is not returnable for exchange.
Whether you decide to do your own selling or hire a part-time sales representative,
the average scenario for a typical sales transaction in catering is the same:
a) At your first contact with the potential buyer, you determine qualifications
(a quick personal assessment of the person and a few questions will tell you if
you are in the same category)
103
Entrepreneurship and Food b) At the first or a subsequent meeting early on, you discuss the proposed event
Service Management in detail, the type of menu, service, and available dates.
c) There is often further discussion with the client, kitchen manager, or you about
specific menu selection, service required, and the particulars.
d) At this point, you prepare a written proposal for the client. (You may have to
adjust this proposal after the client’s initial approval.)
e) The client confirms the event and hands you the deposit.
You or your salesperson should determine a number of selling points for your specific
business. Chances are, you have a niche, some kind of unusual or even unique angle
which makes your business different. You may have a number of unique “signature”
food or beverage items, or perhaps an outstanding way of presenting food, or you
may be known for serving the healthiest food in town, or using the freshest ingredient.
Any of these can be a selling point to help convince the buyer that you will be the
best caterer for his or her event. Stress that their guests will be impressed by having
you as a caterer because no one else in town can do it, as well as, you can. Any
host or hostess, business or social, will want to impress the guests. After all, that is
one reason to hire a caterer.
Now then how do you go about this activity? Here are a few measures identified.
1) Create a Photo Portfolio to show Client
Assemble an impressive collection of your photographs in a neat, professional looking
portfolio. Large high-end caterers tend to produce the glossy, four colour, brochures
and professionally produced commercial photos of their events. Smaller caterers want
to give a less expensive look, something that does not scare prospective clients away
by giving a “too expensive” look to your business. But the other extreme, printing
menus very inexpensively on cheap paper and with an unimpressive layout, is equally
unacceptable. Your client may think your food matches the quality and care you put
into producing the brochure. It is best to aim somewhere in between. Your decision
should be based on type of catering you want to develop, the type of client you want
to please, and current trends at the time you open your business.
Recently, marketing experts have favoured good quality snapshots for caterers as the
best selling tools. The photos should show your staff in uniform to work, some of
your food displays, and quests munching away. The better dressed the guests, the
more suitable the photo. Limit the number of photos in your portfolio so anyone can
page through within half a minute. Letters of recommendation are also good additions,
as well as, anything else you feel you should include. Don’t crowd it and don’t make
it overwhelming. The photos could be of different sizes, neatly mounted, with or
without labels, with your own personal touch. The clients should feel that the port-
folio was not produced by a commercial enterprise. It is a simple collection of
snapshots of your typical events.
It is best to produce two or more copies of your portfolio – one for your office, and
one for each salesperson. You may not need more than one copy, but a spare may
come in handy from time to time.
2) Business Cards and Menus
There are two other essential items : business cards and catering menus. The choices
in each are very personal and it is not easy to give suggestions on styles and how
much you want to spend on them. For caterers they range from simple to lavish.
Naturally, the more high-end your business is the more elaborate your printed material
becomes. In times of economic hardship, clients may not be impressed by three-
coloured glossy menus: they suggest high-cost catering.
Recent trends favour simple yet tasteful business cards and menus. The best approach
is to collect your competitor’s business cards and menus and see what they produce.
Have a friend call around if you don’t want your name be known to the competition
104 and ask for all information from them. That may help you decide what sort of
literature you want for your business. Besides business cards and menus, you need Entrepreneurship and
some general information that very briefly tells the prospective client what sort of food Food Service Management
and services can be expected from your catering company. The help of a marketing
expert would be useful in this task.
3) Choose Your Clients Well
One has to be cautions about one pitfall many beginning entrepreneurs won’t escape
– taking all the business that comes your way. Be discriminating, even if things are
extremely slow. There is nothing less rewarding that working with an impossible client.
Start qualifying your clients immediately. At first, many client can be tense and too
demanding, knowing more about cooking, food, and catering than you do. But slowly
they ease up when they see that they can trust you and that you are sincere. Some,
however, will never soften up. They still keep telling you how to do your business,
that your prices are unreasonable, and insist on your providing such and such a menu
in spite of your explanation that fresh sautéed fillet of catfish is not only impractical
for 95 guests, but virtually impossible. Do not waste your time with these types of
clients. It may be best to refer then to your competitor.
Other potential clients you don’t want to spend a lot of your time on are the ones
without sufficient funds to pay for your services. Try to qualify these right away, even
though it can be tricky. If you are a good salesperson, you can do it in no time. As
soon as the budget looks questionable, send them politely on their way to a budget
caterer. If you are already a budget caterer, send them to the supermarket.
As you work more and more with potential clients, you will develop your gut feelings
about which clients you want and which ones you don’t. Be suspicious when a client
drastically changes a previously agreed upon arrangement, or when the promised
deposits are not sent to you in spite of several phone calls or letters, or when the client
appears to be unhappy with you. These are the occasions when it is best not to accept
the event and even refund the deposit.
If you already have a heavy commitment during the time of the proposed event,
refuse, no matter how good a client it is. Don’t ever over commit yourself and your
staff, no matter how lucrative it appears.
Even though catering is difficult to sell, one powerful advantage you have over other
business, as well as, a good tool, is the food you can offer to visiting potential clients.
If you are visiting the client, take a little plateful of samples. It is a very convincing
selling argument.
Of course, there are numerous sales gimmicks, techniques that apply to any business
and those which apply to catering only. This is an area where you or your salesperson
can benefit from books or seminars on selling techniques.
Having looked at the measures which when adopted can help us know our client and
introduce our service to them, next, let us review other merchandising skills.

4.6.2 Responding to Requests

Most of your first contacts with a potential buyer will probably be telephone requests
for information. If you have a display ad in the Yellow Pages, you will get many calls.
Most of the callers from this source are price shoppers who call every business with
a display ad. Some of them are blunt enough to say that all they want to know is
how much a meal costs. These calls are generally a complete waste of time and money
for a caterer, who won’t ever bother to send out the requested literature to the callers.
Of course, before you disregard such a buyer, you are going to question him or her
a little further. You can quickly get enough information to decide what to do with the
call.
If you have a salesperson, pass the information on and delegate him or her to take
care of it. If you are your own salesperson, send out a menu, which may be fixed
or a sample, either with a cover letter addressed personally to the buyer, or a prepared
information sheet about your business as illustrated in Figure 4.8. 105
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management SAMPLE # 1 : COVER LETTERS
August 3, 20- -
Ms. Rita Vaid
Food Distributing Company
100 Janpath Street
New Delhi

Dear Ms. Vaid

Thank you very much for your interest in Mittal Catering’s services. We are proud of
our reputation for quality food and service since 1994 and our prices make us
indisputably the area’s finest catering value! As Sameena from the Barrister Club put
it:
“The participants were quite complimentary and you and your staff prepared great food
and handled the occasion in a very professional manner.”
In catering you get what you pay for. At Mittal Catering our prices insure many things
such as fresh, high-quality foods, sanitary preparation, on-time delivery, generous
portions, and many small extras. And Mittal Catering is the only caterer in town
approved by the Great Plains Heart Institute’s Dine Right programme.
Our client includes both large and small corporations with one thing in common:
demand for fine food and good service.
Please call us at 555-7777.
Sincerely,

Ajay Agarwal, Manager

Mittal Catering Company
35 Qutub, Road
New Delhi
SAMPLE #2: CONTINUED
August 3, 20- - -
Mr. Prabhu Dayal
100 Welfare Park
New Delhi

Dear Mr. Prabhu

Thank you very much for your interest in Mittal Catering’s services. We are proud of
our reputation for quality food and service since 1994 and our prices make us
indisputably the area’s finest catering value! Mr. and Mrs. Khanna put it best when they
wrote us after their daughters wedding:
“Thank you and your crew for a job well done. You made our day very special indeed.”
Our very talented chefs have a wide range of creativity and skills. The food we prepare
represents many years of recipe testing. We are quite conscious of the current need
for lower cholesterol, fats, less sugar, and salt. That’s why we are proud that we are
the only caterer in town approved by the Great Plains Heart Institute’s Eat Right
programme.
In catering you get what you pay for. At Mittal Catering our prices insure many things
such as fresh, high-quality foods, sanitary preparation, on-time delivery, generous
portions, and many small extras. We are aware of the current recession worries and
if your catering budget is not what you could like to have, we can suggest more
economical ways without cutting corners in quality.
I will do everything I can to make sure you are absolutely satisfied with our services.
Call us at 555-7777.
Sincerely,

Ajay Agarwal, Manager

106 Figure 4.8: Sample cover letter
Certainly a personal letter gives a far better impression. It should explain everything Entrepreneurship and
about the company, the type of business you do, the kind of food you serve, the Food Service Management
serving staff, and whatever else may help to convince the buyer to become a client.
It is best to have at lest two standard letters, one for corporate, and one for social
clients, since each type of buyer may be convinced by a somewhat different approach.
Right now, testimonials are in vogue in selling and marketing, so you may want to
include the kind and complimentary words of a client who wrote a letter of appreciation
to you.

Cover letters are very individual and it is advised strongly that you make up your own.
However, the examples shown in Figure 4.8. Sample #1 may help you start the
process of writing yours. Selling and marketing trends to change with time, so stay
alert and change your letters when necessary. Your receive a lot of unsolicited mail,
like everyone else, and this is a good indicator of the latest promotional approaches.

Form letters on your computer don’t have to be sent out unaltered. In fact, it is a
good idea to include something in them that refers specifically to your telephone
conversation with the buyer. That way the letter does not look quite so cold and
impersonal, even though everyone knows that it is reproduced by the touch of a few
buttons.

How should you handle price requests? Most experienced salespeople say you never,
ever give out prices on the telephone. Anyone who is calling for prices is simply a
price comparison shopper. You don’t want their business unless your focus is on large,
low-budget catering. These callers have a little potential in using your services. You
can answer a request for prices by offering to spend a complimentary half hour with
the buyer in your office to discuss the upcoming event. Explain that once you gather
ore information, you will be glad to give him or her a proposal or a price. Tell the
caller that you feel the telephone is not a satisfactory medium for discussing the event.
If the buyer is willing to meet with you, it is worth a half hour of your time to purse
the matter further.
Next, let us get to know how to market the business

4.6.3 Marketing Your Business

There are many marketing ideas in catering. These are enumerated in this sub-section.
1) Identify Your Market
Marketing runs parallel to selling, and both are essential to continued success. If you
are fortunate, your salesperson is good at both selling and marketing. But some
salespeople don’t like to market and some marketers are not much interested in selling.

Many, but by no means all, standard marketing techniques apply to catering. Some
unique marketing approaches are needed to increase the chance for success in selling
your services. For example, it is generally agreed by most caterers and their sales/
marketing personnel that media advertising is of little value except when targeting very
specific markets. To verify this, scan your local newspapers or magazines. Rarely, if
ever, do you see a caterer advertising in these publications. The only exception is a
restaurant or deli (a shop selling delicatessen as salads or cooked meats etc.) whose
sideline business is catering. Banquet halls and hotels often advertise their facilities
with a word about their superb catering. Pure off-premise caterers put their marketing
dollars into more productive aeras.

There are innumerable marketing ideas in catering. Some ideas apply only to specific
kinds of catering. Clients who want catering fall into these five areas:
a) Corporate
b) Social 107
Entrepreneurship and Food c) Contract
Service Management
d) Wholesale
e) Budget
Focus your marketing money on the particular area(s) you want to target. No matter
what type of catering you do, you will likely market to more than one of these basic
categories. Most caterers will do both social and corporate catering. A few will do
contract only and a few will focus on budget only. Both contract and budget catering
are usually done by very large caterers whose food is produced in mass. An example
of contract catering is food service for an industrial cafeteria, where the contract is
of several years’ duration. In budget catering, food is prepared at the lowest possible
cost, packaged inexpensively, and distributed. Large volume is necessary to realize
profits since the profit margin is small. Making hundreds or thousands of sandwiches
for the lunch trade is an example. It can be profitable, perhaps even very profitable.
There are a number of books which specifically address this segment of the food
industry.

As a small caterer, you can market to the corporate, social and wholesale segments.
Corporate and social catering are the best mix. It is a good idea to some wholesale
catering (i.e., sell to a retailer). This business, though not very profitable, is steady
and fills in the voids between events. However, it does sometimes interfere with more
profitable business if you over commit on wholesale catering. Keep it to a reasonable
level or at least have a fair degree of flexibility with the client on delivery schedules
and amounts you supply.

In addition to these major marketing areas, there are certain catering niches that are
suitable for a small caterer. Any of these niches can be targeted for your business,
but don’t attempt to target too many of them. Each needs a specific body of expertise.

2) Be Sensitive to Your Client’s Needs

When marketing your business, you should keep in mind why your clients buy
catering services from you. Let’s look at the two major types of clients. Corporate
clients buy mainly out of necessity and for convenience. Food is needed for a working
luncheon, for instance. If the budget is really tight, they send out a secretary for deli
trays, bread, packaged cookies, chips and cold drinks. Unless you can compete with
supermarket prices, you don’t want to target this type of business. Some companies
call in caterers to impress clients – for open houses, grand openings, ground breaking
ceremonies, and other festive occasions when the budget is generous enough to
provide high quality catering.

Finally, corporations use catering services to reward their employees. This is usually
only once a year, during the holiday season. Some also provide company picnics in
the summer. These tend to be fairly traditional events and the budget varies a great
deal, depending on how the company is doing in its profits and how generous the boss
feels toward his or her employees. Picnics are relatively low-priced, very causal affairs
where standard picnic fare is expected. When caterers are called in for this service,
it is for convenience and to save time and work, not for prestige. Holiday season
events are much more festive and caterers are relied on because a festive meal is not
easy to prepare.

Social catering clients have a variety of needs, too. Caterers save time and work and
guests are impressed with the presence of uniformed servers, perhaps a chef in the
kitchen, and the presentation and quality of the food. Many of the clients who demand
elaborate and lavish cuisine want to compete with their friends and relatives, to show
who can afford to provide this luxury and who can afford a more elegant service.
This is especially true for celebration parties and weddings. But some social clients
are only looking for convenience and necessary in hiring a caterer.
108
Your targeted clients’ needs should be the focal point of your marketing strategy. Your Entrepreneurship and
marketing person or you should spell out and emphasize that these are among the Food Service Management
needs that your company will satisfy when you are hired to do a client’s event.

3) Letters of Recommendation and Testimonials

If you provide excellent service and exceptional food, you will occasionally receive
unsolicited letters of recommendation. These are wonderful to have, both for your ego
and for promoting your business. Occasionally, you can mention to an especially
pleased client that letters of recommendation are very welcome. It provides you with
excellent fuel for your marketing efforts. Use quotes from these letters as testimonials.

Advertising testimonials are in vogue. You see them in newspaper and magazine ads,
on billboards, and television commercials. Marketing personnel say that testimonials
sell products. Notice that the name of the person being quoted is always mentioned.
Use this marketing tool to promote your catering service. You may or may not need
to ask for permission to quote from a letter in your promotional material. Use your
best judgment in each particular situation, but err on the side of caution. These letters
should definitely be a part of your sales portfolio.
Next, let us review the pros and cons of advertising.

4.6.4 Pros and Cons of Yellow Pages Advertising

What about advertising in the Yellow Pages? This is a controversial issue among
caterers. Opinions differ and that shows you that this type of advertising is not a sure
success for developing new business. You cannot imagine a locksmith, a plumber, or
a restaurant without a prominent Yellow Pages ad. When someone is looking for a
locksmith or a plumber, chances are the first place he or she will look is in the Yellow
Pages. Not so for caterers. Someone interested in purchasing catering services tries
to remember a catered event he or she attended or the name of someone who deals
with caterers who can recommend one. The Yellow Pages are a last resort.
People shopping for prices will go to the Yellow Pages and call up every caterer listed
for the type of event they have in mind. Those are nuisance calls for all the caterers
who don’t get the job, a waste of time and money to send the menu off to the caller.
Many callers will use up more than five minutes of your time on the phone. They
want a free consultation, with numerous questions about how you would do the event,
what is included, and the cost of each part. You have to decide how much time you
can take educating the general public in the proper use of a caterer. Because of the
numerous shopping-for-price calls, many caterers choose to be listed inconspicuously
in the Yellow Pages.
However, some sales and marketing people claim they can get business out of Yellow
Page callers. If you employ one of these people, maybe you should run a larger ad.
But remember, a smallish display ad in the Yellow Pages will cost you at least a sum
of money which translates into a huge amount to annually. Can you get that much
business out of the Yellow Pages, just to break even? Or can you find a better
marketing tool in which to invest, one that gives you a better return? This is your
decision.
Since you must have a business telephone, you will get a listing in the Yellow Pages
with the price of the phone. The general feeling among caterers is that the more high-
end they are, the smaller the Yellow Pages ad should be. A caterer’s reputation travels
best by word-of-mouth. As well, very few of the callers who saw the ad will have
a budget or interest in high-end catering.
Low-end and medium-quality caterers will benefit more from the large display ads.
They need volume. They are also the type of caterer most callers are looking for. This
is my opinion. Check other sources to help you determine what is most appropriate
for your business. 109
Entrepreneurship and Food Client feedback you would realize is the best advertisement for the venture. Let us
Service Management read the next sub-section and find out more on this aspect.

4) Client Feedback
A good idea to help you get feedback from your clients is an annual survey. It is a
strategy many businesses use, no matter how large or small. It is especially good when
you really don’t know why your business takes a sudden downturn. You’ll find out
if clients don’t like your product, or if your prices are too high, or if the competition
is cutting your market share. You may find it is simply that the economy has turned
to vinegar and the first things your clients cut from their budgets are non-essentials
like catering.

The cost of a survey is relatively low. Make up an intelligent questionnaire and send
it to a small number of your clients along with a self-addressed, stamped return
envelope. Expect a return rate of 15% to 20% from the survey. The number you send
out could be a dozen or hundreds, depending on your client base. The answers are
very useful in finding the problem, especially if you allow clients to return them
anonymously. If the results point to your service or product, correct the problem
quickly.

Surveys must be brief. Most clients will not take them as intrusions; on the contrary,
they feel that you care about their needs and requirements, that you want to serve
them better. To add emphasis to this concept, you may want to start with the phrase,
“in our continuing effort to serve you better….”
Finally, a word about competition.
Figure 4.9 illustrates the sample of a cover letter that accompanies the questionnaire
and Figure 4.10 shows a client questionnaire.

SAMPLE #3 : COVER LETTER FOR CLIENT QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Client :

In reviewing our accounts, we noticed that we have not received an order from
your company for some time. We hate to lose a good client.

We feel it’s important to keep informed of our customers’ responses to our food
and service so we can continue to serve them well. It is particularly important
that we learn who old clients no longer order from us.

Won’t you please help us by completing the following questionnaire and returning
it to us in the enclosed stamped envelope? It will only take a minute and your
answers are invaluable to us.

Thank you and we hope you’ll be placing an order with us soon.

Sincerely,

Ajay Agarwal, Owner.

Figure 4.9: Cover letter for client questionnaire

110
 Entrepreneurship and
SAMPLE #4 : CLIENT QUESTIONNAIRE Food Service Management

DOUGH CATERING

Questionnaire

Why did you stop ordering from us? (Check all that apply).

 Dissatisfied with quality of product

 Prices are too high
 Dissatisfied with service
 No longer using catering services
 Other (Please explain) ————————————————————
—————————————————————————————

—————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————————

What will it take to get your business back?

———————————————————————————————

———————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————————

———————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————————

———————————————————————————————

Figure 4.10: Client questionnaire

Finally a word about competition.

4.6.6 Competition
Caterers are as thick as flies in most communities, particularly larger cities. There is
plenty of competition. Catering is a business that a lot of people think they want to
get into. Then they discover how tough it is.
Your competition is going to be intense. If you have your niche, then you eliminate
a great number of those listed in the Yellow Pages who don’t have that same niche.
But your competitors will still number in the dozens. To learn more about your
competition, look at their brochures and menus. Pretend you are a client and have
an event coming up and ask for their literature, even a price list or proposal, if that
is the only way you can get it. Having that information for comparison is invaluable.
Or offer to give your clients a small added service in exchange for proposals they
garnered from your competitors.
Friendly cooperation among caterers is very desirable but difficult to achieve. It is
particularly ideal when two or three caterers complement each other’s services; for
example, one can only do smaller events, the other is set up for larger ones. These 111
Entrepreneurship and Food two caterers can refer business to each other without hurting their own, and at the
Service Management same time solve a caller’s problem, which is the goal if you’re tuned into marketing
techniques.
Call up the owners of a few catering companies and suggest a mutual visit to each
other’s facilities with a friendly coffee and chat. Something like this can be beneficial
to everyone, not only for referral business, but also for shared equipment, expertise
on a specialized subjects (e.g. How do you make black pasta), exchanged operational
information (e.g., Where do you get your specially produce in town?), and kitchen,
bar tending, or serving help in an emergency.
Friendly cooperation may not be possible, but try it. You may find one or two caterers
in your neighbourhood who agree that cooperation can be mutually beneficial. Most,
of course, will consider you a competitor and refuse to talk.
Any catering association in town may be worthwhile to join if the meetings provide
you with useful information. It is a good way to meet other caterers, get a feel for
what is going on in catering in the area, and monitor trends and problems in the field.
However, catering associations are generally geared to help and serve the large caterers
– those in huge hotel chains, institutions, banquet halls, and caterers running a large-
volume business. Most caterers will learn little, if anything, from their meetings and
large caterers tend to disregard you anyway.
With this we end our study on merchandising skills. We hope as an entrepreneur you
would try to imbibe these skills which would help to promote your venture.

4.7 LET US SUM UP

This unit focused on the conceptual perspective of entrepreneurship, the characteristics,
approaches and the process of entrepreneurship development. We learnt that
entrepreneurship is the dynamic process of creating incremental wealth. This wealth
is created by individuals who assume risks in terms of equity, time, and/or career
commitment of providing value for some product or service. Thus entrepreneurs bring
resources together in unusual combinations to generate profits. Psychologists view
entrepreneurs in behavioural terms as achievement oriented individuals, driven to seek
challenges and new accomplishments. Very often the terms “Creativity” and “Innovation”
are used in the context of entrepreneurship. In this unit we learnt about the creative
and innovative process. Further the business requirement for food products was
elaborated with good insight to how to manage the business. Finally the various
approaches to entrepreneurship development were discussed, namely the selective
method, the shotgun method, the multiplier method and intervention as an approach.

4.8 GLOSSARY
Entrepreneurship : the dynamic process of creating incremental wealth.
Creativity : the ability to bring something new into existence. It emphasizes
ability, not activity.
Innovation : it is the process of doing new things. The focus, here is on
action or activity.
Incubation : allowing an idea to develop in the subconscious mind, without
the interference of human logic.
Labeling : printed information on a product container which includes;
contents, quality, ingredients, date & place of manufacture,
validity etc.
Marketing : the process of identifying and satisfying the needs and wants
of chosen customers through an exchange of value.
Cash Flow : indicates the amount of cash coming in (receivables) and the
112 amount going out (payables).
 Entrepreneurship and
4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Food Service Management
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) While an entrepreneur has a large number of identifiable characteristics, some of
the significant characteristics of a successful entrepreneur are: Self confident and
optimistic, able to take calculated risk, respond positively to challenges, flexible
and able to adapt, knowledge of markets, able to get along with others.
2) Some sources of new product ideas are : (a) Present work environment,
(b) Vision of opportunity (c) Improving existing technology, product, service
(d) Brain storming (e) Trade publications (f) Focus groups (g) Technology transfer
agencies.
3) Idea generation is the seeding stage of a new idea. An individual’s interest or
curiosity about a specific problem or area of study can lead to idea generation.
Ideas for new market offerings can come from any of the following sources:
(a) Present work environment, (b) Vision of opportunity (c) Improving existing
technology, product, service (d) Brain storming (e) Trade publications (f) Focus
groups (g) Technology transfer agencies.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) The three basic questions an entrepreneur needs to consider include:
WHAT is the entrepreneur’s product ?
HOW will this product be processed and packaged ?
WHO will be the ultimate consumer of the product/service ?
2) The Elements of the Marketing Mix are the 4P’s i.e.:
Product – What is being sold and how it is packaged.
Price – How much is the product being sold for ?
Place – How will the product reach the end user. This process is commonly
known as distribution.
Promotion – Also known as Marketing communication. How will the customers
get to know about the product and make them want to buy it.
3) A business plan is the backbone of a business. This document guides the entrepreneur
at three critical junctures: (a) It simplifies decision making during terms of crisis,
(b) It is the road map at points of indecision and (c) it is a motivational guide
during setbacks and down turns.
4) All food labels must have the following mandatory information: product identity,
net quantity, ingredients, manufacturing details and universal product code. It can
have other neccessary information too.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) The approaches to entrepreneurship development include the selective method, the
shotgun approach and the multiplier method. Refer to sub-section 4.5.2 and give
the details related to these approaches on your own.
2) a) Consultancy is the service provided by an independent and qualified person
or persons (an organization) in identifying and investigating problems concerned
with strategy, organizational procedures, and methods recommending appropriate
actions and helping to implement these recommendations.
b) Management skill development refers to management skills to deal with
management problems of the enterprise.
c) Within achievement motivation as an intervention, entrepreneurs undergo
training which is designed to increase their levels of confidence and achievement
orientation. The training aims at developing in the individual, proper
psychological preparation and mental attitudes towards business endeavours.
113
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management CASE STUDY I: FOOD BUSINESS ON A LOW
INVESTMENT
While a sizeable number of food ventures require a reasonably high investment in real
estate, equipment and establishment costs, it is not uncommon to come across such
businesses which require low start up capital, as this case will show.

Mr. Rajesh Ratra had a small restaurant, before he started catering that was frequented
by bachelors. They liked his food and asked him if he could pack and deliver lunches
for them. The idea appealed to him and he agreed. The food that he packed was
liked by their colleagues in office and within days the office asked him if he could
cater for the entire organization.

Initially he started with an investment of Rs.3,000–4,000, out of which a large part

was spent on tiffin boxes and raw material. But with big orders coming his way within
days of starting his catering service he had to increase his investment substantially.
He bought over 150 tiffin boxes, bigger cooking utensils and larger burners that cost
him around Rs.30,000–40,000. But the investment was a safe bet as the orders were
small. Luckily for him his initial clients were in multistoried buildings and each day
resulted in new queries about his food, many of which translated into orders.

The advantage about catering business is that while marketing, almost all offices that
the supplier visits, at least sample the food and if the quality and taste are better than
those of the existing caterers, the chances of getting the order are high. But on the
flip side, other caterers will dent your profit margins too. So maintenance of extremely
high quality food, good service and continuous improvement is a prerequisite in this
profession. Though the number of orders keep varying from week to week and month
to month, the profit margins are by and large good. The higher the number of orders
the higher the margins of profit. On an average though a lunch box costs anywhere
from Rs.35 to Rs.55/- depending on the order the profit margins are anywhere
between 40 to 60% depending on the number of orders and the entrepreneur’s
business acumen. Established caterers also get credit facility from retailers. Further,
most often the payments vary from cash to month long credit facility as the case may
be. Though marketing in catering may not be very difficult, handling quality through
labour may be a tough job. So it is advisable to get some training in food and catering
services if one is not natural at cooking.

According to Rajesh Ratra, one important aspect of catering is hard work for you have
to buy fresh vegetable early in the morning. Your labour too starts work before sun
rise so as to be able to cater lunch in time. Early to rise may not necessarily mean
early to bed as marketing of your products can not be put on the back burners either.
So all in all it demands 100% from you but promises good returns if you are sincere
and earnest to the call of catering.

Now here are a few questions for you to ponder upon.

Questions:
1) What is the secret of Mr. Rajesh Ratra’s success ?
2) What form of promotion is employed by Mr. Ratra in his business ?
Answer these questions as this will help you conceptuliaze the case study better.
Now move on to the next case study.

114
 Entrepreneurship and
CASE STUDY II: HOME BASED CATERING Food Service Management

Mrs. Vijaylaxmi was a working woman till her son was born. Torn between a full
time job and a baby to care for, she chose the latter over the former. But with the
passage of time she found more time on her hands and started looking for fresh
avenues. Known for her cooking, family and friends encouraged her to take up
catering. Drawn towards children from the very beginning, her first thought as an
entrepreneur was to contact schools to supply midday meals for them.

Vijaylaxmi knew that catering for children gave her no scope for a slip up and the
quality of her food had to be perfect each time. A daily change in the menu and
precision of time were other prerequisites. So she made a 15 day menu and served
a wide range of lunches from puri aloo to paushtik dalia to khichri to nutritious idlis
and sandwiches to keep the children interested. To be doubly sure of the products
she used, she would consume the food that she made at least 3 hours before the
children got a chance to eat it. So if any product happened to be adulterated it would
first affect her. The principal too tasted the food an hour to 45 minutes before feeding
the same to the children.

Apart from mental satisfaction it was also financially rewarding. Because of her family
commitments Vijaylaxmi refuses to expand her business at this stage but she is able
to earn a comfortable pocket money that is enough for her for the time being.

Catering for the theme parties are another easy option to expand business and get
quick returns. If your food is good, your existing clients will approach you from time
to time to cater for parties, family get together etc. The best thing about such theme
parties is of course immediate returns.

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management UNIT 5 FOOD MANAGEMENT: MENU PLAN-
NING — FOCAL POINT OF ALL
ACTIVITIES IN FOOD SERVICE ES-
TABLISHMENTS
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Importance of Menu and Menu Planning in Food Service Organization
5.2.1 Definition and Functions of a Menu
5.2.2 The Need for Menu Planning
5.2.3 Knowledge and Skills Required for Planning Menu
5.3 The Types of Menu and its Applications
5.3.1 Types of Menus
5.3.2 Uses of Menus
5.4 Steps in Menu Planning and its Evaluation
5.4.1 Construction of Menu
5.4.2 How to Plan a Menu?
5.4.3 Characteristics of a Good Menu
5.4.4 Display a Menu
5.4.5 Evalaution of Menu
5.5 Let Us Sum Up
5.6 Glossary
5.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we were introduced to the concept of entrepreneurship and the
characteristics, which are basic for a successful entrepreneur. You might have realized
that any project to be successful should be planned properly and every phase of it
chalked out meticulously. The work centers should be determined on the bases of the
operations involved in the production of a finished product from its raw material. This
must have a sequential flow and ensure smooth operations. The activities that are
common in any type of food producing and serving unit are:
Menu planning → procurement → receiving → storage → preparation → production
→ holding/packing → service.
Food mangement is the ability to manage these activities so that work flows smoothly
to the point where the meal reaches the customer(s) and gives them physical,
physiological and emotional satisfaction. Menu planning is the “heart” of any food
service organization upon which all activity is centered. The menu determines the
foods to be purchased, the equipment needed and the personnel required etc. The
success of a food service organization is largely dependent on the menu. This unit
will focus on the importance of menu planning in food service organizations, the types
of menu’s and their applications, as well as, the steps in menu planning and finally
evaluation of the menu’s planned.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the importance and advantages of menu planning in food service
organizations,
116 • apply planning/organizing considerations to the menu planning process,
• identify the various types of menu’s commonly used in food service organizations Food Management: Menu
and select ones appropriate for the various need, Planning — Focal Point of
all Activities in Food
• plan different types of menus, and Service Establishments

• evaluate menus to ensure its appropriateness for customer satisfaction and for its
efficacy for various types of food service organizations.

5.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF MENU AND MENU

PLANNING IN FOOD SERVICE ORGANIZATION
Look at Figure 5.1, which outlines the typical operations in a food service establishment.
What do you notice? Yes, consumer needs and organizational objectives are the initial
driving force for a food service establishment. Menu is the one essential, critical focal
point of all activities in a food service establishment and requires careful planning. As
you may have noticed in Figure 5.1, it serves as a control and spells out the monetary
prerequisites for purchasing food, personnel and equipment for production and service.
The goal of the menu is to maximize resources to produce highest quality products
having greatest financial return.

Consumer Organizational
needs objectives

Menu Planning

M
E
N
U

Equipment Identifying Manpower

selection food material selection
needs

Production Service

Purchasing

Receiving

Figure 5.1: Flow chart of typical operations in a food service establishment

Let us then further elaborate on the functions of a menu, but first let us define menu.
5.2.1 Definition and Functions of a Menu
A menu is a list of dishes planned for production in a food service organization and
may include full meals, snacks or beverages either alone or in combinations. Planning
menu’s for the food service organization, as already mentioned above, is the most
important activity of food service organizations and based on what menus have to be
prepared and in which manner they have to be served will determine the entire
planning process of establishing a food service organization.
117
Entrepreneurship and Food So then menu lists the items offered for sale. Is there more to a menu! Let us find
Service Management out next under the functions of menu.

Functions of a menu
Besides serving as a control the menu is crucial in establishing a food service unit. It:
1) introduces the establishment to the customer,
2) helps in production of meals in the kitchen,
3) is a primary marketing device, which helps to prepare a purchase list for foods
and ingredients and forms the basis for establishing purchasing procedures,
4) determines the type of equipment, staff skills and the type of supervision required,
5) helps to organize spaces and work in stores, kitchens and service areas,
6) determines employees work schedule,
7) determines the style of service to be set up,
8) forms the basis for the calculation of food and labour cost, overhead expenses
and desired profits,
9) determines the amount of space required for seating, storing, purchasing and
preparation,
10) reflects the type of customer the establishment wishes to attract,
11) satisfies the needs of the customer for adequate nutrition, remove hunger, as well
as, fulfill their social and psychological needs, and
12) introduces interesting food combinations to customers, and through specialty
foods imparts knowledge of the foods eaten in different states, countries and
cultures.
Let us now look at the basic need for planning a menu.

5.2.2 The Need for Menu Planning

Planning of menus is essential when food has to be bought, prepared and served in
large quantities to people of various tastes, and requirements. The advantages of menu
planning are:
• It helps to provide appetizing, nourishing and attractive meals to customers at a
fair price. This is only possible if meals are planned in advance so that one can
buy in bulk and during peak seasons to get the best price at a reasonable cost.
• Planning menus helps to foresee the requirements accurately, so that advance
buying could be done as the quantities required of various food ingredients could
be calculated.
• Planning minimizes the food waste; fuel costs and helps in management of
leftovers effectively and creatively in the next day’s menus. For example, total
milk required for the menu can be boiled together and left over milk of the day
could be used for setting of the curds and curd leftover of the previous day could
be used as starter for curd setting or for making paneer, buttermilk, Kadhi etc.
• Planning saves times and efforts spent in purchasing, receiving and cooking and
frequent trips to the market. It helps in distribution of work throughout the day
rather than rushing during the peak hours as pre-preparations like cutting and
chopping of vegetables, making basic sauces or gravies etc.
• Planning helps to understand the popularity of various dishes on the menu and
helps in making accurate estimates of the servings that need to be prepared of
each item on the menu.
• Planning also offers an opportunity to serve wide variety of dishes including
seasonal varieties well in advance.
118
• Advance planning removes lot of anxiety of the manager and kitchen production Food Management: Menu
staff as clear cut instructions can be given in advance and kitchen staff is aware Planning — Focal Point of
all Activities in Food
of the instructions to be followed which helps to create harmony among people Service Establishments
at work. It also helps to continue work even in the absence of a manager, as the
staff knows what is to be done in various situations.
• Planning helps to estimate actual cost of the food item and inclusion of profitable
items on the menu. It also helps to determine the selling costs of the items and
helps in estimation of profits.
• Planning accounts for the seasonal fluctuations in determining the selling costs of
various food items throughout the year.
The success of a food service establishment thus depends heavily on those who plan
the menus and how it is served to the customer. Good menu planning requires a lot
of skills. What are these skills? Let us find out next.

5.2.3 Knowledge and Skills Required for Planning Menu

Before we get down to learn about the skills, can you suggest who plans or determines
the menu. Yes, usually it is the management or the owner of the establishment who
determines the menu. Other sources may include the cook/chefs or the customers.

The person responsible for planning a menu must be creative and imaginative and
must have wide knowledge of food, their availability in different seasons and their
cost, various ways in which the foods could be prepared and served and customers’
choices and preferences. He/she must have the ability to work within the confines of
the budget. Let us review these factors in greater detail.

Wide knowledge of foods

Good knowledge about different kind and varieties of foods, their seasonal availability,
nutritional and anti-nutritional factors, presence of toxic elements in certain food
varieties, the edible portions obtained for each food, colour, taste and flavour differences
and how they can be combined for meals, their acceptability and cost factors. Thus
the planner should be able to visualize food and its arrangement and should be able
to manipulate food to achieve the desired outcome.

Knowledge of different methods of preparing and serving foods

Knowledge of various cooking methods by which food could be prepared is essential,
similarly knowing how best a food could be served, as well as, what foods can be
cooked and served in large quantities is important. An awareness about the new
products and the trends is useful.

Knowledge of the methods of serving various types of foods

Serving of a meal with an aesthetic appeal is a very important component of food
service organization. Good knowledge of how the menu will be served while retaining
its colour, texture and appeal is an important consideration for planning a menu.

Knowledge of the customer

A planner should know consumer preferences. Food service organization has to decide
what type of customer it will like to attract. The menu thus has to be planned keeping
the customers preferences and choices in mind. A general idea of customer’s food
preferences, physiological requirements, paying capacity, social standing and the reasons
for eating out is essential for achieving customer satisfaction.

Remember, there must be sufficient time allowed for menu planning. A good menu
planning is described as one where planning is done in advance, preferably two weeks
minimum to allow necessary planning and ordering. We shall learn about the points
119
Entrepreneurship and Food to be considered in menu planning in a little while from now. Before we move on
Service Management to the study of the different types of menu’s, let us recapitulate what we have learnt
so far.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Define menu and list its five functions.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Why should one plan menus. Enlist five reasons.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Mention the types of knowledge and skills required to plan a good menu.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) Give reasons as to why is it necessary to know your customer before making
menus.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Now that you have a good insight into the importance of menu planning, let us now
get to know about the types of menus and their applications.

5.3 THE TYPES OF MENU AND ITS APPLICATIONS

When was it the last time you dinned out? Do you remember, what kind of food you
ordered? Chinese, Mughlai, Indian, Continental or was it a pure vegetarian meal. What
items did you select and how? Yes, that’s right the menu was the guiding factor. A
detail list of all dishes, food served and at times also the description of the dishes
certainly were a great help. While dinning out, you may have also noticed that a menu
can be offered in a variety of forms, each written in a manner that is designed to
suit the needs of the food service institution. In this section we shall get to know about
the different types of menus and their uses in a food service establishment.

5.3.1 Types of Menus

Menus can be planned for commercial operations such as restaurants, cafeterias,
buffet, fast foods etc. or for mid day meals or school lunch programmes or college
hostels etc. – all welfare operations. The objective of these welfare operations is to
provide nutritionally adequate and reasonable priced meals for the target groups and
to contribute to better understanding of good nutrition and foster good eating habits.
Besides these operations, menus are planned for college and university dining (hostels)
and for patients as in the hospital set-up or for employees as in the office canteens
etc.
120
Menus can be selective, static or set as in restaurants, can be cyclic or single use Food Management: Menu
menus or can be classified as A la Carte, table d’hote or du jour based on the pricing. Planning — Focal Point of
all Activities in Food
Basically, you would find that menus are classified as: Service Establishments
a) A la Carte d) Single use menu
b) Table d’hote, and e) Du Jour
c) Combination of the two f) Cyclic
Refer to Figure 5.2, which illustrates a few examples of menus. Let us understand
these menus by going through the discussion presented next.

A la Carte Menu (Choice menu)

In Figure 5.2, you would have noticed that a la Carte menu is basically a choice menu
and generally offers choice of dishes to customers. The choices can be under various
food categories such as appetizers/starters, soups, main dishes, side dishes, staples/
breads, salads, desserts, sandwiches, snacks and beverages etc. as also illustrated in
Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Choice menu
Beverages Sandwiches and Burgers/Hot Ice creams/
Snacks Dogs/Pizzas Desserts
Cold Drinks Club Sandwich Veg. Burger Ice creams
Cold Coffee Veg. Sandwich Cheese Burger Ice cream Sundays
Mocktails Cheese Sandwich Chicken Burger Ice cream with
Milk Shakes Chicken Sandwich Big Boy Burger hot chocolate sauce
Russian Sandwich Veg. Hot Dog Pineapple Souffle
Cheese Hot Dog Orange Souffle
Chicken Hot Dog Trifle Pudding

Thus it is clear that in ‘a la Carte’ menu a list of items is given on a menu card, and
a customer can select any item from the list. Each dish is priced separately so that
a choice can be made according to the taste and purchasing power of the customer.
The variety of dishes offered under the above-mentioned categories may vary according
to the type of organization, for example a cafeteria may have a very limited choice
while a restaurant may have a wide choice. These types of menus are generally
offered by profit making enterprises and are suitable for people who want to eat at
leisure, as the selected items can take a little long time in preparation because of the
wide choices offered in the menu. The advantage of this type of menu is that customer
can choose the items as per his own needs, moods and pocket.
Now let us review the table d’hote menu.
Table d’hote Menu (Table of the host)
This is basically a set menu in which the hosts plan number of dishes and food is
served and offered at a set price (for entire meal). A typical table d’hote menu, most
popular in India is the thali menu as illustrated in Figure 5.2 (c). These menus generally
do not provide any choice but slowly these menus are now being planned so as to
offer a limited choice to the customer. These types of menus are seen in clubs, hotels,
marriage parties, hostels, college canteens etc.
Having gone through the description above you may have got a clear idea about the
A la Carte and the table d’hote menu. You may sometimes come across a combination
menu. Let us find out what these are.
Combination Menu
The combination menu can take the form of a table d’hote menu with in built choices
as far as possible. Generally a la Carte menus with “special for the day” or “today’s
special”. These special may be dishes with an accompaniment or a plated meal offered
at a set price. Refer to Figure 5.2(b).
Next, let us understand the concept of cycle menu. 121
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management

a) A la Carte menu

Cream of Potato Soup

Sweet and Sour Soup
Mushroom and Tomato Soup

Vegetable Biryani
Rajma Chawal
Malai Kofta
Mattar Paneer
Tandoori Vegetables
Masala Naan Spec ial Thali Dishes
Gulab jamun
Rasmalai V egetarian Thali....Rs. 89
Rabri Jalebi Includes 10 items
Gujia
Shrikhand N on vegetarian Thali....Rs. 115
Includes 10 items
Coffee Expresso
b) ‘Special for the day’ menu c) Table d'hote menu
Figure 5.2: Different types of menus

122
Cyclic Menus Food Management: Menu
Planning — Focal Point of
Cyclic menus are menus, which are planned in advance for periods of time varying all Activities in Food
from five days to one month, which are then cycled or repeated at fixed intervals. Service Establishments
In case of hotels, hospitals, homes and institutions, menus are planned in advance for
periods of time varying from five days to one month. These are then cycled or
repeated. Such menus are termed as cyclic menus and are usually combination menus,
providing choices within a set framework. A sample of the cycle menu is given in
Table 5.2. Such types of menus are used for captive consumers whose numbers do
not fluctuate and budgets are limited. But note, short-term cycle menus like five day
or seven days menus can be unpopular because of menu fatigue and customers tend
to eat on the day their favourite dishes are served and may skip other days. Therefore
to improve the popularity of cyclic menus following points should be considered:
A) Planning should be done for odd number of days, so that a menu does not fall
on the same day of the week or same date of the month. Plans may be of 5,
9,11,23 days to prevent people from associating a particular menu with a particular
day of the week or particular date of a month.
B) A general menu structure may be set, but dishes changed to introduce variety.
For example, for a thali one could set a fixed structure like one main dish, two
side dishes, chappati, rice, sweet dish etc. but each day different types of these
dishes may be given. This also provides for flexibility to the planner, who can
mix and match foods and flavours according to stocks, seasonal availability,
budget, special occasions etc.
Table 5.2: A sample 5-day cycle menu for a college hostel

Breakfast Plate Lunch Tea/Snacks Dinner

Day 1 Paneer Stuffed parantha Kachori Chutney Vegetable Pulao,
Sandwich and Boondi Raita Tea/Coffee Biryani, Pakodi
Tea/Coffee Raita, Green Chutney
Fruit Sweet
Day 2 Vegetable Rice, Rajma and Idli and Chutney Puri,
Cutlet Vegetable Tea/Coffee Channa,
Bread with Boondi Raita,
Butter/Jam Salad
Tea/Coffee Sweet
Day 3 Vada and Uttapam, Dosa, Dhokla and Zeera Rice,
Sambar Sambar and Chutney Mixed Veg.
Bread with Chutney Tea/Coffee Subji
Butter/Jam Sweet
Tea/Coffee
Khadhi,
Day 4 Poha Bun Cake Plain Parantha,
Bread with Vegetable/Meat Tea/Coffee Dry Urad Dal
Butter/Jam Cutlet Mint Raita
Tea/Coffee Coleslaw/Salad Salad
Sweet
Day 5 Bread with Kulcha Chole Vegetable Bonda Onion Rice,
Butter Pickle Tea/Coffee Rajma, Aloo Gobi
Egg Omlette/ Salad Subji/Cucumber
Besan Cheela Raita
Tea/Coffee Sweet
Finally, a word about other menus.
Other Menu
Apart from the menus mentioned above, a menu can be a single-use menu, where
a menu is planned for just a day and is never repeated again in the same format,
123
Entrepreneurship and Food although certain food items and dishes can be teamed with other food item and can
Service Management be included later. The du jour menu also called as the menu of the day. Mostly these
menus are termed under ‘Today’s Special’. These menus are planned on a daily basis
and serves as a good means of using leftover food. This in turn is a way to conserve
money for a food service unit. Refer to Figure 5.2(c), which gives an example of ‘Du
Jour’ menu from a continental restaurant.

So we have looked at the various types of menus commonly used in a food service
establishment. Let us next, review the uses of menus.

5.3.2 Uses of Menus

Menus may be used in many ways, according to the requirements of the food service
organization. Menu planning requires time and efforts; it should not be changed very
frequently. A la Carte menus are not changed frequently as they contain a large variety
of dishes that can be offered, but table d’ hote menu are changed more frequently
to provide variety of set menus within the same price range.

Thus, a well-planned menu can be very effective tool of management, however, it

should have some flexibility to introduce seasonal variations, special needs of different
individuals and control costs.

Having gone through the discussion above we have a good idea about the types of
menu. Next, we shall review the steps involved in planning a menu. But first let us
check our understanding about the types of menu and their uses by answering the
questions given in check your progress exercise 2.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Fill in the blanks
a) A la Carte menu is basically a …………………………… menu.
b) Table d’ hote menu is basically a ………………….. menu in which
number of dishes are planned by the host
c) Combination menus are the combination of …………………and
………… menus.
d) A la Carte menu is normally served in ……………. .
e) Table d’ hote menu is normally served in ………………………
2) What do you understand by the word cyclic menus?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) What are the advantages of serving cyclic menus?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

124
 Food Management: Menu
4) Give reasons as to why cyclic menus are not popular. Planning — Focal Point of
all Activities in Food
................................................................................................................ Service Establishments

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
5) Suggest ways of improving the popularity of cyclic menus.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

5.4 STEPS IN MENU PLANNING AND ITS EVALUATION

From our discussion so far it must be evident that a menu serves as a guide to organize
the work in the kitchen and is indeed a very effective tool of management. Hence,
it is important that we plan the menu systematically. The points to be kept in mind
while planning a menu are elaborated next.

5.4.1 Construction of Menu

A menu is constructed in a systematic manner according to the following steps:
• Decide the suitable menu pattern, whether one wants fixed menu, a la Carte menu
or a selection of both. For example if we are planning a menu for a college hostel,
we would need to plan for a 3-4 meals/day pattern i.e. breakfast, lunch, tea and
dinner and that too a cycle menu as illustrated in Table 5.1 earlier. In case of
a restaurant perhaps an a la Carte menu may be required.
• Decide the degree of flexibility that needs to be kept in the menu.
• Decide on the main dish of the menu and side dishes can be planned around
it. The selected dishes should enhance the colour, texture, flavour and taste of
the meal.
• For cyclic menus ensure that the same food item or dish does not appear
consecutively on two or more days for example avoid using potatoes for a snack,
as well as, meals on the same day.
The aim of menu planning should be to create consistent menus in terms of their
quality characteristics, costs and their selling prices from day to day. Seasonal variations
and price fluctuations should be kept in mind while planning a menu and efforts should
be made to plan cheaper side dishes with main dish in which there are likely to be
fluctuations in price and vice versa, also care should be taken that the selected side
dishes compliment the main dish in terms of flavour, taste, colour and texture. When
choices are given ensure that all the choices offered have the same ‘value for money’,
however, variations in terms of different cooking methods, seasonings and garnishing
are welcome.

Selection of desserts should generally relate to the main course of the menu. For
example, if the main course is light, the dessert chosen can be rich and vice versa.
Various types of desserts which are normally included in the menu are: Fruity, hot and
cold puddings, cream or ice cream based, cakes, gelatins or pie based, souffles (egg
based), custards, Indian sweets like Kheer, Gulabjamuns, Halwas etc. The selection
of the dessert in the menu could be related to the rest of the menu and season of
serving should also be covered, for example, hot desserts are preferred in winters while
cold desserts are preferred in summers.
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Entrepreneurship and Food For a food service establishment serving full meals, meal timings can be specified for
Service Management serving main meals; however, all food service organizations do not serve meals. Small
cafeterias, canteens, mobile vans, fast food joints may not serve full meals but may
offer fixed mini meals, snacks and beverages. These types of food service organizations
are more popular in today’s times as people are now interested to have a quick meal
while working or traveling. Similarly, some menus served by an organization may be
same every day as these are most popular items and people love to eat the same thing
again and again. For example chat corners in India, where three four fixed chat items
are served everyday, or fast food joints like pizza hut or Mc Donald’s etc.

Menu planning is thus an art involving knowledge of not only the types of foods but
also their popularity amongst customers, creativity to use various types of service
styles to attract customers, initiative to plan something innovative etc. It is also
important to note that commercial food service (restaurants, cafetaria’s etc.) do not
need to be considered about meeting the nutritional needs of the clients. Profit is the
primary objective. But in resident or welfare food service (such as school lunch
programmes, hostels etc.) menus must be so planned to meet the nutritional needs
of the clients and may/may not generate profit.

5.4.2 How to Plan a Menu?

Menu planner must be able to visualize the presentation of the food on the plate, sense
the taste and aromas and judge texture and consistency in his/her mind. Before
planning a menu, the following basic points need to be considered:
A) The situation of the food service organization
The basic factors to be considered here include:
a) Location of the organization in relation to the market
b) Space available for storing food safely
c) Size of kitchen and service areas
d) Number of staff and their skills
e) Equipment available in kitchen and service areas
f) Policy of the food service organization in terms of the:
• types of customers it wishes to attract, based on the pricing policy will have
to be determined, higher the clientele one wants to attract, higher will be the
pricing and vice versa
• the extent to which the organization wants to invest on catering as compared
to other areas of expenditure such as furniture, décor, equipment etc.
• degree of automation and labour saving devices desired
• personnel in terms of trained staff or cheaper unskilled labour
• profit margins
• type of service, i.e. whether the food will be served or pre-plated, handed
over or packed and delivered.
B) The Customer
Customers of an organization could be from varying ages, activities, occupations, sex,
physiological status and backgrounds. They would also belong to various religious and
cultural backgrounds, some perhaps having rigid religious beliefs and habits. The
following illustration demonstrates how various requirements of a customer form the
basis for menu planning. For example, if a menu has to be planned for a fast food
joint the factors that will have to be considered will be:

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a) The kind of customers one is likely to have will be youngsters or young office Food Management: Menu
going executives so the menu planned should cater to the liking of this group Planning — Focal Point of
all Activities in Food
b) The service should be fast Service Establishments

c) Menu must give variety, as well as, interesting cost effective combinations could
be offered
d) The menu should offer special dishes for special days like during Christmas
varieties of cakes, cookies etc. as desserts could be offered
Now that we have a good knowledge about how to plan a menu, can you suggest
what would be the characteristics of a good menu? Write down these characteristics
and compare them with the characteristics enumerated next.

5.4.3 Characteristics of a Good Menu

Generally, you will find that planning menus requires a little time and effort, but will
save us much time and effort later and it can save us a lot of worry or stress. A little
planning helps us to enjoy cooking and serving meals rather than regarding them as
tiresome, necessary chores. Remember, a good menu is one which considers the
following:
• Preferences of the customer or guest for whom it is planned, and provide a wide
variety to choose from that will help the customer derive pleasure and satisfaction.
• The cook incharge of making the menu is able to cook the menu in an attractive,
palatable and nourishing way within the resources available.
• The cooked food adds vibrancy and energy to the meal by ensuring that the right
colour, texture, consistency and flavour combinations are included and the food
is served well and at the right temperature to the customer. For example, a menu
should avoid including meals where all the foods have similar textures. To
illustrate, avoid serving a creamed soup followed by a chicken in a bland sauce
and end with a vanilla ice cream or creamy pudding. The menu should try to
match crisp or piquant foods with bland ones and combine soft textures with crisp
ones.
• The dishes/meals are prepared using a variety of preparation methods.
• Balance costly ingredients with low cost ones within a day.
• Include garnishes, which add to the presentation and are appropriate to the item
they are garnishing, and
• Management is able to satisfy the customer, as well as, earn profits for the
organization.
Besides the factors mentioned above, a good menu may also consider the portion
sizes, i.e. are portion sizes of food in proportion to one another.
Now that you are familiar with the basic characteristics of a good menu, surely you
would be able to plan one for any occasion. The next aspect which we would like
to cover in this unit is how to display a menu. Read the next sub-section and find out.

5.4.4 Display a Menu

The menu, we know is the most fundamental ingredient in a food service establishment.
In the unit so far we have learnt about the types and characteristics of good menus.
Here we shall also focus on how to display a menu appropriately. Read the following
considerations regarding menu display:
• Menus can be written out with names of dishes in a following order as illustrated
in Figure 5.3.

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Entrepreneurship and Food • Menus must be written in a form that is simple, legible, and attractive to draw
Service Management the customer’s attention.
• Names of the dishes should be clearly understood. If unfamiliar terms are used,
descriptions should follow the name so that customer knows exactly what is being
ordered.
• Sauces and accompaniments create a feeling of good value for money and must
be indicated on the menu as illustrated in Figure 5.2.
• Care is necessary in word selection and correct spelling of the dishes, particularly
if they are written in foreign language.
• Some indication of portion sizes or number of servings should be written.
Menus can be written in many ways according to the purpose for which they are
intended. In food service where a waiter style of service is offered, the menu is
generally presented in the form of a folder. Menu card also introduces the organization
to the customer hence very often it includes information about the address, telephone
numbers, service timings along with the list of dishes and their cost.

We end our study on menu planning by highlighting the importance of constant

evaluation of menu .

Figure 5.3: Menu display

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5.4.5 Evaluation of Menu Food Management: Menu
Planning — Focal Point of
Menu evaluation is a critical and essential part of the menu planning process and all Activities in Food
should be a ongoing process. Constant evaluation is a necessity and it involves the Service Establishments
following:
— Watch tray/plate returns
— What is new on the market?
— What is the competition doing?
— What are the customers saying?
Periodic assessment of the menus is valuable as they not only guide the management
but also provide insight into what plans and policies to adopt for the success of the
operation. A handy guideline/checklist can be adopted for evaluative purposes. The
points to be considered include:
1) Do the menus satisfy the nutritional needs of the clients?
2) Does the menu meet the organization objectives?
3) Are the foods in season, available, and within the budget?
4) Can the food be prepared by the available personnel and equipment?
5) Are garnishes used appropriately?
6) Do the foods offer contrasts in:
• Colour • Texture
• Temperature • Consistency
• Size, shape and form • Preparation methods
• Flavour • Lightness
7) Is the repetition of flavour or a food item(s) within a day or meal?
8) Do flavours complement one another?
9) Do the combinations make a pleasing whole some meal, and will they be
acceptable to the client.
10) Are costly ingredients/meals balanced with lower cost ones?
Evaluation as mentioned above may be done based on the plate waste or through
informal customer comments or through formal customer feedback obtained through
customer feedback forms.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) What are the steps for constructing a menu?
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
2) What are the points to be considered with respect to a food service organization
before planning a menu?
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 3) How will you check that the menu is well planned for the type of organization?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) What care will you take to display a menu?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

5.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we focused on menu planning. We learnt that a menu is a list of dishes
planned for production in a food service organization and includes full meals, snacks
or beverages either alone or in combinations. It is most important activity of a food
service organization.
Menu Planning, we learnt, has wide variety of functions and has many advantages.
Good menu planning requires knowledge and skills for planning a good menu. It
requires a wide knowledge of foods, different methods of preparing and serving foods,
customer’s preferences etc.
There are basically three types of menus, namely A la Carte Menu, Table d’ hote
menu and combination menu. These menus are widely applicable in the whole world.
Similarly, cyclic menus all commonly used in institutions like hostels, hospitals etc,
and have many advantages as it helps in better planning of resources and personnel.
A menu has to be constructed systematically for its optimal use. The aim of menu
planning is to create consistent menus in terms of their quality, characteristics, costs
and their selling price from day to day. Before planning a menu some basic points,
have to be kept in mind related to the location or situation of the food service
organization and the type of customer it proposes to target. Similarly, evaluation of
the menu planned is important, as it helps us to understand whether the planner has
a thorough knowledge of the requirement of the organization.
Displaying menu is also equally important, as the customer has to be attracted to your
organization. Display has to be aesthetically designed and should be written out in a
logical and clear manner and the information should be complete giving details of
selling cost, brief details about the dish if the dish planned is uncommon.
Thus, to conclude, this unit has helped us to understand the functions, advantages
of menu planning and has detailed the steps and the knowledge and skills that are
required to plan a good menu. It has also helped us to critically evaluate a given menu.

5.6 GLOSSARY
Menu : a menu is a list of dishes planned for production in a
food service organization and may include full meals,
snacks or beverages either alone or in combinations.
Cyclic Menu : menus, which are, planned in advance for periods of
time varying from five days to one month, which are
then cycled or repeated at, fixed intervals.
A la Carte Menu : choice menu.
Table d’ hote Menu : fixed menu (A menu ordered by the host).
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 Food Management: Menu
5.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Planning — Focal Point of
EXERCISES all Activities in Food
Service Establishments
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) A menu is a list of dishes planned for production in a food service organization
and may include full meals, snacks or beverages either alone or in combinations.
Functions include: a) Introduces the establishment to the customer b) Helps in
production of meals in the kitchen c) Helps to prepare a purchase list for foods
and ingredients and forms the basis for establishing purchasing procedures and d)
Determines the type of equipment, staff skills and the type of supervision required.
2) The reasons for menu planning include:
a) It helps to provide appetizing, nourishing and attractive meals to customers
at a fair price.
b) Planning menus helps to foresee the requirements accurately.
c) Planning minimizes the food waste; fuel costs and helps in management of
leftover effectively and creatively in the next day’s menus.
d) Planning saves times and efforts spent in purchasing, receiving and cooking
and frequent trips to the market.
3) In order to plan a good menu one should have the following basic information
on:
a) Wide knowledge of foods
b) Knowledge of different methods of preparing and serving foods
c) Knowledge of the methods of serving various types of foods
d) Knowledge of the customer
4) It is necessary to know the customers before menu planning because it helps to
provide meals according to the customer’s food preferences, physiological
requirements, paying capacity, social standing and the reasons for eating out and
for achieving customer satisfaction.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) a) choice
b) set
c) A la Carte, Table d’ hote Menus
d) restaurants/hotels
e) clubs, marriages parties etc.
2) Cyclic menus are menus, which are planned in advance for periods of time
varying from five days to one month, which are then cycled or repeated at fixed
intervals.
3) The advantages of a cyclic menu include
a) Once a basic menu pattern is established, the menu planner can use his/her
own creativity to attract customers in case of holidays, special occasions, or
during staff shortages, delays in service etc.
b) It helps the staff (both kitchen and service) to get better organized, because
they know futures needs and can do the pre preparation.
c) It helps to standardize the recipes and making food service most cost
effective for both the management, as well as, the customer.

131
Entrepreneurship and Food 4) Cyclic menus can be unpopular because they could be planned for short term
Service Management i.e. for five day or seven days, which leads to menu fatigue and customers tend
to eat on the day, their favourite dishes are served and may skip other days.
5) The popularity of cyclic menus can be improved by planning for odd number of
days, so that a menu does not fall on the same day of the week or same date
of the month. Further, a general menu structure may be set, but dishes changed
to introduce variety.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Steps in constructing a menu are:
a) Decide the suitable menu pattern, whether one wants fixed menu, a la Carte
menu or selection of both.
b) Decide the degree of flexibility that needs to be kept in the menu.
c) Decide on the main dish of the menu and side dishes can be planned
around it.
d) The selected dishes should enhance the colour, texture, flavour and taste of
the meal.
2) Points to be considered with respect to the food service organization before
planning a menu are:
a) Location of the organization with relation to the market
b) Space available for storing food safely
c) Size of kitchen and service areas
d) Number of staff and their skills
e) Equipment available in kitchen and service areas
f) Policy of the food service organization.
3) The menu is considered to be well planned when :
a) Preferences of the customer or guest for whom it is planned is considered
and a wide variety to choose from is provided to them.
b) Cook in charge of making the menu is able to cook the menu in an
attractive, palatable manner.
c) The cooked food is served well and at the right temperature to the customer,
and
d) Management is able to satisfy the customer, as well as, earn profits for the
organization
4) The care to be taken while displaying a menu include:
a) Menus must be written in a form that is simple, legible, and attractive to
draw the customer’s attention
b) Names of the dishes should be clearly understood. If unfamiliar terms are
used, descriptions should follow the name so that customer knows exactly
what is being ordered
c) Sauces and accompaniments create a feeling of good value for money and
must be indicated on the menu.

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 Food Management: Menu
UNIT 6 FOOD MANAGEMENT: PURCHASE Planning — Focal Point of
all Activities in Food
AND STORAGE Service Establishments

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Purchasing: A Food Management Activity
6.3 The Market and the Buyer
6.3.1 The Buyer
6.3.2 The Vendor or the Supplier
6.4 Mode of Purchasing
6.4.1 Centralized Purchasing
6.4.2 Group Purchasing
6.5 Methods of Purchasing
6.5.1 Informal or Open Market Buying
6.5.2 Formal or Competitive Bid Buying
6.5.3 Other Types of Purchasing Methods
6.6 Identifying Needs and Amounts to Buy
6.6.1 Minimum Stock Level
6.6.2 Maximum Stock Level
6.6.3 Quantity of Foods to be Bought
6.7 Receiving and Inspecting Deliveries
6.8 Storage Space
6.8.1 Dry Storage
6.8.2 Low Temperature Storage
6.9 Store Room Management
6.10 Let Us Sum Up
6.11 Glossary
6.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we discussed the importance of menu planning, wherein we learnt that
menu is the “heart” of any food service organization upon which all activity is
centered. Once the menu has been planned, the next operation involved (in the
production of a finished product from its raw material) in the food management in
any food service organization is procurement.

You would realize that various types of products are available on the market shelf.
Now then which product to buy, how to purchase foods and supplies in bulk in
adequate amounts whenever needed and which is the best buying technique in order
to suit the needs for the smooth running of the organization? We will learn about these
aspects and about the procedures for selection of vendors, pin pointing food requirements
and writing specifications for the types of purchases required. Once the purchases
have been done, how are the food items to be received, stored and issued for supplies?
What are the receiving procedures to be formulated and storage conditions of the store
area, so that spoilage of foods once purchased is minimized. The quality of the
finished products cannot be high if inferior food is purchased. In order to have an
efficient and successful operation, there must also be a good system of control and
records of item purchased, stored and used. This is the second aspect covered in the
unit.

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Entrepreneurship and Food Objectives
Service Management
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the need for purchasing,
• describe the various types of buying and modes of purchasing,
• explain as to how to receive and store food items purchased, and
• maintain store room records for issuing of supplies.

6.2 PURCHASING: A FOOD MANAGEMENT ACTIVITY

Purchasing is an activity which is directed towards securing materials, supplies and
equipment required for the operation of a food service organization. It represents the
act of buying at a price, which will be profitable for the organization. In the broader
sense the purchasing is a food management activity which involves planning, policy
making and conducting research and development activity, required for proper selection
of materials and source of purchase; following up to ensure proper delivery; and
inspection for quality. In addition, it covers the coordination of activities of the related
departments.

Purchasing for any food service establishment is the most primary step in the
production and service/delivery of quality food. There are many people in the food
service organization that take decisions as to what to buy and not to buy. These may
range from dietitians in hospitals to food and beverage managers of a food service
unit. However, the type of purchases in its quality should be utmost, for the quality
of the finished food product. The person in charge of purchasing should have an
understanding of the external market and how factors affect menu production and
selection. In order to understand the concept of seasonality, they must be able to
identify and evaluate a wide range of products. Food service purchasing requires
knowledge of terminology, specifications, processing requirements, and a thorough
objective and subjective assessment of quality. Because purchasing affects the entire
food service operation, it must be considered at every stage of systems planning.

Purchasing food for an establishment is not a single activity involving exchange of

money for food in a market, but a series of activities from knowing what to buy and
for what end use, to actually getting the food for food preparation. Refer to Figure
6.1 which illustrates the different activities involved in purchasing.

Demand from Requisition Selecting supplier

Prepare specification Prepare order
kitchen with end use &
for supplies according to quantity
specification
quality & method of
buying Order to
selected supplier

Check order Receive food &

Receipts & Inspect foods Expedite order
delivery note
invoice

Figure 6.1: A schematic representation of purchasing activity

Having reviewed the schematic presentation of the purchasing process, you would
realize that food purchasing is the function of ordering the food products. It involves
first determining the product to be ordered, preparing a requisition giving exact
specifications of the product required, selection of the supplier based on price, service
and quality, preparing and allocation of the purchase order to the selected supplier
followed by receiving the order and inspection of received goods and receipts to
134 ensure compliance.
While studying about the purchasing process you would have also noticed that Food Management:
purchasing as an activity involves the market and the buyer. Let us get to know these Purchase and Storage
two links in details next.

6.3 THE MARKET AND THE BUYER

Purchasing as an activity to a great extent involves the market and the buyer. The
market acts as medium through which goods are relocated and transported from the
producer (area of production) to the customer (the buyer). Once the food commodities
are on the market, it is there for the consumer for purchasing. As a consumer, an
individual can encounter various types of markets from where purchasing food items
can be done. A primary market, as the name suggests, is a basic market where
essential goods such as fruit and vegetables are sold near the growing areas itself. For
example, markets of Nagpur act as a primary market for oranges.

From the primary markets goods are delivered to the secondary markets after they
are processed and are prepared for the distribution to the secondary markets. Wholesalers
or purveyors (middlemen) purchase in large quantities from the basic primacy markets
and then distribute in smaller amounts to local buyers. Sometimes, food items are
also distributed through brokers. These act as a connecting link between the buyer
and the seller, without at any given time, assuming the ownership of the food item.
Apart from brokers, food items are also redistributed through commission agents, who
buy the commodities and with a guarantied source of supply, sell the products at price
decided by them. Another type of market a buyer can encounter is a local market.
Such markets are useful for small food service establishments who have money and
storage area to purchase only what is currently required for utilization. The market
is an extremely effervescent yet at the same time ever-changing. Buyers should thus
be aware of current trends in commodities, their pricing and try to evade as many
middlemen as possible in the process of purchasing. In order to do so a buyer has
a number of intelligent roles to play.

In the next sub-section we shall learn about the role of the buyer and identify who
a buyer is.

6.3.1 The Buyer

A buyer is an individual who spends money on behalf of the establishment, to
purchase merchandise for the food service unit. He thus has heavy responsibility for
the well being of the food service unit. Therefore, she/he needs to possess skills and
knowledge in order to be abreast with latest buying trends that would fetch maximum
profit to the organization. A buyer is responsible for all negotiations that are to be done
with market representatives and should also possess adequate legal knowledge in terms
of operating order and contracts. The buyer should be aware of the latest commodities
that are on the market and how they are handled. What food products are available
in which particular market and in what season? He should have sound knowledge
regarding the prevailing prices and fluctuations occurring from time to time in wholesale
and retail markets. Thus geared with all this knowledge, a buyer is provided a certain
degree of independence and authority by the food service organization according to
organizational policies within which the buyer is allowed to operate.

For buying well, the person responsible for placing the order for food on behalf of
the customer must have some basic knowledge. This knowledge will include:-
How Various Commodities are Marketed and Handled?
Food and food products available in market undergo a constant change. Newer
varieties of fresh fruits and vegetables are constantly researched to improve size,

135
Entrepreneurship and Food colour, texture and flavour for example the appearance of newer varieties of citrus
Service Management fruits and mangoes, different sizes of chilies, cabbage, tomatoes, potatoes etc.

What Food and Food Products are Available in the Market in a Particular Season?
Fresh foods, which have to be transported long distance, reach the consumer after
a lapse of few days. It is therefore a good policy to use fresh produce especially meat,
fish, poultry and vegetable as soon as they are received in food service establishment.
Appearance should not be the only characteristic on which to base one’s decisions
regarding food purchasing. Quality characteristic of different foods must be kept in
mind.

Prevailing Prices and Fluctuations Occurring from Time to Time in Wholesale and
Retail Markets

Prices of food fluctuate from season to season, and also in response to external factors
like famines, drought, factory closures, customer demand etc. Knowledge of these
equips a food buyer to buy the cheapest and the best products, if he is vigilant of
market conditions.

Size and Types of Packs Available

Foods of the same quality come in many sizes and type of packs. For example rice
may be purchased in gunny bags of 25 kg or polybags of 10 kg or 5 kg, depending
on the requirement of individual food service organization.

Quantities to be Bought for each Commodity at a Time

The buying qualities will depend on number of factors, which are listed herewith:
i) Degree of perishability of food and its keeping qualities.
ii) Rate of its use.
iii) Frequency of deliveries possible.
iv) Amount of storage space available.
A buyer also needs to possess certain qualities to work effectively such as:
• High moral and ethical values, so that he is not influenced by or obligated to
suppliers in any way.
• Objectivity in his judgment of quality offered in term of price and service.
• Loyalty to customer in terms of being able to recognize good quality that is free
of adulteration and contamination.
• Possess skill in identifying markets and establishing good relations with suppliers
around.
• Accepting food brands that are marked by standardizing agencies like FPO, ISI,
Agmark etc. in India.
• Lastly, buying demands maturity, integrity and bargaining skills in order to profit
the food service establishment.
From the above discussion it is clear, that a buyer with high moral values and a sound
knowledge can go a long way in being an asset to the food service unit. However,
the buyer also has certain functions attributed by the food service unit, these include.
• Record keeping for each type of menu developed
• Ability to store food in a manner that enhances its quality
• Rotating use of packaged foods, and
• Formulating specification for food items.
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Therefore a buyer must be successful in making deal without any friction from the Food Management:
market representatives, and at the same time get a good deal for the organization. So Purchase and Storage
far we have focused on the role of the buyer. The vendor or the food supplier too
is an important link in the purchase process. Now, let us look at the role of the vendor
next.

6.3.2 The Vendor or the Supplier

The basic consideration for any food service establishment is the selection of suppliers
who are reliable and have high quality in terms of food items being purchased. The
information about selection of vendors should include details about delivery date and
schedule, reliability, their ability to furnish the desired quantities of supplies and mode
of credit payment. It is also important to note the location and the size of a food
service unit before selecting a desirable vendor. Food service units located near a big
city may have several vendors to suit their needs. However, food organizations that
are small and located outside the city may purchase food items such as fresh
vegetables and fruits locally. For better shelf life, food service establishments may
prefer the use of canned items, for which the buyers may choose a wholesaler. Thus,
it is important to note that the vendors have the following qualities before a buyer
chooses to associate with him.
• Reliability for quality and quantity.
• Convenience vending at doorstep, and
• Adequate credit facility and reliable mode of money transaction.
After understanding the role of the vendor in purchasing, let us now get acquainted
with mode of purchasing that can be adopted by different food service establishments.

6.4 MODE OF PURCHASING

Food service establishments often have their mode of purchasing according to their
convenience. In order to obtain products reliably and with ease, different establishments
opt for mode of purchase that can be centralized or group buying. Let us see what
these terms are.

6.4.1 Centralized Purchasing

Centralized purchasing or buying is one where the purchasing department of the
organization owns the responsibility and authority of bringing in the food products,
equipments for all units in the organization. This type of purchasing holds good in
terms of large food service establishments such as restaurants, university canteens,
hospitals etc. where individual units are relieved from interacting and negotiating from
market and sales representatives, thus saving valuable time. It is a good way for
purchasing, where a food service organization has a one big central storage area from
where supplies are redistributed. However, in case of daily purchases of fresh perishable
items the authority is delegated to multi units of the food establishment.

The disadvantage of such a mode of purchase includes excessive paperwork, delays

in requisition being passed which in turn have an effect on the incoming supplies being
late. Also, friction or arguments may develop between food service unit and the
purchasing department if clear-cut specifications are not mentioned for quality of
supplies. Therefore, this kind of purchasing is generally suitable for large food service
units involved in buying food commodities in large amounts.

6.4.2 Group Purchasing

Group purchasing is different from centralized purchasing where in the members
responsible for buying are independent of each other and do not fall under the same
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Entrepreneurship and Food management. Here, two or more small service set-ups may combine together for
Service Management buying merchandise at lower rates. This is done with an effort to increase the amount
of purchases; lower prices on merchandise and at the same time consolidate buying.

We can understand this concept with the help of an example. Raja is running his own
school canteen. Raja in order to purchase food items can associate with different
canteens, in his vicinity, to purchase large volumes of goods (in bulk) at prices that
can be negotiated on by bargaining.

As we can see the advantage of group purchasing is definitely the price advantage
of merchandise. However, association of different organizations together may initially
require some time. Another point that needs to be remembered is that here the buyer
is employed by the group or member organizations and the cost of employing is borne
by the member organization itself. With this information on hand, let us now study
the various methods of purchasing prevalent in the market today. But first let us
recapitulate what we have learnt so far. Answer the questions given in check your
progress exercise 1 and tally your answers with the answers given at the end of the
unit under the heading answers to check your progress exercises.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) What are the various types of markets that a buyer can encounter while
purchasing?
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................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Discuss the qualities a buyer should posses for efficient purchasing for food
service unit.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Differentiate between centralized and group purchasing.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

6.5 METHODS OF PURCHASING

Every establishment sets it own purchasing policies according to its specific
needs for different types of food. Whatever may be the policies laid down; the method
of buying depends largely on the quantities of the various items to be purchased at
a time. The different methods possible are discussed herewith and highlighted in
Figure 6.2.

6.5.1 Informal or Open Market Buying

Most food service establishments use the informal methods for buying food items.
The buyer invites quotations from suppliers for items according to required
specifications. The suppliers are then selected on the basis of the sample, prices,
delivery schedule and other services offered. Open market buying is an informal
138
method and can easily be adapted to individual establishments. It is generally used Food Management:
for purchasing of perishable foods like fruits, vegetables, meat etc. Purchase and Storage

Purchasing Methods

Direct Formal Negotiated One-stop Wholesale Auction

Delivery or Buying Purchasing Buying Buying
Informal
Competitive Blanket
or
Bid Buying Purchasing
Open Market
Buying

Figure 6.2: Purchasing methods

This method of buying helps to appreciate and be aware of the change in market
situations and make the best use of prices and commodities by using instant discretion
in purchases. For example, on a visit to the market with an idea of buying brinjal
among other vegetables, if the buyer finds that the brinjals are mostly of poor quality,
he can instantly decide to replace the items with the vegetables of good quality.

Open market buying, therefore, is the most commonly used method of purchasing.
This type of buying involves purchasing food commodities on daily, weekly or
monthly basis. Order is generally placed after consideration of price in relation to
quality and delivery offered. Most food service establishments use these methods for
buying food items. Here the buyer invites quotations from suppliers for items according
to specifications. The suppliers are then selected on the basis of sample, prices,
delivery schedule etc. as illustrated in Figure 6.1 earlier. This type of purchasing can
be done by visit to markets or via telephone after monthly quotation list for grocery
items have been given. In this type of buying a buyer can choose from a list of
vendors for various items that are required. In this way, comparison of prices between
various vendors can be made.
The advantage of such a method is:
• It requires less lead time compared to formal method of buying
• Is appropriate for small service units such as school canteen etc.
• This method is useful when immediate delivery is required.
However, the method has its own disadvantages. Occasionally, the prices of the
vendors should be compared with other vendors in the market to avoid ‘price
creeping’. Also introduction of a new supplier every now and then can check the
practice of price creeping.

Having seen what informal method of buying is let us next learn about the formal
method of buying.

6.5.2 Formal or Competitive Bid Buying

In the competitive bid buying, the formal quotations are invited from the sellers against
the written specification of each category of foods. Refer to Figure 6.3 which
illustrates a fruit and vegetable quotation and order. This request for bids material is
widely distributed or posted to the interest of the sellers. Along with the specification
the buyers also include their request, conditions like last date of quotation, general time
between orders and delivery, willingness to accept whole or part of the bid, discount,
and so on framed within the purchasing policy of each establishment.
139
Entrepreneurship and Food The quotations received remains sealed till the date of opening (also indicated by the
Service Management buyer’s request). The purchasing officer then opens them in presence of the bidders
and representatives from the users department, accounts and administrative staff, who
witness the quotation accepted. The practice is to accept the quotations of the lowest
bidder, unless products clearly fail to meet the specifications. Government establishments
generally adopt formal methods of buying for which central purchasing is done such
as, hospitals or government schools, colleges, universities.

Fruit and Vegetable Quotation and Order

Name of Food Service:

Fruit and Vegetable Order Form
For use on: Delivery date:

Item Specifications Amt. Current Amount Price Quotes

Needed Amount to Order Vendors
1 2 3 4 5
Date Date Date Date Date

Figure 6.3: Fruit and vegetable quotation and order

After knowing the procedure for formal method of buying, let us understand some
terms commonly associated with the formal buying. These are defined herewith.

A) Writing a Specification of a Product

Refer to Figure 6.3. Do you notice the specifications column? A specification is a
detailed description of a product, stated in terms clearly understandable to both the
buyer and the seller. It should be brief and concise and carry sufficient information
about the food item being ordered for purchase to avoid misunderstanding and
confusion. Thus, a specification should include the following details of a product:
• Name of product
• Brand (if applicable) e.g. Brand of Ketchup
• Unit on which price is quoted
• Name and size of container (whether order is done for a basket purchase or in
cartons).
• Count per container
• Specific weight (e.g. for fruits and vegetables)
• Degree of maturity i.e. ripe or unripe fruits/vegetables
• In case of canned products: Drained weight or specific gravity should be specified
• Temperature at delivery
• For meat and poultry: various cuts of meat be specified, fat percentage and aging
in meat.
Thus, the above-mentioned points should be included as specification before placing
an order.
Next, let us get to know the meaning of bid request.
B) Bid Request
A bid request form originates in the office of a personnel authorized to purchase the
140 food items. It should include the following:
• Required quantities Food Management:
Purchase and Storage
• Purchase specification of each item i.e. quality
• Date on which bid request is submitted
• Date of delivery
• Mode of delivery
• Terms of payment
• Willingness to accept all or parts of bid
• Discounts offered
• Periods for which supplies are require
• Terms of negotiations
• Samples to be tested.
A bid should always be kept sealed and confidential till the due date of its opening.
Bids should always be opened in front of an office of authority. Bids should always
be stamped to indicate date and time of receipt and all bid requests received after due
dates should be duly returned unopened. Although major food service
establishments use this method for purchasing merchandise, nevertheless it has its own
advantages and disadvantages. This is particularly advantageous for procurement of
goods at a large scale or in a multiple unit organization, where a formal bid clearly
minimizes all confusions regarding quantity, quality, price and delivery. It is also
suitable for purchasing of frozen products and non-perishable food items. However,
this method is not suited for buying perishable items like fruits and vegetables due to
daily fluctuations in prices in the market.

The main disadvantages of this type of buying are that it requires careful planning in
advance for filling in bid requests, which is time consuming. Secondly, manipulation
in terms of monetary resources occurs due to political pressures in major food
establishments.

Now that we have reviewed the formal method of buying and the terms associated
with it, we move on to the study of the types of competitive bid buying.

Types of Competitive Bid Buying

Depending on the type of food service unit and its financial resources, need to buy
and storage a number of variations in formal method of purchasing has come up. Let
us now see what these variations are:

A) Firm Fixed Price (FFP)

In this type of contract, the prices are not subject to change or adjusted during the
period of contract. Here, the vendor is at maximum risk and this is used when there
is a definite specification and fair prices are quoted from the very beginning.

B) Negotiated Buying
As the name suggests this involves negotiations between buyer and the sellers regarding
the price and quantities. This method is used generally for seasonal items, which are
limited in supply, where both buyer and the seller are keen that the product is lifted
quickly from the market. Negotiated buying, therefore, involves taking quick decisions
in fluctuating market. The buyer contacts the seller directly, negotiates the price and
the quantity and request bids are submitted as soon as possible. This method is thus
quick and more flexible and less formal.

Negotiated buying may be adopted when purchasing food items directly from farmers
or manufacturers, but this is generally possible only for very large establishments 141
Entrepreneurship and Food because the contracts with manufacturers would be feasible for large quantities. The
Service Management advantage is of course in terms of quality, as well as, price, but storage cost increases.

In this two types of contracts may be signed between the buyer and the seller. This
include:

1) A Firm at Opening Price Contract (FAOP)

In this type of contract, the buyer agrees to take the supplies at a price established
in the future when yield is known, rather than at pre-season prices when the contract
is made. Such an agreement is therefore firm but not signed till the seasonal yield is
known.

2) A Subject to Approval of Prices (SAP) Contract

In this case the buyer has the option of rejecting the orders if the fixed price in the
future is not acceptable to him.

With this we end our study of competitive bid buying method or the formal method
of food purchase. There are other methods of purchase which can be adopted by food
service organizations. These are described next.

6.5.3 Other Types of Purchasing Methods

Apart from the ones described above, there are also other methods of purchases that
are used by food service establishments for purchasing merchandise. These include
the wholesale buying, blanket purchasing, one-stop purchasing and the cost-plan
purchasing. Let us get to know about these methods.

A) Blanket Purchasing
This type of purchasing is used when wide variety of items are bought from local
suppliers but the exact items, the amount and delivery specifications are unknown
in advance or prior to purchase. Here, vendors agree to supply on ‘charge- account
basis’. All food items are ordered during specified period, and such a kind of
purchasing should be established with more than one vendor in order to avail best
price and for checking price creeping.

B) Cost-Plan Purchasing
This type of purchasing is also called as specialty buying, where the buyer purchases
only one kind of item such as meat and poultry etc. Here, a buyer decides to purchase
certain merchandise from a wholesaler for a specific time period based on a fixed
markup over the dealer’s cost. The dealer’s cost here includes the cost of material,
cost incurred in packaging, shrinkage and fabrication of a product. The markup also
includes the overhead expenses, cost of deliveries and other such expenses borne by
the vendor. While negotiating such a deal a clear specification of what to include in
the cost and dealer’s markup should be done.

C) Prime Vendor/One-stop Purchasing

This type of purchasing which is gaining popularity amongst food service establishments,
involves purchasing of all kinds of merchandise from only one vendor (prime vendor)
at an agreed upon price. This type of agreement is only for a specific stated time
period and involves only certain number of specified quantity of food items.

One-step purchasing not only saves time for the buyer but also saves overhead and
delivery cost as compared to dealing with several vendors. The disadvantage of such
type of purchasing is that in case of a loss of back up vendor, one may have to solely
depend on one particular vendor without any price competition.

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D) Wholesale Buying Food Management:
Purchase and Storage
In this method a contract is signed with the wholeseller for purchase of goods at a
specific price for a future period. The agreement specifies the interval between the
deliveries for the contract period, along with the quantities required and when. This
method is also suitable for larger organization or central purchase departments.

Whatever method is used for purchasing food, it is advisable to make the procedure
simple with minimum paper work. Some factors, which need to be considered while
purchasing food are enlisted herewith:
— Price: This enables cost comparison with different brands with similar products
to be made instantly, and buying decision arrived at without undue delay.
— Labeling: Labels which indicates quality symbols like ISI, FPO, AGMARK, date
of manufacture, expiry date, maximum retail price/kg or pack, nutritional
information, all enables the food buyer to select food properly as per his/her own
requirements.
Thus, we have now read about the various methods of food purchasing a food service
establishment can choose from based on its needs and requirement. Now let us see
how an organization identifies its needs for placing an order of purchase.

6.6 IDENTIFYING NEEDS AND AMOUNTS TO BUY

A major factor in ordering food is maintaining the right level of inventory or stock.
A food service establishment should identify the quantities needed for preparing a
planned menu and supply ingredients to churn out the correct recipes. All food items,
later used as ingredients, are required to be stocked prior to the production of dishes
in a food service unit. Hence a food service unit must have a certain stock in order
to keep the unit running. There are a number of factors which need to be considered
to arrive at the proper size order and timing to control inventory levels. The factors
need to be considered include:
• What is the daily usage rate?
• What is the lead time once an item has been ordered for delivery of the product?
• What is the minimum safety level for the inventory item in question?
• What level of inventory balance should be considered the reorder point for
ordering?
• What is the maximum stock/inventory level that should be allowed?
A brief review of the stock level is presented herewith.

6.6.1 Minimum Stock Level

Minimum stock level can be defined as the point established for each level below
which the inventory should not fall. An inventory being a system of communication
between area of production and store room, where needs are expressed for production
of items. Establishing minimum levels of stock provides a medium through which
buyer can be alerted for quick replenishment of used goods.

Minimum stock levels can then also be referred to as a safety factor for replenishment
of finished food items as mentioned above.

6.6.2 Maximum Stock Level

Maximum stock level can be defined as the stock equal to minimum stock level plus
the estimated usage determined through prior utilization of goods. Maximum stock
143
Entrepreneurship and Food level is the means of alerting the buyer from overspending and also from the
Service Management fact that a particular item requires no requisition till the time it has been used or asked
for.

Based on these levels order forms for purchasing of items are formulated, as we have
seen before. Next, let us get to know how to decide on the quantity of food to be
bought.

6.6.3 Quantity of Foods to be Bought

The quantity of foods bought at one given time, the frequency of use of one food
item and the monetary resources on hand all determine the amounts to be purchased.
Apart from these storage space, portion size and dishes on the menu, number of
servings needed, and cooking losses also mount to the amount of purchases to be
done. For instances milk and bread are items that are consumed on a daily basis and
hence its delivery is seen several times a week and the orders for these items are also
such that the inventory is maintained at a desired level.

Now, once the foods items are purchased its inspection and proper receiving is
necessary. So, next, let us see the correct procedure for receiving of items purchase
on order. But first let us recapitulate what we have learnt so far by answering the
check your progress exercise questions given herewith.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Explain the reason for ‘price creeping’ in open market buying?
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2) Briefly discuss the disadvantages of competitive bid buying.
................................................................................................................
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3) Briefly explain
a) Firm Fixed Price
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..........................................................................................................
b) Firm at opening price contract (FOAP)
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..........................................................................................................
c) Minimum stock level and its significance
..........................................................................................................
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 Food Management:
6.7 RECEIVING AND INSPECTING DELIVERIES Purchase and Storage

As mentioned earlier in this unit, an important part of the purchasing process is the
receiving, storage and issuing of food and supplies. Once the food material has been
ordered for the supply their handling at time of delivery represents the process of
receiving. Once the merchandise has been ordered, all items needs to be thoroughly
inspected for specifications mentioned at the time of order and checked against the
invoice or delivery slip. Perishable food items are checked for any spoilage. Items
required to be counted, measured and weighed should be properly done. Food items
such as canned products should be checked for damage and exposure to high
temperatures if any. Also, all inspection related to quality and invoice prepared by
the vendor should be in accordance with the purchase order. Sometimes absence of
adequate inspection can be a major pitfall in receiving of foods. A number of
precaution are necessary at this stage to ensure that the food is not damaged or
discarded because of careless handling, spillage, cross contamination and incorrect
weights or volume.

Let us review the major steps involved in receiving of purchases. The process involves
the following:
1) the delivery note is checked with copy for order placed.
2) count, weights or volume are checked to tally with the amounts of various items
on the delivery note.
3) the quality of all ingredients is checked with the specifications given to the
supplier. Any unacceptable items should be returned with the person bringing the
delivery.
4) any discrepancies noticed should be indicated on the copy of the delivery note
signed to be notified to the supplier. When the delivery note is signed the material
that is delivered has been accepted. In this case any damaged item is noticed
after the delivery the suppliers are informed.
Often receiving is done in an area located near the delivery door of the food service
unit. It is usually an area exclusively reserved for receiving of deliveries and is
generally located at the rear side of the establishment. The receiving area should at
least consist of a platform for loading food items, weighing balance/counter scales,
table for inspections of goods and carts for moving goods to storage area.

Care should be taken to maintain the receiving area in a clean way, devoid of any
pest, open drains etc. The area should also have space for water supply for scrubbing
purposes. Cares should be taken that the vendor does the delivery of goods with
proper invoice. Therefore, the major check list of things to be remembered during the
delivery procedures include:
1) The suppliers get an order in writing stating the date on which supplies are
required.
2) He passes it to this store department or purchasing officers. The order is than
kept ready to delivery on the specified date.
3) It is transported to the buyer’s store for receiving.
4) The goods are delivered along with two copies of the delivery chalan, one signed
by the buyer and returned to the suppliers in conformation of having received the
goods; and second is returned by the buyer for counter checking the bill.
5) Receiving material is generally done close to the storage or just outside them so
that it is easier to store them after receipt. In larger establishments the receiving
area may be well designed space provided with weighing, washing and packing
facilities for storing food in cold or other storage.
145
Entrepreneurship and Food Once the purchases have been delivered and received the next logical step involved
Service Management is its proper storage as soon as possible, with correct store room management. Next,
we shall get to know how food items are stored in a food service establishment.

6.8 STORAGE SPACE

The proper storage of food after it has been received and checked is an important
factor in the prevention and control of loss of waste.

Depending upon the speed with which the food spoils, they are classified as perishable,
semi-perishable and non-perishable, each type requiring different types of storage
conditions. There are basically two types of storage, dry storage and low temperature
storage. These are further subdivided according to the temperature required as shown
in Figure 6.4.

Storage Dry Low Temperature Storage

20° to 25°C 60° to 65° 3 to 11°C 0 to 3°C –18

to –20°C
(Store room) (RH) (Refrigerator) (Cold Storage) (Deep freezer)
Figure 6.4: Storage temperature for food items

Let us get to know more about these storage conditions.

6.8.1 Dry Storage

As the name suggests, dry storage is a place for the storage of dry ingredients (usually
stored at room temperature of 20 - 25°C). The storage should be dry, cool, well
ventilated and free from infestation of any kind in order to maintain the food in good
condition.

The space for dry storage must be large enough to hold stocks for commodity for
one to three months according to its frequency of use. The average temperature of
a dry storage varies depending on the range and nature of commodities stocked, and
weather conditions. If the outside temperature is too high as is the case of tropical
countries, then the temperature of the storage may have to be brought down by air
cooling the store, or the length of storage time of commodities are reduced. For
example, firm green tomatoes, under ripe bananas, lemons and other citrus fruits
require temperature of 18°C to 24°C while the potatoes and onions can be stored at
higher temperatures for few days, the latter must however be put into storage at
10°C for 3 weeks before use, to allow sugars to be converted into starch. Foods,
which need to be held only for 2 - 3 days, require a temperature of 10 - 15.5°C,
like breads and bakery products. Where space allows fats and oil should be stored
away from the rest of the food.

Dry store rooms should be well lighted so that every item placed in them is easily
visible and identifiable. Good ventilation helps to prevent spoilage and maintain the
temperature required.
Next, we shall learn about the cold temperature storage.

6.8.2 Low Temperature Storage

The principle underlying the designing of low temperature storage is to maintain
temperature at levels, which will inhibit the growth of microorganism, there by
146 preserving the food. At high temperature, microbial activity gets accelerated because
perishable food have relatively high portion of moisture providing suitable humidity for Food Management:
spoilage to occur. There are three distinct types of low temperature storage based Purchase and Storage
on different temperature range, as you may have noticed in Figure 6.3, maintained
for the storage of semi perishable and perishable food. These include:
a) Refrigerated storage
b) Cold storage
c) Freezer storage
Let us get to know more about these low temperature storage.

A) Refrigerated Storage
Refrigerated storage is a storage space planned and maintained at a temperature
3°C to 10°C. Such storage is necessary for maintaining the quality of perishable food
for 2 - 3 days only after which certain changes start taking place in food due to
enzymatic or microbial activity.

It is a good practice to keep food covered in refrigerator to prevent them from drying.
This also prevents odour from one food being picked up by others.

B) Cold Storage
Cold storage is generally one which the temperature is maintained between 0° and 3°C,
thereby reducing the enzyme activity to a minimum. Such storage are also called “chill
room” and can hold perishables for over a week, and in the case of fruits and
vegetables, even up to a month depending on the stage of ripeness and variety.

C) Freezer Storage
In the freezer, storage temperature ranges from –18°C to –20°C. For successful
freezing, it is necessary to blanch foods, cool quickly to freezing temperature and pack
in air tight containers or bags in quantities which can be utilized immediately
on thawing. A food removed from the freezer storage for use must never be
partly or wholly kept back or refrozen, as there is a serious risk of microbial
contamination.

Now that we have learnt about the storage temperature appropriate for different foods.
Next we shall focus on another important aspect i.e. store room management.

6.9 STORE ROOM MANAGEMENT

Maintaining stores efficiently require a good communication system between the
storekeeper and the user department, to know their needs specifically. In order to
allow smooth functioning of a store room, the organization of storage should be
efficiently done. Let us get to know how.

Organization of Store
The arrangement of food items in storage spaces affects the efficiency with which
foods can be stocked, issued and reordered. Hence the organization of store may need
to consider the following:
• Arrange the food according to type of commodities.
• Place stock items in alphabetical order of food categories.
• Stamp the date of delivery on every stock received before shelving to ensure that
old stocks are used first.
• Place the item on the shelf according to the stamped date, with earlier one in front
row and late one at the back. The placement of commodities should follow first-
147
Entrepreneurship and Food in-first-out policy (FIFO). That is the older commodity should be placed in front
Service Management of the shelf so that they are used earlier.
• Mark prices on the stock as well. The information can be made readily available
to the users department and help the catering manager.
• Arrange products to give an organized appearance. Efforts should be made to
ensure that commodities do not lie around the floor at any time. The items that
come in paper packet or sachets once opened should be transferred to airtight
containers to ensure the retention of its quality. Proper label of each container
should be ensured.
• The store room should be well ventilated to allow air circulation and reduce
humidity.
• Infestation of cereal and pulses by weevils, presence of white ants in the store,
or rodents and other pests can damage the flavour, and quality of food making
them unfit for the consumption. The store should be kept clean and free from
rodents, insects and pests.
• The store room should be preferably kept locked and opened only for issue, to
safeguard the commodities from pilferage.
With all these factors in mind, efforts should be aimed at increasing shelf life of food
through care in receiving and storage, while at the same time maintaining the quality.

Maintaining stores efficiently require a good communication system between the

storekeeper and the user department, to know their needs specifically. Let us now see
what is this communication in the form of records that operate in a store room.

Store Room Records

A number of records need to be maintained as food move very fast in and out of
the stores, and it is necessary to be able to account for them at any time. These
include:

Requisition Slip
This is a request form submitted by the user’s department to the store in charge for
the issue of required items. It is customary to put in the requisition slip to the store
at least one day in advance, so that the food items required for the next day are
collected and issued in time for food preparation.

Order Forms
The person authorized to do so must sign an order. The catering manager authorizes
purchase in small establishments, and a purchasing manager in establishment, which
has purchasing department.
Stock Book Maintenance
In this records of all items received and issued are maintained along with stocks in
hand and there monetary values.
Invoice
This is the bill, which follows a delivery, to be paid for the buyer.
Here a brief review is presented of the store room record. A detail review of the
inventory records and control is presented in Unit 9 later in this course. Do read the
unit carefully.

148
 Food Management:
Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Purchase and Storage

1) Discuss the major steps involved in receiving.

.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
2) What are the pitfalls in receiving and delivery of goods? Discuss.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
3) Briefly explain
a) Perpetual Inventory
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
b) Invoice
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
c) Receiving area
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................

6.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learnt that purchasing is an extremely essential component of all food
service establishments and is important to keep the kitchen fuel running. Purchasing
can be carried out in a number of ways the two broad categories being formal and
informal method of buying.
All food organization adopts method of purchasing suited to their needs and requirements
and means of communication between the kitchen → store room → buyer is maintained.
Once purchases are bought they are inspected and received inventory made and
properly stored according to perish ability. All demands of items are met through the
store room via requisition slips and simultaneous entries into the store room record.
All records are kept up to date to prevent any confusions and misunderstandings.

6.11 GLOSSARY
Requisition Slip Form : is a request form submitted by the user’s department
to the store in charge for the issue of required items.
It is customary to put in the requisition slip to the store
at least one day in advance, so that the food items
required for the next day are collected and issued in
time for food preparation.
Invoice : is a bill, which follows a delivery to be paid for the
buyer.
149
Entrepreneurship and Food Receiving area : a place located near the rear of the food service unit
Service Management where purchases are downloaded and bought in for
inspection.
Inventory : a system of communication between area of production
and store room.

6.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) The various types of markets are primary, secondary and local. Primary market
is one where goods grown are sold there itself. The goods after basic processing
is sent to secondary market. Local market is a market located near the food
service establishment.
2) The buyer should be personnel of high morality and ethical values. He should
possess a good knowledge about latest trends in market, various types of vendors
and know about mode of payments. He should possess good bargaining skills.
3) Centralized purchasing is one where the purchasing department owns authority
for purchasing all kinds of merchandise for all food service units in an organization.
Where a group purchasing involves association of two or more small service set-
ups for buying merchandise at lower rates.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Many times in informal method of buying, buyers generally stick to one particular
vendor, thus resulting in prices of one vendor not being compared with other
slowly resulting in price creeping to set-in.
2) The major disadvantage of competitive bid buying is that it is time consuming
and requires careful planning. Moreover manipulation in terms of monetary
resources occurs often due to political pressures.
3) a) Firm fixed price is a variation of formal method of purchasing where prices
of commodities are not subject to change or adjusted during the period of
contract; thus putting the vendor at maximum risk.
b) FAOP is a type of contract where the buyer agrees to take the supplies at
a price quoted in the future when yield is determined rather than at a
pre-season contract.
c) Minimum stock level is a point established for each level below which the
inventory should not fall.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) The major steps involved in receiving are firstly checking of the invoice followed
by counting, weighing of items as per delivery note, quality check as per order
and return of damaged goods if any.
2) The pitfalls in receiving and delivery are first linked to quality. Often the quality
of a good delivered are not according to specifications, Volume and weight control
of goods should also be checked for which at times results in misunderstanding
and confusing.
3) a) Perpetual inventory is also called as the running record of balance on hand
and provides a continuum to what products are purchased are in storage and
are being used at any given times.
b) Invoice or delivery slip is the bill which follows a delivery to be paid by the
buyer it accounts for name, specifications, mode of payment and unit and
actual cost of items ordered, at least.
c) Receiving area is the place generally located at the rear of food service
establishment where goods ordered or purchased are loaded down,
checked and inspected with counter scales on platforms before storing into
150 store room.
 Food Management:
UNIT 7 FOOD MANAGEMENT: QUALITY Purchase and Storage

FOOD PRODUCTION — PLANNING

AND CONTROL
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Principles of Food Production
7.3 Food Production Systems Management
7.3.1 Menu
7.3.2 Ingredient Control
7.3.3 Production Forecasting
7.3.4 Production Scheduling
7.4 Production Control
7.4.1 Use of Standardized Recipes
7.4.2 Developing a Programme for Recipe Standardization
7.5 Safeguard in Food Production
7.5.1 Quality Control in Food Preparation and Cooking
7.5.2 Controlling Microbiological Quality of Food
7.6 Let Us Sum Up
7.7 Glossary
7.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In our study so far, we have reviewed the menu planning and the purchasing,
receiving, storage and issue operations involved in the food management of a food
service establishment. Now in this unit we will focus on food production which is
considered the core of the overall food service system.

When we think of quality food production under preplanned and controlled conditions,
we think of other than own households, hotels, restaurants, lunch rooms, fast foods
operations, catering services, schools, hospitals, institutional food services, industrial
and military food services and vending machines. All these call for planning and control
of entire system of food production and executing the same. Planning, we have already
learnt, is pre-requisite for any system to succeed. Planning for food production would
involve number of steps like storage facilities, storage of ingredients, and raw materials
in a most hygienic condition, use of germ free implements, utensils, use of appropriate
robes/aprons by the cook. Storage of finally cooked food will call for maintaining a
particular temperature.

Another step in the process of food control is the use of standardized recipes, which
helps to deliver a food product of same quality every time to the consumer and helps
in forecasting ingredients requirements for food production. Also exercises like portion
control and adoption of measures for safeguarding are inevitable steps for quality food
production. The unit will explain all the steps required for production of quality food.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the principles of food production,
• explain the system management for food production, including ingredients control,
production forecasting/scheduling of recipes,
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Entrepreneurship and Food • describe the importance of standardization of recipes and portion control, and
Service Management
• enumerate the quality control at all stages of food production to deliver safe food
to the customer.

7.2 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRODUCTION

Many food service units follow various principles for production of food. Chronicled
data suggest that even in bygone times certain principles for production of food were
followed. It was based on number of people to be served or the type of occasion
like a festival or wedding or for that matter for a patient who is ill. All these required
special rules for producing food in a particular manner, ensuring taste, flavour and
contentment of the customers. Comparing the older times from today makes the
above rules no exception. Food is still produced in the same manner for different
occasions yet with a new range of special techniques. Today many food service
systems have been established which are classified into four main categories which
include:
• Traditional
• Commissary
• Ready-Prepared
• Assembly/Serve
These systems vary with respect to the degree of processing required on purchased
items, methods of production, holding and distribution. There may be many differences
in the type of operation, but basic similarities exist in the provision of food to
customers. Let us review these food service systems.

Traditional
Food production in traditional systems involves the procurement of ingredients to be
processed, cooked and served within individual food service units. These operations
often maintain separate production centers such as baking, entrée preparation and cold
food production areas, cooking area, frying area etc. within the units.

Commissary
Commissary systems involve production of food items in a central facility. Menu items
are partially or completely processed then held frozen, chilled, or heated for distribution
to satellite centers for final preparation and service.

Ready Prepared
Ready prepared food service systems have been developed in response to increasing
labour costs and a critical shortage of skilled food production personnel.

The increased availability of highly processed or fully prepared products has lead to
the development of assembly/serve systems.

Production planning you would notice begins with the menu and the production
forecast. We will study about these aspects next under the section food production
systems management.

7.3 FOOD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT

A major focus of food service management is the development and maintenance of
procedures that predict and control the functions of the production systems. Key
components of food service management system are:
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i) Selection of appropriate menus and its recipes including ingredients used, and Food Management: Quality
Food Production —
ii) Forecasting production and its scheduling. Planning and Control

Let us review these components now.

7.3.1 Menu
Production planning as mentioned above starts with the menu. Quantities of food to
prepare are based on the predicted number of servings needed and the portion size
to be offered based on the menu. As described earlier in Unit 5, menu is a list of
food products offered by the food service operation to the consumer. It is the
foundation from which other function of the system is based. In the initial stages of
planning a food service operation, the menu guides the selection and layout of
equipment. In operation, the menu we have already seen controls other subsystems
such as purchasing, storage, production and service.

Menus are classified according to frequency of use and degree of choice. Within this
classification, menus are described as fixed (static), cyclic or single-use. These menus
offer the consumer no choice or limited choice. Depending upon the particular food
service operation, the classification may fall in more than one category. These types
of menus have already been described in detail in Unit 5 earlier; hence we shall not
dwell on the types of menu here. But certainly, menu is the focal point of all activities,
particularly the production operation in a food service unit.

Next, let us study about the ingredient control.

7.3.2 Ingredient Control

Basic to production planning is the menu which determines the food/ingredients to be
purchased. Food service operations today have a wide variety of options in selection
of products. Items may arrive as ingredients, semi prepared products, or ready-to-
serve products. Ingredients control actually begins with the forecasting, purchasing,
receiving and storing of foods and continues through preparation and production, the
control of the ingredients supports the major goals of the product consistency and cost
control.

Two major approaches to ingredient control are common in food service operations.
These include:

1) In traditional production systems, employees in production areas are often responsible

for all processes, relating to the preparation of specific items. For this each
employee must be trained in the proper use of measuring and processing equipment
and ingredient handling.

2) An alternative to this approach is training staff specially assigned to the processes

of ingredient control. With this approach, designated areas may be utilized for
these procedures. This approach may involve arrangement in the kitchen or
development of a separate room or area designed for ingredient preparation and
distribution.

The organization of an ingredient control room or area requires consideration of

location, equipment and procedures. A location between storage and production areas
facilitates the efficient flow of materials from ingredients or production. Refer to Table
7.1, which gives the list indicating the major equipments needed of an ingredient
control area.

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Entrepreneurship and Food Table 7.1: List of the major equipments needed for an ingredient control area
Service Management
Control Area Storage Function
Storage Dry
Refrigerated
Frozen
Processing Can opener
Cutting board
Knives
Mixer
Food chopper
Measuring Scales
Measuring cups
Measuring spoons
Ladles
Distributing Various size containers
Lids
Steam table pans
Sheet pans
Carts
Others Waste disposal
Water supply

Selection of appropriate menus and its recipes including ingredient control, we have
read so far are essential components in food production systems management.
Determining the quantities of menu items to be prepared and foods to be purchased
or requisitioned from the store room is the function of production forecast which is
a vital component for the food production system management. Let us review this
component next.

7.3.3 Production Forecasting

We begin our study by first understanding what we mean by production forecasting.
Production forecast is the prediction of the food needs (for a day or far a stated
period) of the food service unit. In other words, forecasting is the basis for determining
quantities of menu item to be prepared and foods to be purchased. It is not only vital
to production planning, but it serves as a basis for purchasing and providing data for
budgeting.

Production forecasting models are popular tools in projecting demand in food service
operation. With the increased availability of computer equipment, the use of more
sophisticated techniques is possible. A basic premise of these models is the reliance
on historical data and usage of records. The assumption is that future needs will be
similar to the past? The goal of evaluating usage is to analyze patterns or trends in
the records.

The most common forecasting methods are time series analysis, which are helpful
in projecting short-term needs. The least complicated procedure is the moving average,
useful for projecting needs for an individual item. The process involves maintaining
usage data for some time period say 5 to 10 days.

The first step in this process involves taking the average for the time period to
determine the first data point. The second data point is determined by omitting the
first usage point and determining the average usage for the next 5 - 10 days period.
An example of the usage data with reference to usage of potatoes is illustrated in Table
7.2.

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 Table 7.2: Moving average method for estimating demand for potatoes Food Management: Quality
Food Production —
Day Pounds of Potatoes Average Planning and Control
1 120
2 90
3 105
4 100
5 115 106 (days 1 - 5)
6 110 104 (days 2 - 6)
7 105 107 (days 3 - 7)
8 95 105 (days 4 - 8)
9 120 109 (days 5 - 9)
10 115 109 (days 6 - 10)

In Table 7.2, you may have notices that the process begins with the recording of usage
of potatoes for 5 days. The first average is calculated by adding the usage for each
of 5 days and dividing by 5 (i.e.120 + 90 + 105 + 100 + 115 = 530/5). The first
average data is 106 pounds. The second average is calculated by average use of
potatoes for day 2 through 6. The second data point is 104 pounds. This procedure
is repeated with each succeeding 5-day usage period.
Evaluation of the moving average shows less change than is shown in the individual
usage patterns. Use of average data values facilitates the ability of purchasing and
production systems to plan for future needs. This technique would be most suited for
those operations that utilized a fixed menu, since usage records would be more
frequent and patterns more easily identified. However, this technique could be altered
for those operations using cyclic menus, since the same items would repeat, and
historical data could be maintained and evaluated.
With adequate forecasting being the framework for deciding amounts to be produced,
a food service unit can hence requisition for purchase. It is always kept in mind as
to how many individuals or people will the food service establishment cater to and
that itself is the basis for determining quantities to be produced. Most big establishments
use computer based programmes for determining amounts to be produced.
Thus we have seen how forecast is the basis for determining quantities of menu items
to be prepared or purchased or for that matter requisitioned from the store. Next, let
us move on to another important component in food production systems management
i.e. production scheduling.

7.3.4 Production Scheduling

Scheduling production is an extension of the production forecast. Projections based
on the expected number of portions of given menu items are the next step in ensuring
appropriate amounts of food are prepared. Schedules define the amount of each item
to be prepared, time sequence, expected and actual yield, additional instructions,
and employee assignments. An example of a format for scheduling production is
presented in Figure 7.1.
Thus we have seen that once the amount has been determined and recipe is known
the next step is to requisition for supplies and scheduling of food preparation. This
requires careful planning in order to extract the best skillful job for the employee
without exhausting the staff members. Scheduling should also account for lesser
holding time and fast doling out of food, with original quality in terms of taste, flavour
and texture to be retained. As we know, that before serving the food, a number of
processes are followed such as:
• Pre-preparation like cutting, peeling, blanching etc.
• Cooking of food
• Holding
• Serving 155
Entrepreneurship and Food Production Schedule Sheet
Service Management
Date:
Meal:
Unit:
Item/Recipe Quantity Actual Time Leftover Comments
Needed Produced Schedule

Additional Instructions:

Figure 7.1: Production schedule sheet

Care has to be taken to see that all scheduling for each recipe to go through these
processes is planned well in advance. Dividing the recipes into a number of stages
helps planning easier as well saves time. Schedules need to be planned well in
advance. So, let us now see as to how production scheduling is carried out.

Often production is scheduled using a production work sheet, which is a checklist of

items in detail to be produced. It clearly mentions the time of preparation of a
particular recipes for the current day’s menu, as well as, lists down various other pre-
preparation instructions needed to be carried out in advance as you may have already
noticed in the production schedule sheet shown in Figure 7.1. Sometimes special
instructions for a dish are also mentioned in this worksheet for example serving
instructions for a particular dish say for pasta items, dessert etc. Often recordings for
amount of food prepared, used and leftover are also carried out. Scheduled worksheet
can be made for individual employers or a common worksheet can be distributed to
a food service department. In large organizations this type of scheduling is particularly
essential to food preparation, as it requires managing of a huge staff and coordination
between each department. Thus, worksheet for scheduling requires careful planning.
However meeting requires careful planning. However meeting at various intervals on
a regular basis can effectively take out confusions and guess work from the scheduling.

The discussion so far focused on the components basic to food production system
management. We hope you have got a good insight into how production planning,
forecast and scheduling are vital to the successful production of high-quality food. To
recapitulate what you have learnt so far, we suggest you answer the questions included
in the check your progress exercise 1. On successfully answering the questions move
on to the next section which deals with production control.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) List the four food service systems.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
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 Food Management: Quality
2) List the two key components of food service management system. Food Production —
Planning and Control
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Distinguish between production forecasting and production scheduling.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

It is the responsibility of the individual or the management of a food service establishment

to serve high quality food. This responsibility starts with production planning, forecasting
and scheduling. Next, the management is responsible for setting of standards and
ensuring that employees are aware of them. This is the production control tool
available in the food service operation. Let us review the production control system
next.

7.4 PRODUCTION CONTROL

Production control involves a number of steps adopted to maintain the quality,
standard and required quantity of the final food product. These steps not only translate
into monetary savings and prevent indiscriminate use, but also help in the upkeep of
maintenance and standard of a food establishment. An important tool for production
control is the use of standardized recipe. In this section we shall get to know about
standardized recipes and their use in production control and also highlight the steps
involved in recipe adjustment for portion size or total yield.
We begin our study with standardized recipe.

7.4.1 Use of Standardized Recipes

It is extremely essential for food service establishments to standardize recipes in order
to maintain quality and to remove guess wok out of food preparation. A standardized
recipe can be termed as a recipe which gives consistently the same result every time
it is used. It gives the amount of ingredients to be used and the procedure to make
the dish. It also specifies the yield, number of portions and the size of portion. An
example of a standardized recipe of urad dal vada is given in Figure 7.2.
Urad Dal Vada
Yield: 100 vadas
Portion size: 2 vadas
No. of servings: 50
Ingredients Amount
Black gram dal 2 kg
Ginger 100 g
Green chilli 50
Oil 1 kg
Method:
1) Soak dal for 8 - 10 hours.
2) Grind to a smooth, fluffy paste with minimum of water.
3) Drop a little mixture into a bowl of water. If the mixture floats, it is ready for
frying. Otherwise, grind more.
4) Add chopped ginger, green chilli and curry leaves. Add these along with salt to the batter.
5) Use a standard ladle to portion out the batter. Make a small round. Press in the center.
6) Heat oil. Fry to a golden brown colour. Serve hot 2 vadas per plate with coconut
chutney and sambar.
Figure 7.2: Standardized recipe for urad dal vada
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Entrepreneurship and Food The development and use of standardized recipes comprises one of the most important
Service Management tools available to food service operations to control costs and ensure product consistency
and quality. Consistent duplication of a food item is achieved with an accurate record
of ingredients, amounts and methods of combining ingredients and cooking. It is
important that recipes be standardized for individual facilities since variation exists with
equipment and temperature controls. The process of standardization recipes results in
instruction that have been tested in a specific operation with equipment and procedures
that will be used in the production of the item. Recipes are tested for quality, quantity
procedures, time, temperature, equipment and yield. Items should be tested and results
recorded until the product characteristics match the needs of the operation.
The importance of using standardized recipes is highlighted herewith.
Standardization of Recipes:
• Promotes uniform quality of foods produced.
• Promotes uniform quantity of foods produced, saves time for cooks, managers,
or dietitians.
• Saves money for controlling waste and regulating inventories.
• Simplifies costing of menu items.
• Simplifies the training of new cooks.
• Introduces a feeling of job security and satisfaction for food service workers.
In the cook-chill and cook-freeze systems, special recipes are required for many items
due to changes that occur in storage. Flavour changes are common, especially in
frozen items. The use of different ingredients or modifications of storage time and
temperature can be helpful in controlling these changes.

Now that we have an idea about what is a standardized recipe and its importance,
next let us get to know how to develop a standardized recipe.

7.4.2 Developing a Programme for Recipe Standardization

Selecting a basic format for recipe is an important first step in developing procedures
for recipe standardization. A block arrangement or format is helpful in developing the
recipe. Let us get to know this format.

A block format is generally used in quantity food service operations. This method of
portraying information categorizes the needed ingredients with amounts and procedures
in visual “blocks” across columns.

Information included in the recipe should also be determined for use in each operation.
Certain information is essential, regardless of the form in which the recipe is written.
Generally, a recipe includes the following information:-
• Name of item or recipe title
• Total yield, portion size, and number of portions.
• Ingredients by count, weight, and/or measure.
• Procedures for combining ingredients.
• Cooking or baking equipments, temperature, and time.
• Portioning information.
Look at Figure 7.2 which presents a standardized recipe for urad dal. Check to see
whether the recipe contain the information presented above. Standard recipes should
be maintained in the format given below. It should include:

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• Recipe title entered on top either centrally or on top right or left hand corner as Food Management: Quality
shown in Figure 7.2. Food Production —
Planning and Control
• Yield and portion size should be indicated either in weight or count or numbers
or volume.
• For baked items, baking time and temperature should be indicated on top so that
preheating of oven and scheduling of baking can be planned without reading the
entire recipe.
• Ingredients and quantities should be given. The names of ingredients should be
consistent in all recipes. It is not right to use the term refined wheat flour in one
place and maida in another place.
• The directions for preparation should be clear and concise. The directions should
be divided into logical steps. Basic procedures should be uniform in all recipes.
For example, white sauce is used for cream soups, baked vegetables and meat
dishes. The procedure followed should be same for all recipes.
• Electrical equipments, if used, the timing and speed should also be indicated.
• Instructions for portioning of foods should also be clear.
A recipe is considered standardized only when it has been tried and adapted for use
in a particular situation or in a given food service operation. A recipe may be obtained
from many sources, however you may have to adjust and standardize for use in a
particular situation. Let us understand how recipe is adjusted next.

Recipe Adjustment
Another important component of recipe is the development of recipes that produce
an appropriate number of portions for the operation. Food service operation may
obtain recipes from a number of sources. Home recipes, published quantity recipes,
or those prepared in the operation for which no written record exists are all examples
of recipes that require adjustments.
Two common methods of recipe adjustment can be used. These include:
A) Factor Method
B) Percentage Method
Let us review these methods.
A) Factor Method
To specify adjusting recipes, it is recommended that all ingredients even liquid be
indicated by weight whenever possible. Using weight measurements is generally more
accurate, especially with dry ingredients, which can easily pack down in a volume
measure. Various conversion tables are available for converting all fractions (if they
exist) to ounce, portions of a pound. The following 4 steps and example detail the
factor method for recipe adjustment.

Example: The basic recipe yields 100 portions; production of 370 portions is
needed.

STEP 1: Divide the desired yield by the known yield of the basic recipe. The
resulting figure of 3.7 i.e.,
370/100 = 3.7 is called the factor.

STEP 2: Multiply all recipe ingredients and the total recipe volume by the factor of
3.7 as shown.

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management Ingredients 100 Portions Factor 370 Portions

Dry chilly beans 6.00 lb × 3.7 22.20 lbs

Canned tomatoes 6.375 lb × 3.7 23.5875 lbs

Chilly powder 0.25 lb × 3.7 0.925 lbs

STEP 3: Since it may be difficult for employees to interpret decimal amounts,

reconverting these decimal units into pounds/ounces or quarts/cups may be
desired.
Ingredients 370 Portions Conversion from Decimal
Dry chilly beans 22.20 lbs 22 lbs 3½ oz.
Canned tomatoes 23.5875 lbs 23 lbs 9½ oz
Chilly powder 0.925 lbs 14½ oz
STEP 4: The adjustment ingredients may be in odd or unusual amounts and may
require rounding. Basic guidelines for rounding have been calculated to be
within the limits of error normally introduced in the handling of ingredients
in the preparing quantity foods.
The sample recipe ingredients would be rounded in the following manner.
Ingredients 370 Portions Rounded Amount
Dry chilly beans 22 lbs 3½ oz 22 lbs 4 oz
Canned tomatoes 23 lbs 9½ oz 23 lbs 10 oz
Chilly powder 14½ oz 14½ oz
Note: 1lbs = 0.4535 kg or 454 g; 1oz = 28.3495 g
Hope having gone through the example above would have given you a good idea of
using the factorial method for recipe adjustment. Next, we shall review the percentage
method.
B) Percentage Method
This method requires the conversion of ingredients to weights and the computation
of the percentage of each ingredients of the total weight. Adjusting the ingredients for
portion size or total yield is a simple process. The following step-by-step instructions
describe recipe adjustment with the percentage method.
STEP 1: Convert all ingredients from measure or pounds and ounces to tenths of
a pound. Make desired equivalent ingredient substitutions, such as frozen
whole eggs for fresh or powdered milk for liquid.
STEP 2: Total the weight of ingredients in a recipe after each ingredient has been
converted to weight in the edible portion (EP). The recipe may show both
AP (as purchased) and EP weights, but the edible portion is used in
determining the total portion weight.
Example: The weight of carrots or celery should be weighed after cleaning and
peeling.
STEP 3: Calculate the percentage of each ingredient in the recipe in relation to the
total weight using the formula given herewith.
Formula
Individual ingredient weight
————————————— × 100 = Percentage of each ingredient
Total weight
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STEP 4: Check the ratio of ingredients. The ingredients should be in proper balance Food Management: Quality
before going further. Food Production —
Planning and Control
STEP 5: Establish the weight needed to give the desired number of servings, which
will be in relation to pan size, portion weight, or equipment capacity.
Example includes the following:
• Total weight must be divisible by the weight per pan.
• A cookie may weigh 0.14 lb/serving, therefore 0.14 times the number of desired
servings equals the weight needed.
• Recipe total quantities should be comparable with the mixing bowl capacity.
STEP 6: Cooking or handling loss must be added to the weight needed and may vary
from 1 to 30%, depending on the product.
The formula for adding handling loss to a recipe is as follows:-
100% – % of handling loss = Yield %
(Yield %) (Total quantity) = Desired yield
Desired yield
Total quantity = ——————
Yield %
Let us understand this with the help of an example.
Example: Yellow cake has a 1% handling loss. Desired yield is 80 lb of batter for 600
servings.
100% – 1% = 99% or 0.99
0.99 of total quantity = 80 lb
80 lb
= ————
Total quantity 0.99
Total quantity = 80.80 lb of ingredients for 80 lb available batter.
STEP 7: Multiply each percentage number by the total weight to give the exact
amount of each ingredient needed. After the percentages of each ingredient
have been established, any number of servings can be calculated and the
ratio of ingredients to the total will be the same. As in the factor method,
one decimal place in a recipe is shown unless the quantity is less than one
pound in which case 2 places are shown.
Thus using this step-by step percentage procedure we can adjust the ingredients for
portion size or total yield.
The discussion so far focused on standardized recipes and its usage in food production
operation to predict the quality, quantity and portion cost of the menu. Next, we shall
study about the safeguards in food preparation and cooking.

7.5 SAFEGUARD IN FOOD PRODUCTION

The prime aim of all food service establishments is to maintain a good food standard,
as well as, quality day after day. Quality is associated with consumer acceptance and
spells monetary gains for the food service establishment. Quality maintenance in food
can be brought about by buying quality merchandise from a reliable wholesaler. Also,
once the food has been cooked, regular food tasting by food experts should be carried
out in order to maintain standard. In order to maintain microbiological and physical
standards, the concept of HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) has been
used in the food industry and food service system. You may recall studying about
HACCP as an effective food safety assurance system in the Food Microbiology and
Safety Course (MFN-003) in Unit 13.
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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management Many food establishments often get their food evaluated whenever a new recipe is
tried out. Also many a different laboratory checks for quality and microbial check
are carried out to maintain quality standards. Sensory evaluations, both subjective and
objective methods are also utilized for determining flavour, texture, odour, mouthfeel
etc. for consumer acceptance of food. We have covered these various sensory
evaluation methods in the Principles of Food Science Course (MFN-008) in Unit 14
under the unit title New Product Development. We suggest you look up this unit now
and revise your understanding of this topic. Here we will further elaborate on the
quality control measures in food production.

7.5.1 Quality Control in Food Preparation and Cooking

The kitchen is the main domain of the chef or kitchen manager and consequently he/
she is responsible for quality control in food preparation and cooking that takes place
in the kitchen. One area in which the chef must take full initiative is the pre-meal
evaluation. All food items that are prepared for the serving line or otherwise for
customer consumption must be quality evaluated prior to serving. This responsibility
might lie with the cook responsible for cooking the recipe, the chef, or some
knowledgeable individual(s) appointed by the management. It is a most important
quality assurance responsibility that can not be neglected.

The chef or the kitchen manager, in carrying out these quality assurance responsibilities
must perform certain functions. These include:
1) He/she must ensure that cooks are following the standard recipes to the letter.
2) He/she should frequently check spices and other additive ingredients to determine
whether they have maintained desired characteristics.
3) It is his or her responsibility to make sure that adequate scales, measuring devices,
and proper cooking utensils are available, and
4) The chef has the important responsibility of ensuring that all kitchen personnel
meet personal hygiene required and are dressed properly.
Other sanitation measures are highlighted hererwith.
Sanitation
Sanitation quality assurance is everyone’s responsibility. Poor sanitation can reduce the
overall quality of a food service establishment in many years i.e. it is very important
to control the quality of sanitation in a restaurant in addition to the quality of the food
being served.

The National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) recommends the following considerations,

when purchasing new food service equipments:
• Equipments should be easy to assemble, remove and to clean.
• All materials should be non-toxic and impart no significant odour, colour or taste
to the food.
• Internal corners should be rounded of without the use of solder.
• All surfaces should be smooth and free of pits, crevices, ledges, inside threads
and shoulders, bolts and rivets.
• Coating materials, especially those on food-contact surfaces, should resists cracking
and dripping.
• Waste and waste liquids should be easily removed.
Measures for controlling microbial quality of food are discussed next.

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7.5.2 Controlling Microbiological Quality of Food Food Management: Quality
Food Production —
The goal of sanitation programme in a food service operation is to protect the Planning and Control
customer from food borne illnesses. Various possibilities for contamination of food
before it is purchased, including contaminated equipments, infected pests and animals,
untreated sewage, unsafe water and soil have been outlined. After the food is purchased
contamination can occur in storage, preparation and service.

According to Ryser and Mart (1989), food handlers must take appropriate precautions
to prevent cross contamination between raw meat, poultry, seafood etc. Information
related to time-temperature control and critical control points need to be considered.
A brief review follows.
Time – Temperature Control
Contamination can be reduced by time, temperature control in the storage, production
and service of foods. Growth of harmful organisms can be slowed or prevented by
refrigeration or freezing. Organisms can be destroyed by sufficient heat.

It is important to note that the microorganism in general, flourishes at temperature

between 40°F and 140°F. This temperature range is identified as the “Food Danger
Zone”, because bacteria multiply rapidly in it. The longest period that food may safely
remain in this zone is for 4 hours, although food should not be in the 60°F to 100°F
range longer then two hours.

Suggested temperature as applied to potentially hazardous food, are those of

40°F and below 140°F and above. Both time and temperature are important in
handling food to preserve microbiological quantity.

Critical Control Points

A step at which control can be applied and is essential to prevent or eliminate a food
safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level is the critical control point. Bauman
(1974) defines critical control points as those steps in production processing in which
loss of control would result in unacceptable safety risks. Nine critical control points
have been identified. These are:
1) Food Procurement
2) Food Storage
3) Food Packaging
4) Pre Processing
5) Meat Processing
6) Food Storage Following Heat Processing
7) Meat Processing of Pre Cooked Menu Items
8) Food Product Distribution
9) Service of Foods
These are points in a food’s production – from its raw state through processing and
shipping to consumption by the consumer – at which the potential hazard can be
controlled or eliminated.

With a review of quality control measures we end our study of food production
planning and control.

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Why is production control important in the food service operation?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) What is a standardized recipe? Why is it an important tool in production
control?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Name two common methods for recipe adjustments.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) List any three recommendations of NSF for purchasing new food service
equipments.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
5) What are critical control points? List any four critical control points in a food
production operation.
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................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

7.6 LET US SUM UP

Production of quality food is a necessity, because people today eat at number of
places outside their house. In today’s fast life food services have gained an importance.
Production of quality is guaranteed only when kitchen is in hygienic conditions and
utensils and crockery are free of germs. In this unit we learnt about the different
aspects related to production management and control.

Standardized recipes and portion control, we learnt, are pre requisites of production
planning. In food service operation use of standardized recipe is a must. Recipe even
though standardized, must have provisions for adjustment, for which different methods
are followed.

Quality food production has a system, which includes forecasting, scheduling and
menus. A menu is a list of food products offered. Menu also controls others sub-
systems such as purchasing, storage, production and service. Ingredient control is a
very important factor in total food production activity. It is ensured with the help of
necessary equipments and storage area.
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Production forecasting and production scheduling have to follow established system Food Management: Quality
for their proper utility. For preparation and cooking of quality food, certain well- Food Production —
Planning and Control
defined quality control measures are undertaken. These include sanitation and time
temperature control. This unit focused on these measures. Certain critical control steps
in the process of food production were also highlighted. These critical points which
are 9 in number are the ultimate determinants in preparation and service of quality
food.

7.7 GLOSSARY
Additives : a substance especially a chemical one added in small
quantities to something else.
Contamination : to make impure or bad by mixing in impure, dirty or
poisonous matter.
Chef : a skilled, usually male cook, especially the chief cooks
in a hotel or restaurant.
Cook-Chill System : in this system, items are prepared and chilled in bulk.
Foods are portioned and plated as much as a day before
being served.
Cook-Freeze System : in this system items are stored frozen for 14 - 190 days.
With both cook freeze and cook chill processes, menu
items receive final heating just before service.
Expedite : to make a plan or arrangement go faster.
Sanitation : the use of means for protecting public health by removing
and treatment of waste.

7.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) The four types of food service systems are traditional, commissary, ready-
prepared and assembly serve.
2) The two key components of food service management system are:
• Selection of appropriate menus and its recipes including ingredients used, and
• Forecasting production and its scheduling.
3) Production scheduling defines the amount of each item to be prepared, time
sequence, expected and actual yield, additional instructions and employer
assignments whereas forecasting models are popular tools in projecting demand
in food service operations.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Production control is important for food production operation because it helps to

maintain the quality, standard and required quantity of the final food product. It
not only translate into monetary savings and prevent indiscriminate use, but also
help in the upkeep of maintenance and standard of a food establishment.

2) A standardized recipe can be termed as a recipe which gives consistently the same
result every time it is used. It gives the amount of ingredients to be used and the
procedure to make the dish. It also specifies the yield, number of portions and
the size of portion.
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Entrepreneurship and Food It serves as an important production control tool as it promotes uniform quantity
Service Management and quality of food produced, saves time for cooks, managers, or dietitians, saves
money for controlling waste and regulating inventories, simplifies costing of menu
items and training of food service workers.

3) The two important method for recipe adjustments are the factor method and
percentage method. The percentage method requires the conversion of ingredients
to weights and the computation of percentage of each ingredients of total weight,
forms the basis of this method of recipe adjustment.

4) Look up sub-section 7.5.1 for the recommendations and answer the question on
your own.

5) Critical control points are those steps in production processing in which loss of
control would result in unacceptable safety risks.
Look up sub-section 7.5.2 for the list of critical control points in a food production
operation.

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 Food Management: Quality
UNIT 8 QUANTITY FOOD PRODUCTION: Food Production —
Planning and Control
KITCHEN PRODUCTION
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 General Procedures Used in Institutional and Commercial Food Production
8.2.1 Collecting Ingredients
8.2.2 Selection of Food
8.2.3 Weighing and Measuring
8.2.4 Preliminary Treatment of Food
8.2.5 Food Production to Achieve Consumer Satisfaction

8.3 Basic Cookery Process and their Application to Quantity Production

8.3.1 Moist Heat Method
8.3.2 Dry Heat Method
8.3.3 Combination Method

8.4 Types of Equipments

8.4.1 Cooking Equipment
8.4.2 Mechanical Processing Equipment
8.4.3 Non-Cooking: Refrigeration Equipment

8.5 Let Us Sum Up

8.6 Glossary
8.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we learnt about the food production system management and control.
The process of production planning, forecasting and scheduling was discussed and the
role of standardized recipe as a production control tool was described. Cooking on
a large scale, you would realize, is more or less similar to small-scale cookery, though
it involves food on a large amount. In this unit we will learn about the general
procedures and techniques used in institutional and commercial food production. Food
production encompasses the preparation of large variety of items ranging from appetizer
to curries, roast, sandwiches, snacks, salads, vegetables, and beverages. For each type
of item, certain skills are needed and different methods of processing are required to
produce different types of dishes. Along with processing techniques, different types
of equipments are required for preparing the final product. In this unit we will focus
on these aspects specific to quantity food production.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the general procedures used in institutional and commercial food
production,
• describe various basic cookery process and their applications to quantity food
production, and
• illustrate the type of equipments used for quantity food production.

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 8.2 GENERAL PROCEDURES USED IN INSTITUTIONAL
AND COMMERCIAL FOOD PRODUCTION
Whenever cooking is done on large-scale considerable resources in the form of time,
human and money are at stake to yield a good, acceptable end product. For this to
happen, measures such as the use of standardized recipe, use of high-level mechanized
items to lessen time consuming procedures for pre-preparation etc. are adopted. Often
equipments like electronic ovens, microwaves, steam jacketed kettles etc. are used for
mass cooking. Apart from this, once the food is prepared and cooked, care is taken
to hold the dishes well before serving to prevent spoilage. These resources/measures
are enumerated herewith.

Good Equipment
The use of proper equipment in top condition is of primary importance in the
production of good food. Standardized measuring equipment’s (cups/glasses/spoons
etc.), a variety of knives, accurate scales and thermometer, and well insulated cooking
range all contribute to good quality of food.

Standardized Recipes
The use of standard recipes is a prime factor in producing good products and obtaining
similar results each time it is being prepared as already highlighted in Unit 7 earlier.
They are particularly necessary to the person who is just beginning to develop skills
in cookery.

Food Service
Not only must food be well prepared to be palatable, it must also be served with an
eye to its colour and appearance. No matter how simple it is there should be
something special about every food served. It is not only necessary to transfer the
food from the baking or cooking dish to a platter or serving dish. Advance planning
may suggest that the item should be cooked in a dish suitable for serving. A simple
garnish can lift the dish out of the realm of the ordinary and make it a special creation.

Timings
To be most palatable and nutritious, food must be served as soon as possible after
it has been prepared. Ideally, all food should be cooked in small quantities and for
a relatively short period of time. Immediate service is frequently possible when food
is prepared for an individual or for a small group but relatively difficult when it is
prepared for large group. The successful handling of food in quantity is an area of
food management that takes intensive study. Dishes that should be eaten cold are less
than perfect if they are not served cold. Similarly, hot dishes, if they are served
lukewarm and on cold plate do not present the food to full advantage.

In the discussion above, we have considered the measures basic to cooking on large-
scale. Next, let us examine the process of food production itself and review the
processes involved in this operation.

Before food is produced and doled out on a large scale it is essential to plan out a
number of activities before final food item is laid on the table. The process of food
production involves a number of interrelated activities, each dependent on the other,
including collecting of ingredients, selection of foods, weighing and measuring them
according to standard recipes, preliminary treatment of foods and cooking technique.
These number of steps mentioned above and illustrated in Figure 8.1 describe a series
of activities that each food service kitchen undergoes before production of the desired
dish.

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 Quality Food Production:
Menu Kitchen Production

Collection of Ingredients

Selection of Food

Weighing and Measuring

according to Standardized Recipe

Preliminary Treatment of Food

Pre-preparation Methods and Processes

Cooking Techniques

Finished Product

Figure 8.1: Flow chart of processes of food production

Let us get to know about these activities. We begin with the process of collecting
ingredients.

8.2.1 Collecting Ingredients

In large quantity food production preparation, collection of ingredients is done on the
day previous to preparation. This is because some items have to be collected from
stores, while others are delivered directly to kitchen such as milk and milk products,
fresh fruits and vegetable. Timely collection also enables early preparation next morning.
This helps to start off the next day without wasting time, in addition to distributing
work evenly throughout the day. Further, in the event of a cook or assistant being
absent the next day, the work goes on as per plan making it easier for others to handle
the jobs without panicking.
Next, let us review selection of food.

8.2.2 Selection of Food

The condition of food when it is brought into kitchen has a great deal to do with the
results obtained. This does not mean that ingredients must be most expensive, but it
does mean that all food should be fresh and at proper stage of maturity for cooking.
Vegetables that have been kept for too long have deterioration and oils that are slightly
rancid cannot be improved during the cooking process. Hence, selection of the right
kind of food and of good quality is essential for food production.

Once the right kind of food is selected, it needs to be weighed and measured so that
the right quantity is determined. This activity is described next.

8.2.3 Weighing and Measuring

In order to produce a popular dish each time it is ordered by a customer and to
maintain standards of quality, it is important to weigh and measure ingredients accurately.
In addition the method of combining these ingredient using the desired methods of
cooking at the right temperature and suitable period of time, are essential for consistency.
In other words, standard recipes are necessary for producing food in large quantity.
We have already learnt about the use of standard recipes in the last unit. You might
169
Entrepreneurship and Food need to adjust the recipe, particularly when we need to produce food in large quantity.
Service Management The methods to use for adjustment have already been described earlier in Unit 7.
Hence, according to the menu and the recipe the ingredients can be accurately
weighed for the production operation to commence.

Once the ingredients have been obtained, to convert them into final products, these
ingredients, food items may require preliminary treatment. Let us get to know about
this activity next.

8.2.4 Preliminary Treatment of Food

Only clean food is palatable. Surface dirt is apparent and is easily removed by
thorough cleaning. It is essential, however, to learn the unique characteristic of each
food that is to be prepared, so that a thorough cleaning may be given. For example,
a soft brush must be necessary to clean the spears of coriander leaves, which
sometimes contain large amount of sand that ordinary washing will not remove. Foods
that are not thoroughly cleaned fail to make their true mark on the dish later. In fact,
strong food dislikes may develop because of a food that was not properly cleaned.
Another preliminary step in preparing the food that affects the finished product is
mechanical treatment given to it. Refer to Figure 8.2, which highlights some of the
pre-preparation methods/processes we carry out before cooking. Cutting, slicing,
dicing, pounding, mashing, rolling and similar mechanical procedures must be planned
systematically for the particular food item handled before cooking. Excessive chopping
or mashing, for example may destroy the tenderness, texture and flavour. Unnecessary
removal of beautifully coloured skins of fruits and cutting up of food into awkward
sizes and shapes may have a fatal effect on finished product. Soaking may be
necessary for some food such as dry fruit and dried legumes, but most dried foods
are not improved by it. They become soft and lose flavour, as well as, nutritive value.
In short, if care and planning go into the preliminary treatment of food, many food
failures can be avoided. Poor preliminary treatment cannot be corrected later.
Seasoning also may make the food more appealing. Let us see how.
Seasoning
Some foods require little seasoning; others are improved by addition of small amounts
of seasoning materials. The purpose in seasoning food is to make it more enticing.
It is the utmost importance to taste food as it is being cooked. Each recipe, regardless
of number of times it is prepared, will show small differences in flavour each time
because the precise flavour of each ingredient making up the dish is never the same.
Consequently, the food should be tasted at regular intervals so that the right amount
of seasoning may be added.
Once the entire preliminary steps in preparing the food have been considered, the food
is ready to be cooked. This is the final process in the food production operation.

8.2.5 Food Production to Achieve Customer Satisfaction

One of the keys to good cooking is to understand the composition and structure of
the food and the chemical and physical changes that take place during cooking. Basic
cooking principle must be observed for each group of food products, if good results
are to be obtained. Techniques for cooking are the result of the application of cooking
principle to the preparation of food. The objective of cooking food, as we all are
aware, is not only to improve the digestibility of food, but also to develop and enhance
the flavour and appearance of the food in terms of colour, form, texture. Cooking
also helps to destroy harmful organisms and substances and at the same time conserve
nutritive value. Cooking is accomplished by the transfer of heat from an energy source
to and through the food. Various different cooking methods can be employed. A detail
review of the different methods is presented next in section 8.3.

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 Quality Food Production:
Kitchen Production

Figure 8.2: Pre-preparation methods and processes

171
Entrepreneurship and Food But first let us take a break and recapitulate what we have learnt so far. Answer the
Service Management questions given in check your progress exercise 1.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Process of food production involves a number of interrelated activities. Illustrate
these activities in the form of a flow chart.

2) List the resources required for cooking at a large scale.

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Why is it essential to clean raw food items? List the pre-preparation methods/
processes used in large-scale cooking.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

8.3 BASIC COOKERY PROCESS AND THEIR

APPLICATION TO QUANTITY PRODUCTION
Once the food items have been pre-prepared they need to be put together to form
a dish, which is attractive, aromatic, tasty and thus enjoyable to eat. Most food need
to be subjected to some processing involving the application of heat, in order to make
them tender, easy to digest, safe from microorganisms. The process of subjecting food
to heat processing is termed as “cooking”. Some food need not be cooked if the
desired effect required is crispness, as in salad making, or if they are used to be as
accompaniments or garnishes for main dishes. The manner in which heat is applied
to food during cooking determines the type of cooking methods used. The methods
developed may be classified under three main heads – moist cooking, dry heat
cooking and combination methods – as illustrated in Figure 8.3.
a) Moist Heat b) Dry Heat C) Combination Methods
• Boiling • Roasting • Braising
• Simmering • Grilling & broiling
• Poaching • Toasting
• Stewing • Baking
• Blanching • Sautéing
• Steaming • Frying
• Pressure cooking • Microwave cooking

Figure 8.3: Different cooking methods

The different methods of cooking classified under each of the three heads are
described herewith. We shall begin our study of these methods starting with the moist
heat methods.
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8.3.1 Moist Heat Method Quality Food Production:
Kitchen Production
The process of transferring heat from a source of food through the medium of water
is called ‘moist heating’. Boiling, simmering, poaching, stewing, blanching, steaming
are a few examples of moist heating as illustrated in Figure 8.3. Let us get to know
these moist heat methods in detail.
1) Boiling: Boiling is cooking food by just immersing them in water at 100°C
and maintaining the water at that temperature till the food is tender. Water is said
to be boiled when large bubbles are seen rising constantly to the surface of liquid
and then breaking rapidly. Food may be boiled in any liquid, which is bubbling
at the surface such as stock, milk, juices, syrups, etc. Boiling is rarely used as
the sole method of cooking. The few foods that are cooked by boiling and served
as such are potatoes, eggs, sweet potatoes, rice and beetroot. Boiling of food may
be done in one of the following two ways:
i) By bringing the water or liquid to bubbling point and then adding the food
to be cooked, and allowing the liquid to bubble again till the food is done.
ii) By adding the food to water or liquid and heating them together to the boiling
point and then maintaining the temperature till the food is tender.
Boiling as a method of cooking is generally used in combination with simmering
and other methods in preparation of curries, soups, stews, sauces in food service
establishments.
2) Simmering: When foods are cooked at temperature just below the boiling point
of the liquid in which they are immersed, the process is known as “simmering”.
It is a useful method to use when food has to be cooked for long time to make
it tender, as in case of cuts of meats, Indian puddings like kheer, custards etc.
Using this method of cooking ensures that the food retains its shape better and
the nutrient losses are minimum.
3) Poaching: This involves cooking in the minimum amount of liquid at a temperature
just below the boiling point. Foods generally poached are eggs, fruits and fishes.
For poaching eggs, the addition of little salt and vinegar to the cooking liquid
lowers the temperature of coagulation, cooking eggs quickly and giving the
poached egg a clean smooth edge.
4) Stewing: This is the gentle method of cooking in a pan with a tight fitting lid, using
small quantities of liquid, to cover only half the food. The food above the liquid
is thus cooked by steam generated within the pan. The liquid is brought to the
boiling point and then the heat applied is reduced to maintain the cooking at
simmering temperature, that is 98°C. Stewing is therefore a slow method taking
2 - 4 hours depending on the nature and volume of food being stewed. The
method is generally used for cooking cheaper cuts of meat along with some root
vegetable and legumes, all put in the same cooking pot and cooked to get a stock
or water. The longer cooking time and lower temperature enables tougher meat
fibers to become tender. The cooking of meat and vegetables together makes the
dish attractive and nutritious since no liquid is discarded.
5) Blanching: In meal preparation it is sometimes necessary to peel off the skins of
fruits, vegetables, nuts etc without making the food tender. This is achieved by
dipping the food in boiling water for varying periods of time (5 seconds to 2
minutes) depending on the texture of food. Pouring enough boiling water on the
food to immerse it for some time, or subjecting food to boiling temperature for
short period of time and then immediately immersing in cold water kept ready
for the purpose also does blanching. The process causes the skin to become loose
and can be peeled off easily. The process helps to maintain a good texture, while
improve the colour and flavour of the foods. In addition removing peel can
improve digestibility, eliminates enzyme and microbial activity, and make it safe
for consumption in salads, sandwiches, puddings etc. 173
Entrepreneurship and Food 6) Steaming: This method requires the food to be cooked in the steam generated
Service Management from vigorously boiling water or liquid in a pan so that the food is completely
surrounded by steam, and not in contact with the water or liquid. Steaming is
generally done in special equipment designed for the purpose. Small establishments
can use double boilers, while larger ones utilize pressure cookers designed to hold
16 - 20 liter of liquid, and provided with separators for steaming food. For very
large establishments, steamers are available which may be simple or pressure
steamers for quick cooking of large quantities of food. Food best suited is
vegetables, fruits, fishes, custards, cereals and generally those, which get quickly
tender. The method is ideal for making idlis, dhokla or other fermented products.
Steaming has certain definite advantage of making food more easily digestible,
nutritious and full of flavour. This is because it is not necessary to add fat in this
process and the food retains its nutrients better because heating temperature is
constant, cooking time short and leaching minimum. Besides, it is consumed as
soon as it is prepared, especially if the food is batch cooked, this prevents nutrient
loss which would normally take place if the food is held for some time before
being served.
7) Pressure cooking: This is a method of cooking developed on the principle that
more heat is generated by steam under pressure than otherwise, and therefore
cooking time is greatly reduced. Also since the steam is not allowed to escape,
the volatile flavour compounds remains in the food and the shorter cooking time
enhances nutrient retention and palatability. Pressure-cooking is best suited in
cooking of foods, which require being moist such as curries, soups, broths, and
stews. The equipment for pressure-cooking varies in its capacity to suit the needs
of food services of different types and sizes, and can usually be adjusted for
pressure of 5-10-15 lbs per square inch.
With a discussion of pressure cooking we end our study of the moist heat methods.
Next, let us review the dry heat methods.

8.3.2 Dry Heat Method

The dry heat method involves the transfer of heat directly from the source to a food.
Unlike the moist heat methods, water or moisture is not used in this method.
However, fat may be used for cooking such food. Examples of dry heat methods
include roasting, toasting, baking, sautéing, grilling etc. as illustrated in Figure 8.3. Let
us get to know about these dry heat methods now.
1) Roasting: This is a method is which the food is brought in contact with direct
heat. The food is periodically coated with fat and the pieces of food, generally
meats are turned over the fire occasionally for even cooking. Roasting may be
carried out using 3 types of equipment. When a ‘split’ containing live coal on
which meat pieces are skewed together are placed and rotated at intervals using
the wooden or heatproof handle on the skewer, the method of cooking is called
as “split roasting”. “Boti” kababs are placed in this manner, for split roasting,
it is advisable to use small pieces of deboned pieces, and has an even brown
colour with a characteristic flavour. It has high customer appeal because it is
served straight from the fire and is fresh, hot and aromatic. The second type of
roasting is done in an oven, either electric or an oven known as tandoor and the
method is refered to as “oven roasting”. In this the meat is placed on a mesh
or slotted shelf inserted in a roasting tray, to allow the meat dipping to fall at the
base. If drippings are allowed to touch the base of meat, charring or burning will
take place, or part of meat will get flavour of fried meat. It is useful to moisten
meat from time to time with oil.
In “oven roasting” usually large joints of full birds are cooked. The meat turns
brown and crisp on the surface and moist and tender from inside. If the top is
also required to be moist then the bird are best roasted with their skins. Good
174
 roasting involves preheating the oven to 425°C first, placing the meat in it, and Quality Food Production:
letting it brown for 5 - 10 minutes and reducing the temperature and allowing it Kitchen Production
to cook till tender. If only one temperature is used, then cooking at a moderate
temperature of 350 - 375°C for longer cooking time gives a better product than
a higher temperature for short time. This is because moderate temperature and
longer cooking time ensures complete heat penetration through the food. Constant
high temperature may even lead to over browning or charring and uneven
cooking, with greater moister loss resulting in a dry product. Over roasting joints
after browning and then wrapping them in aluminum foil, this method retains
moister and flavour and leads to even heat penetration and cooking.
Roasting can also be done in heavy pan if small joints are to be cooked. This
method is known as “pan or pot roasting”. The principle underlying the process
of roasting involves sealing the meat surface through the coagulation of surface
protein brought about by direct heat and high temperature. The sealing prevents
further evaporation of moisture from middle of the meat, retaining it juices and
natural flavour. Besides meat, root vegetables like potatoes may be roasted. In
India, peanuts, popcorn, and Bengal gram are roasted in a “kadai” containing sand
or salt, which are continuously heated over a source of heat.
2) Grilling and broiling: The term grilling and broiling are used synonymously for
cooking by application of dry heat. The food is placed on a metal grid directly
over the source of heat or on a tray placed on the source of heat. Some
equipment is designed so that the food comes between electrically heated grill
bars. Usually tender cuts of meat; poultry and fishes are prepared this way and
browned under a grill. Cheese and preparations of cheese like pizza, cheese toast,
chops, bacon, tomatoes, and capsicum are also grilled. In fact, this method of
cooking has given the name to a dish known as “mixed grill” which consist variety
of meat and vegetables. When food is cooked uncovered on heated metal or a
frying pan, the method is often called as “pan broiling”.
Grilling has also been done with the use of infrared radiations reducing the
cooking time. The equipment used is called the “infra-red grill”.
3) Toasting: The term toasting is used to describe the process in which the bread
kepts under the grill or between two heated elements, to brown on both sides and
become crisp slices. This does not imply cooking. Toasters are available which
radiate heat from both the sides at the same time and can be adjusted to give
the required degree of brownness through temperature control. Automatic model
switch off when the present temperature and brownness is reached, and the toast
pops out of the toaster automatically.
4) Baking: Food cooked by baking involves the use of an oven or tandoor-equipment
in which hot air circulates around the food placed in it. While it is a dry heat
method of cooking the action of dry heat is combined with that of steam, which
is generated while the food is cooking. Foods baked are brown and crispy on
top, and soft and porous in center. Some dishes baked are cakes, bread,
puddings, vegetables, meat dishes in sauces etc.
The principle involved in baking is that the air inside the oven is heated by a
source of heat, electricity, gas or wood, as in case of tandoor. The oven is
insulated to prevent outside temperature from causing fluctuations in internal
temperature of the equipment. In case of the traditional tandoor, the insulation
is provided by a coating of mud given on the outside and inside of the galvanized
iron or brick oven. The temperature of the traditional tandoor is tested, the
indicator being the speed with which the water sprinkled on the inside evaporates.
If this is too high sprinkling is done to reduce temperature just right for cooking
of specific foods. Once the right temperature is attained, the foods are placed in
hot air currents which passes on their heat to the food through the container, or
directly as the case may be. The top of the food gets brown and crispy because
of the direct heat on the surface of the food. 175
Entrepreneurship and Food The method of heat transformation involved are radiations from the source of
Service Management heat to the metal wall at the base of the oven, by conduction from the base to
the other walls, and by convection through the heated air currents set up in the
oven, to the food.
5) Sautéing: This method involves cooking in just enough fat or oil to cover the base
of the pan. The food is tossed occasionally or turned over with a spatula to
enable all the pieces to come in contact with the oil and get cooked evenly.
Sautéing involves light tossing in the food in heated oil and then covering the pan
with the lid, reducing the flame or the intensity of the heat applied to the pan,
and allowing the food to be cooked till tender in its own steam. The product
obtained in cooking is slightly moist, tender but without any liquid or gravy.
Foods cooked by sautéing are generally vegetables, used as side dish in a menu.
Sautéing can, however be well combined with other methods of cooking to
produce variety of meals.
6) Frying: This is a method in which food to be cooked is immersed fully or partially
in hot fat till it acquires a golden brown colour and a crisp feel. When foods
are completely immersed in fat or oil, the method is known as ‘deep frying’, while
the term ‘shallow frying’ is used when the food is only partially immersed or has
only surface contact with oil or fat.
Foods are generally fried in kadai or in fryers designed for the purpose, and
provided with wire nets for immersing the food in the hot fat and then draining
out the excess oil from the food after the cooking is completed.
Some fried foods are fish and eggs, fried chops, cutlet, kebabs, samosas and so
on. The list can be endless because fried foods are crisp, attractive, aromatic,
quickly served and microbiologically safe due to high temperature at which the
cooking is done.
Deep fried foods differ greatly in texture, flavour, appearance and taste. Since
each food has specific quality characteristics, it is important to maintain them or
enhance them in the process of frying. To do this, it is essential to know what
deep-frying involves and quality can be affected for better or for worse. The
factors involved are:
i) Selection of right frying medium: Any fat or oil used for frying should be
flavourless so that it does not mask the natural flavour of the food. The
smoking point of the frying medium when fresh should not be less than
220°C and it must contain some antioxidants and stabilizers to prevent its
deterioration during storage, and while in use.
ii) Knowledge of the right frying temperature: Different foods require different
frying temperature for best result. If higher temperatures are used more than
necessary, the oil or fat breaks down and discolours the food, making it
unacceptable and unpalatable.
iii) Use of proper frying techniques: The proper method used in frying is vital
to the quality of product obtained. If the food has been fried properly there
will be minimum absorption of fat and oil by the food, making it look and
taste crisp and fresh instead of stale and greasy. Foods, which look too
greasy, indicate that they have been fried at too low temperature or re-fried
to serve hot. Most foods require to be coated before frying in order to retain
moisture and flavour, and seal in the nutrients.
iv) Proper care and selection of frying equipment: Selection of the right size
and design for the equipment to suit the needs of an establishment is
important especially when a fryer has to be invested on. The size will be
determined by the frequency with which fried foods appear on the menu and
the volume of frying to be done in one lot.
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7) Microwave cooking: This method involves the use of high frequency electromagnetic Quality Food Production:
waves, which penetrate the food and produce frictional heat by setting up Kitchen Production
vibration within the food. Special ovens are designed for the purpose. They are
fitted with a magnetron so placed as to focus the microwave on the food. The
two greatest advantage of cooking by this method are quick cooking (within
minutes), and the absence of heat in the oven. The later enables the dishes to
remove from the oven by ease and safely without the use of clothes or gloves.
The method is however only suitable for cooking or heating up small portion. It
is an excellent method of reheating or finishing individual portions of food on
demand, because the method does not brown the food each time it is heated, and
hence retain its original colour of food. In some model of microwave oven a
browning or roasting cycle has been introduced where required in finishing
kitchens. In microwave cooking, it is important to keep in mind that metal reflects
the microwave, while glass, plastic, paper or china transmits them to the food.
It is therefore necessary to use the container that will transmit the microwave.
The usefulness of microwave in self service cafeterias, kiosks, coffee shops and
lunch rooms, where people eat at different times and in small groups, cannot be
overemphasized. In industrial and hospital canteen where service needs to be
provided for night staff, the microwave is an asset for heating up meals at odd
hours, in required quantities and instantly.
Besides the dry and the moist heat methods discussed above, many a times a
combination of methods are used in food production. These combination methods are
reviewed next.

8.3.3 Combination Method

Combination method as the name suggests, involves the use of more than one method
of cooking. The most commonly used combination method of cooking is braising
which is described herewith.

Braising: This is a method in which roasting and stewing are combined for cooking.
The foods are first browned or pan roasted in little oil or fat to seal off the surface,
then half covered with liquid, the pan tightly closed, and the foods stewed till tender.
Braising is a good method, especially for cooking meats, and lot of Indian curries is
prepared in this way. Similarly, legumes and pulses can be stewed in little fat, and
then pressure-cooked or steamed. Another method used of combination method of
cooking is the preparation of meatball curry. In this meat is mixed with herbs, spices,
onions, garlic, and Bengal gram dal, and pressure cooked till tender. The mixture is
then ground to fine paste, bound together with eggs, made into balls and deep-fried.
Curry is then prepared by browning onions, adding spices, tomato puree and water.
The mixture is then brought to boil, and then balls are added to it. The temperature
is then held just below the boiling point for minutes, and the mixture is simmered and
held hot for service. It is thus seen that two or more methods may be used together
in preparing a dish.

We have reviewed the different types of food preparation methods, which can be used
in the food production operation. Next, we shall focus on the types of equipments
commonly used in a food production operation.

8.4 TYPES OF EQUIPMENT

Equipment and utensils are absolutely essential for the efficient food production and
running of any food service establishment commercial or small. Food service equipment,
you may recall studying in Unit 3, sub-section 3.4.3, may include mechanical processing
equipment, cooking equipment, non-mechanical equipment and/or service equipment.
Determination of the needs is the first and the most important
consideration for deciding the type of equipment required in any food service 177
Entrepreneurship and Food establishment. The form in which the raw food material is obtained will also influence
Service Management the choice of processing equipment. The number of employees and their capacity to
do work will further determine the need for equipment. Decisions regarding equipment
are also based on space available to accommodate them in the kitchen. We shall
briefly review few common cooking, processing and non-cooking equipment required
for an institution kitchen next. A detail review on equipment is presented later in Unit
16. Let us begin our review herewith the study of cooking equipment.

8.4.1 Cooking Equipment

Cooking equipment can be gas operated or electrical. Some may also be steam
operated as double jacketed kettles and pots, pressure cooker etc. Some handy points
to be considered while purchase of these equipment is highlighted herewith.
1) Grill or griddle: Griddle, you might be aware, is a flat metal surface, such as
a pan, used for cooking by dry heat. Grill on the other hand, is a cooking surface
of parallel metal bars. Points to be considered while purchasing these equipment
include:
— Size, according to the need
— Sectional control of heat – different temperature at different part of grill at
the same time.
— Reliable thermostat controls
— Uniform retention of heat
— Speed of temperature recovery
— Easy cleaning and mobility for ease of serving.
2) Broiler: Any equipment that broils is a broiler, especially a small oven or the
part of the stove used for broiling. Different types of broilers are available. We
may consider the following when purchasing:
— Charcoal broilers (heat is below grids)
— Flavour from smoke in product desirable
— Skill required to control heat and broiling
— Electric and gas broilers (above grids are heated)
Other considerations, which are important, are as follows:
— Select grids with adjustable height
— Select size of slit needed
— Height should be convenient to cooks
— Grease trays easy to remove, baffles and fitters within easy reach for frequent
and thorough cleaning
— Proper ventilation for smoke and grease is necessary
— “ Free standing” are easier to clean and safer than those above or below range
tops.
3) Ovens: An oven is a chamber or enclosed compartment for heating, baking, or
roasting food, as in a stove, or for firing, baking, hardening, or drying objects,
as in a kiln. The points to be considered while purchasing oven include:
— Suitable range of temperature – 40°C to 260°C
— Reliable temperature controls, good thermostat and insulation
— Speed or temperature required
— Level, easy to reach shelves
— Each shelf should hold 45 by 65 cm bun pan
— Appropriate capacity for work to be done
— Easy to operation and cleaning.
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4) Microwave oven: A microwave oven is an oven in which food is cooked, warmed, Quality Food Production:
or thawed by the heat produced as microwaves. Microwaves passing into foods Kitchen Production
cause rapid vibration of water molecules, and food cooks and heats in a few
seconds or minutes. Microwaves pass through china, plastic and paper with no
effects. These materials are used to hold the food when cooking. Metals reflect
microwave and should not be used in cooking in microwave ovens. The use of
microwave ovens is indicated for:
— Defrosting frozen and reheating cooked foods in seconds
— Fast production of individual servings, large amounts take much longer.
Caution: - There are some dangers of radiation, especially in older models, which can
be dangerous to cardiac patients with electronic pacemakers.
In this section we have reviewed some common cooking equipments needed in a food
production operation. Next, we shall get to know about mechanical processing
equipments.

8.4.2 Mechanical Processing Equipment

Mechanical processing equipments are basically the labour saving devices that are
needed in large kitchens. Few common mechanical processing types of equipment are
reviewed herewith.
Vegetable peeler: A vegetable peeler is an upright cylinder with rotating uneven disc
on the bottom that throws vegetable against rough carborundum sides. Sizes may be
for 4.5 - 30 kg or other round vegetable.
Revolving chopper: A revolving chopper is a round bowel with knives rapidly turning
in circular motion, for chopping onions, meat, and other foods. Julienne and dicing
equipment usually attaches to the above bowel-type cutter, to a mixer, or to a separate
unit with various grid plates for strips of different thickness, and cross cutting blade
for dicing.
Caution:-Keep hands away from bowel and the blades. Turn off before cleaning.
Vertical cutter/Mixer: A vertical cutter or mixer is large like 14 - 75 liter blender with
water running through it as it operates. It chops vegetables, meats, cheese, breadcrumbs,
and other foods.
Slicing Machines: Slicing machines control portion sizes, as for ham or roast beef,
save labour, and provide attractive uniform slices.
Mixers: Mixers are labour savers in various areas for bakery, whipping potatoes,
making mayonnaise etc. Number in kitchen varies from one in small kitchen to more
than one in various areas. Size can vary in capacity from 4.75 - 135 liters.
Agitator mixers feature:
— Standard beater for mashing, creaming, blending
— Whip for egg white, whipped cream, frosting
— Dough hook for yeast breads
— Pastry knife for pastry
— Sweet dough arm for yeast mixtures with higher portion of fat and sugar.
A wide variety of processing equipments are available. Depending on the need these
may be purchased for the production unit. Next, we shall review the non-cooking
equipment, particularly the refrigeration equipment required in a food production unit.

8.4.3 Non-Cooking: Refrigeration Equipment

The amount of refrigerator and freezer equipment will depend on the menu and kind
of fresh and frozen foods purchased. The use of refrigeration is indicated for holding
or storing perishable foods, to prevent spoilage, for sanitation, and to chill foods for
serving. 179
Entrepreneurship and Food Design feature should include:
Service Management
— Doors no bigger than necessary
— Removable and adjustable shelves for ease of cleaning and storage
— Cleaning and storage
— Self defroster
— Good insulation.
The issue of selection of equipment is so important since errors are costly and energy
conservation is a prime consideration. The size or capacity of equipment to select for
a given situation, as already mentioned, is determined largely by the type of menu
and service offered and the quantities of different types of foods to be prepared at
one time. Material for the various food service equipment should also be suitable for
the purpose. The material used in the equipment will influence price, wearing quality,
sanitation and suitability.

We have in this unit therefore reviewed the general procedures used in institutional
and commercial food production and describe various basic cookery process and their
applications to quantity food production. The types of equipments used for quantity
food production have also been highlighted.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) What are the different types of cooking methods used in quantity cooking?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Differentiate between the dry heat and moist heat methods giving examples.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Define the following:
a) Sauéting: ................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
b) Stewing: .................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
c) Braising: ..................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
4) Name different types of equipments used in large-scale cooking and give one
example of each.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
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 Quality Food Production:
8.5 LET US SUM UP Kitchen Production

Quantity cookery is more or less similar to small quantity food production, but the
actual way of preparation may vary slightly due to large amount of food at stake when
cooking on a large scale. In this unit we reviewed the various methods of cooking
such as moist heat method, dry heat, method and combination method of cooking.
We learnt that different types of food use various methods of cooking and food service
units take special precautions to carry out all the methods of cooking at right temperatures.

With the advent of mass cooking, food industries have constantly aimed for better
equipments for quick cooking, holding and service of food items. Thus, today we
see a number of sophisticated mechanical instruments that aid in quantity cookery
such as steam-jacketed kettle. With all these equipments, coupled with use for
standardized recipes, have made quantity cooking at a mass level earlier and less time
consuming.

8.6 GLOSSARY
Seasoning : the act or process by which something is seasoned.
Seasoning may be something, such as a spice or
herb, used to flavour food.
Standardized recipe : is a recipe which gives consistently the same result
every time it is used. It gives the amount of ingredients
to be used and the procedure to make the dish. It
also specifies the yield, number of portions and the
size of portion.

8.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Refer to Figure 8.1 and present the flow chart of the processes involved in large-
scale food production.
2) The resources required for cooking at a large scale include use of standardized
recipe, use of high-level mechanized items to lessen time consuming
procedures for pre-preparation etc. Apart from this, once the food is prepared
and cooked, care is taken to hold the dishes well before serving to prevent
spoilage.
3) It is essential to clean raw food items and surface dirt with the help of clean
potable water to avoid contamination, spoilage and change in flavours at the time
of preparation. Food not cleaned properly may have inherent smells that may
raise objections in a food item.
Cutting, slicing, dicing, pounding, mashing, rolling and similar mechanical
procedures are a few of the pre-preparation methods/processes used for the
particular food item handled before cooking.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Dry heat method, the moist heat method and combination methods are commonly
used in food production operation.
2) The dry heat method involves the transfer of heat directly from the source to a
food. Examples of dry heat methods include roasting, toasting, baking, sautéing,
grilling etc. The process of transferring heat from a source of food through the
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Entrepreneurship and Food medium of water is called ‘moist heating’. Boiling, simmering, poaching, stewing,
Service Management blanching, steaming are a few examples of moist heating.
3) a) Sautéing involves light tossing in the food in heated oil and then covering
the pan with the lid, reducing the flame or the intensity of the heat applied
to the pan, and allowing the food to be cooked till tender in its own steam.
b) Stewing is a moist heat method of cooking in a pan with a tight fitting lid,
using small quantities of liquid, to cover only half the food. The food above
the liquid is thus cooked by steam generated within the pan.
c) Braising is a method in which roasting and stewing are combined for
cooking. The foods are first browned or pan roasted in little oil or fat to
seal off the surface, then half covered with liquid, the pan tightly closed,
and the foods stewed till tender.
4) Different types of equipments used in large-scale cooking include mechanical
processing equipments (for example vegetable peelers, revolving choppers, vertical
cutters, slicing machines etc.) cooking equipments (for example griddle, broilers,
ovens, microwave ovens), non-cooking equipment (for example refrigerator, freezer
etc.) and/or service equipments.

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 Quality Food Production:
UNIT 9 FOOD MANAGEMENT: RECORDS AND Kitchen Production

CONTROLS
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Records and Controls: Basic Concept
9.3 Records Necessary for a Catering Unit
9.3.1 Budget
9.3.2 Types of Budget
9.3.3 Purchase Records
9.3.4 Receiving Records
9.3.5 Storage Records
9.3.6 Production Records
9.3.7 Service Records
9.3.8 Income and Expenditure Records
9.4 Reviewing Actual Performance Reports
9.4.1 Daily Food Cost Report
9.4.2 Cumulative Food Cost Report
9.4.3 Daily Cumulative Food Cost Report
9.4.4 Profit and Loss Statement
9.5 Cost Control
9.5.1 Factors Affecting Cost Control
9.5.2 Determining Selling Price of Food
9.5.3 Checklist for Cost Control
9.6 Let Us Sum Up
9.7 Glossary
9.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

9.1 INTRODUCTION
We have already learnt about different kinds of food service institutions. Some units
such as restaurants and fast food units are profit oriented. Others such as orphanages
and old age homes come under the category of welfare institutions. Irrespective of
the kind of food service institution, good financial planning and management are
essential for the success of any organization. This unit focuses on management of food
by means of records and controls.

It is very important for a food service establishment to set up a financial plan to realize
the establishment’s goals and desires. A budget is a good financial guide/plan that helps
in daily, monthly and yearly operations. What are the different types of budgets? This
is the basic aspect covered in this unit. Further, the different records that must be kept
for the different operations/processes in a catering unit namely purchasing, receiving,
storage, production, service, income and expenditure records are highlighted.

The concept of cost control and the factors affecting it including the checklist for cost
control is finally described in this unit.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• plan and prepare a budget,
• discuss the important role of records and reports in catering units,
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Entrepreneurship and Food • identify the various records that are necessary in various areas of a catering unit,
Service Management
• use the records skillfully in analysis of food cost,
• prepare income and expenditure statement,
• explain the method of preparing profit and loss statement,
• identify the factors affecting cost control using a check list, and
• suggest remedial measures if necessary to achieve the target profit.

9.2 RECORDS AND CONTROLS: BASIC CONCEPT

Baburam managed a small restaurant called ‘Tasty Bite’, which served various snacks
such as idlis, vadas, dosas, samosas and bread pakoras; plate lunches such as rajma
and rice, kadhi and rice, tandoori roti with dal makhani, kulche chole and similar
dishes, as well as, beverages. His restaurant opened in the morning at 7.30 am and
was open till 9 pm. Baburam hoped to get early morning customers who needed
breakfast, office goers who needed a quick snack or lunch and shoppers who wanted
a quick dinner.

Baburam believed that with good accounting procedures he will be able to achieve
expected percentage of profit. Accounting is the process of establishing balance
between money available and expenditure. When we go shopping, we take a certain
amount of money with us. How do we decide how much to take? We have an
estimate of expenditure that we are going to incur. This roughly is the process of
planning a budget. Budget is the proportion of money to be spent on each particular
item. When we shop, we collect bills of purchase for every item we buy. These bills
are the records that help us to keep track of money. After shopping, when we compare
the expenditure with our original plan of spending, it is called evaluation or control.
A good accounting or control thus has three steps – budget making, record keeping
and evaluation of performance.

Records such as budget provide a financial plan for the organization. Other records
are essential to keep track of where the money has gone. Records of income and
expenditure also provide valuable information as to whether the objectives of the
organization are being fulfilled. Profit and loss statement helps to understand whether
the catering unit is generating the expected amount of profit or whether it is incurring
loss. It also forms the basis for future financial planning and control.
We shall review the different records necessary for a catering unit next.

9.3 RECORDS NECESSARY FOR A CATERING UNIT

The financial goals of various catering units differ. Some want to make as large a
profit as possible; others are welfare institutions but want to provide the best possible
food and service that is possible within the financial constraints. In all situations, some
type of financial plan is a key to achieving desired goals. Without such a guide,
problems may arise before management is aware of them and could lead to financial
downfall. The financial plan most commonly used is a budget that all organizations
should prepare and use as a guide for maintaining a sound and healthy organization.
A well thought and financial plan is essential for planning and management of a food
service unit. Before a budget is actually decided upon, all food service establishments
draw a financial plan in order to achieve harmonious monetary management and
sound decision-making.

It is, therefore, imperative for all food service limits to pinpoint their financial goals
through good budgeting. For this to happen, adequate and timely maintenance of
records is essential. While using the records as a ready reckoner, one can assess needs
on a daily, monthly and also manual basis. These records also express the need to
184
bring out correction of glitches that might be possible. Thus, it is very important for Food Management:
a food service establishment to set up a financial plan to realize the establishment’s Records and Controls
goals and desires. So let us now see what a budget is.

9.3.1 Budget
All of us are familiar with the term budget. We wait in anticipation for the budget
announcement of the country. We in turn prepare a budget for our household
expenses and try hard to stay within this plan. As we have learned earlier in Unit 2
in this course, budget is also called as the ‘numerical expression of plans’. In other
words, a budget is a systemic plan for the expenditure of a resource or total sum
of money allocated for a particular purpose or period of time. It covers the planned
activities of the organization for a given period of time, normally a year. Budgets are
based on factual data from past records of income, expenditure; census and labour
hours used and takes into consideration changes that may affect future operations. A
budget has its own advantages for a food service establishment. Let us see what they
are?
• A budget is an extremely valuable tool and helps in forecasting of future decisions
of a food service unit.
• All major decision-making are directly linked to the financial budget of a food
service establishment.
• It acts as a control device wherein checks can be imposed if overspending occurs.
• A budget provides the realism for achievement and makes an establishment think
wisely before spending.
• A budget provides for continuity in case of changeover in management.
However, there are certain disadvantages that are associated with budgeting, though
far less compared to its advantages. Often budgets are inflexible and care should be
taken to exercise some degree of flexibility in its use. Its preparation is time-
consuming and requires all the management and staff to adhere to it. Some times
one department in an establishment may need more financial resources which may
alter the budget balance.

Before we actually move on to study the procedures involved in budget-making, let

us have a look at the various phases in planning a budget next.

There are three distinct steps in budget planning, each deriving information from the
one before:
• The evaluation phase, which looks at the past performance and identifies the
factors that influence the future.
• The planning phase, which uses the information compiled during the evaluation
to forecast the budget.
• The control phase, which uses the budget cost during planning to keep track of
monthly performance.
How do we actually prepare a budget? The following is a step-by-step procedure for
preparing a budget.
1) Collect data from current and past records, reports of income and expenses, as
well as, census.
2) Study these data and evaluate against the goals of the organization. Information
reviewed should cover actual operating data, as well as, data on how it differs
from the planned budget (called as variance) for previous 3 - 4 years with
justification or explanation of variance.
185
Entrepreneurship and Food 3) Discuss and analyze any and all the factors that may affect future
Service Management operations.
4) Discuss and plan for new goals or activities.
5) Set priorities and make decisions as to what can be included in the budget for
the next year.
6) Write the budget. Make a list of all sources of expected income. When you total
it up, this will indicate the total of expected income. Now classify and list the
items of expenses and calculate the cost for each. Basically there is food, labour,
overhead (fixed costs such as rent, taxes, insurance) and operating costs (utilities,
telephone, paper goods, electricity, fuel).
Let us understand this process by studying how Baburam planned a budget. Since
his catering unit was new, he had no past records to use for making a budget. He
decided to talk to his friend Ramu who had been successfully running various canteens
in educational institutions. Ramu told him that as he was just beginning his catering
unit, a detailed budget would not be possible as there were no previous records
available. He suggested that Baburam should establish a tentative percentage of
expenditure to be spent on food and other expenses which he can evaluate after a
period of 2 - 3 months. First and foremost, Baburam needed to plan the amount of
sales he expected each day. Ramu felt that the following tentative percentage of
expenditure under each head will be realistic.
• Food cost: 60%
• Labour cost: 10%
• Overhead: 10%
• Operating cost: 10%
• Profit: 10%
Now using the above mentioned percentages, Baburam had to translate it into terms
of money available on a daily or on monthly or yearly basis. The total sales figure
is considered as 100% and divided between the various heads of expenses as follows.

Each day Baburam expected to have sales worth Rs. 10, 000. If he operates for 26
days in the month of December taking into account the 5 days when the market area
remained closed, the actual amount of money available to him will be Rs. 2, 60, 000
if he attained his sales target of Rs.10, 000 daily. His plan of expenditure will be
as shown in Figure 9.1.

Percentage of Expenditure Daily Monthly Yearly

Food cost (60%) 6,000 1,56,000 19,72,000

Labour cost (10%) 1,000 26,000 3,12,000

Overhead (10%) 1,000 26,000 3,12,000

Operating cost (10%) 1,000 26,000 3,12,000

Profit (10%) 1,000 26,000 3,12,000

Figure 9.1: Plan of expenditure

This above table clearly indicates that a budget is a good financial guide that helps
in daily, monthly and yearly operations. Everyday, Baburam should compare his actual
sales and expenditure with what he has budgeted. For that he needs to maintain certain
records that give him information about his day-to-day operations such as where the
money has been spent, how much of money has been spent and how much of income
he has earned. He knew that these records were necessary to know whether he was
making profit or loss and what remedial action he has to take. Before we get to know
186
about these records, let us briefly see different types of budget that a food service Food Management:
unit can choose from. Records and Controls

9.3.2 Types of Budget

The major aim of any budget is to let an establishment know the available resource
on hand, to be used and to be saved for later use. Although all budgets serve the same
function, nevertheless there are various types to choose from. These include:

Operative budget
The name itself is self explanatory and expresses about the plan of monetary resources
used for running a food service establishment. These include the budget for set-up,
forecasting, equipment budget, and salary for employees, repair budget and budget of
purchase.

Fixed budget
This type of budget is based on fixed annual level of transaction such as number of
meals served to patients in a hospital per year etc. and it projects an average cost per
meal.

Flexible budget
This budget takes into account for the high to low activity figures and provides
flexibility in functioning. It does not pinpoint an average figure thus eliminating rigidity
in a budget.

Zero-based budget
This budget requires managers or persons of authority to give justification for requisition
for monetary funds and to evaluate all activities requiring funds every year. As there
is no spill over of balance from previous year to the current year and each new budget
begins with a “zero” balance, hence the name.

Project budgeting
In this, list of costing of each activity that are part of the budget and affect the budget
most on priority basis is ranked, and then the budget is prepared. Managers and
supervisors are involved in costing of activities and decision-making. The department
director views costing as a whole and not as separate entities.

Having understood the budget and its importance in a food service unit, now we shall
get to know about the different record necessary to maintain on the basis of the
operations involved in a food service unit, which include:

Purchase/procurement → receiving → storage → preparation → production → holding/

packing → service.

Let us look at the various records that Baburam maintained in his restaurant. This
will help us understand about the concept of records. The first phase of operations
is purchase. We begin our study with the purchase record.

9.3.3 Purchase Records

The procedure for authorizing purchases, as we have already studied earlier in Unit
6, varies for each foods service organization. In the case of Baburam, he used a
Purchase Order Form in which he indicated the quantity and quality of food items
that was required which was based on the requirement from the store room. A sample
purchase order form that he used is given in Figure 9.2.

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management PURCHASE ORDER FORM
From Tasty Bite Restaurant
10, Community Centre,
Sapna cinema complex,
East of Kailash,
New Delhi
To
Arun Provision Store
Amar Colony, New Delhi Date 20/06/2019
S.No. Items Specifications Amount
1) Rice Basmati (Lalkila) 50 kg
2) Rajma Chitra 20 kg
3) Besan Rajdhani 20 kg
4) Oil Sundrop 20 kg
Terms and conditions: Payment to be made within 15 days of supply.

Signature

Figure 9.2: Purchase order form

The above form clearly indicates the items required, the quality and the quantity
desired. It also includes date of delivery, name of the organization, individual making
for the request (which, in this case is Baburam) and the signature of the person who
is officially authorized to sign the order. The terms and conditions of payment are
also clearly indicated. Baburam used similar forms for all that he purchased.
Next, we shall review the records for the receiving operation.

9.3.4 Receiving Records

The next phase of operations is receiving the ordered supplies. For this, a receiving
record was used by Baburam. He used a long register with the following columns,
as shown in the Figure 9.3.
RECEIVING RECORD

Date Item Quantity Vendor Invoice No.

1/06/2019 Rice(basmati) 50 kg Arun 91334
1/06/2019 Rajma 20 kg Arun 91334
1/06/2019 Besan 20 kg Arun 91334

Figure 9.3: Receiving records

The day-to-day record of all the incoming supplies was entered in the receiving record
using the invoices that accompanied the various deliveries, as well as, by actual
checking of quality and quantity by the store keeper. Baburam had instructed his store
keeper that if he found the quality not according to specifications, he must reject the
items. If the quantity was found to be different from the amount ordered, he must
bring it to Baburam’s attention before accepting it.
Thus through the receiving records Baburam ensured good control over the receiving
operation. The next phase of operations is storage. Next, let us get to know about
the records specific to the storage operation.

9.3.5 Storage Records

In any storage area records are necessary irrespective of how small or how big the
catering unit is. Baburam maintained the following three store room records which he
considered essential:
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1) Store room requisition/store room issue records Food Management:
Records and Controls
2) Perpetual inventory
3) Physical inventory.
Let us review these records.
1) Store room requisition/store room issue records
Before we look at this record, it is important to remember the following:
• To Baburam, the goods held in the storage area represented money as he had
spent substantial amount of money to buy the commodities. He also kept the store
room locked and had handed over control and authority to one person.
• No one could remove food material or supplies from the stores without authorization,
usually a written requisition.
• Normally a list of supplies needed for production and service of the day’s menu
was compiled by the cook.
• The list of needed supplies was then submitted to the store keeper.
• Requisitions were numbered and made out in duplicate. Pre-numbering made it
possible to trace missing or duplicate requisitions.
• Requisitions were signed by the cook who was authorized to request supplies.
Figure 9.4 illustrates an example of a store room requisition record maintained by
Baburam.
STORE ROOM REQUISITION FORM

Issue the following items to: Snack production area Date: 20/06/2019
Item Quantity Ordered Quantity Received
Rice (Basmati) 30 kg 30 kg
Kabuli channa 10 kg 10 kg
Potatoes 20 kg 20 kg
Onion 5 kg 5 kg
Ginger 250 g 200 g
Garlic 250 g 250 g
Oil 5 kg 5 kg

Signature of the authorized person

Figure 9.4: Store room requisition

Sometimes there may be slight difference between the amount ordered and amount
received which needs to be recorded.
The second important record that Baburam maintained in his storage area was the
perpetual inventory.

2) Perpetual Inventory
The perpetual inventory is a running record of the balance on hand for each item of
goods in the store room. This is also called as stock book or stock register. It provides
a continuing record of food and supplied purchased, in storage and used. Baburam
used cards for each item in his stores. The card shown in Figure 9.5 is the example
of the inventory/stock card.

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management
PERPETUAL INVENTORY CARD
Name of the item Description Maximum 100 kg
Rice Basmati Minimum 20 kg
Date Receipt Issues Balance
Opening balance 50 kg
1/06/2019 — 20 30 kg
2/06/2019 200 70 160 kg
3/06/2019 — 65 95 kg
4/06/2019 30 65 kg
5/06/2019 50 15 kg
6/06/2019 200 70 145 kg

Figure 9.5: Perpetual inventory card

In the above example, we can see that Baburam began the month of June with
opening stock of 50 kg of basmati rice in his store room. Each day, the amount
purchased was entered in the inventory card from the receiving record and the invoice.
We can see that on 2/06/2019, he had received 200 kg of basmati rice. From the store
room requisition, the amount issued to the stores is entered under the column “issues”.
We can see that the amounts issued ranged from 20 kg to 70 kg. Everyday the
storekeeper would bring the inventory up-to-date by adding amounts purchased to
previous balance and subtracting whatever was issued. This enabled the storekeeper
to know the balance on hand each day. The inventory also had information about
minimum and maximum stock levels. As soon as the inventory level would fall below
the minimum stock level of 20 kg for basmati rice, the storekeeper would know that
it was time to reorder the item. In Baburam’s storage area, card for each and every
item was maintained by the storekeeper. Baburam could get valuable information from
the perpetual inventory in terms of what were the fast and slow moving items in his
stores, what was the consumption of a particular item over a period of time and he
could also used it effectively to check pilferage.

These inventory records are suitable and recommended for all items except perishable
foods. Since these are delivered and stored in the production area, for such foods,
a physical inventory is a better choice. What is a physical inventory? Let us find
out, next.

3) Physical Inventory
A sample of physical inventory is given in Figure 9.6. Physical inventory is:
• An actual count of items in all storage areas that should be taken periodically
usually to coincide with accounting period.
• This is simplified if two people work together. One should be in a supervisory
position or not directly involved with the store room operations.
• One person counts the number of items on hand as the other enters it in the
inventory.
• A printed form is normally used in which the items are classified and listed, as
well as, their unit size is noted.
• It is essential to have space between various groupings to include new items.
• After the physical inventory is completed, the value for each item is calculated
and the total value of the inventory should be determined. This is reflected in
the income and expenditure statement where the amount is deducted from the
current year’s expenditure and added to the next years opening balance.
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• The physical inventory also serves as a check against perpetual inventory records. Food Management:
If there are small differences, these can be overlooked but if there are major Records and Controls
differences between the two, it should be investigated.
• Very often the difference between the two may arise more due to carelessness
in filling requisitions or in maintenance of records than actual pilferage.
• It is important to maintain perpetual and physical inventory of not only grocery
items but also of china, silverware and glassware.
PHYSICAL INVENTORY FORM
Tasty Bite Restaurant
Physical Inventory Date:
Group Item Unit Quantity Unit Price Total cost
Rs. Rs.
Cereals Rice (basmati) 10 kg bags 7 400/bag 2800
Rice (Golden sela) 10 kg bags 2 350/bag 700
Rice (parmal) 100 kg bags 1 1600/bag 1600

Figure 9.6: Physical inventory form

The total cost of the inventory must be calculated and deducted from the expenditure
for the current year since this stock is to be carried into the next year.

We have looked at the storage records. The next phase of operations is production.
Next, let us look at what records Baburam maintained in the production area. These
records you would notice are basic records maintained in any production operation
of a food service establishment.

9.3.6 Production Records

In the production area, Baburam maintained essential records such as standard recipes
and production schedule. You may recall studying about these production records
earlier in Unit 6 as well. Standardized recipe is an important tool for production
control, which helps in predicting the quality, quantity and portion cost of the finished
product. Also, it simplifies purchasing. Another important aspect of relevance is that
its use is helpful in training new or substitute production employees. The accuracy
involved in use of standardized recipes and measuring/weighing ingredient eliminates
the chances of over/under production. Refer to Figure 7.2 which illustrates an example
of a standard recipe for Urad dal vada . By using this standardize recipe Baburam
could predict the quality, quantity and portion cost of the finished product.

Another important record in the production area is the production schedule (also
referred to as production sheet or work sheet) about which we have already studied
in Unit 7 in the sub-section 7.3.4. The basic features of the production schedule sheet
are summarized here once again. Let us look at the production schedule that Baburam
used in his restaurant. The schedule is depicted in Figure 9.7 for your better
understanding.
• In this the various menu items to be prepared for the current day is listed in detail.
• Apart from the menu items, the quantity to prepare, time schedule, as well as,
the name of the person assigned to prepare each menu is indicated.
• Production schedules also have provision for including the amount of leftover
food or shortages. This information is important for the menu planner who can
plan to incorporate these foods into the menu for the next meal.
• Pre-preparation that needs to be done such as grinding of batter, making of jams,
etc., are also indicated on the production schedule.
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Entrepreneurship and Food Every night before he closed the restaurant, Baburam would prepare the production
Service Management
schedule for the next day morning snack and lunch preparation which lasted from 7.30
to 2 pm.
PRODUCTION SCHEDULE
Tasty Bite
Date 11/06/2019
Person Menu Item Quantity Actual Time Leftover
or Shortage
Mani Urad Dal vadas 200 9 am
Coconut Chutney 1.5 kg
Sambar 10 litres
Ratnam Idlis 200 9 am
Dosas 300 on order
Keshav Samosas 250 9 am
Bread pakoras 100 9 am
Mani Kadhi pakodi 200 servings 12 noon
Rajma 6 kg 12 noon
Ratnam Rice 20 kg 12 noon
20 kg 1 pm
Keshav Dal Makhani 6 kg 12 noon
Tandoori roti 7 kg atta to be kneaded on order

Figure 9.7: Production schedule of tasty bite

What do we see in the above production schedule? We see that it is to be used on

11/06/2019. The list of snacks and in what quantity they are required is mentioned.
The name of the person assigned to do the job is also indicated. The time by which
items have to be ready is also mentioned. The number desired, as well as, the number
actually obtained is also noted down. However when Baburam planned the production
schedule, he left the column under actual yield as a blank to be filled in by the cook
later. In quantity food production, while handling large quantities of food, small
change from the expected number is routine. But it should however be noted. At the
end of the morning service, the numbers leftover also should be written down so that
the cook or the production manager could decide what they want to do with it.

We hope the production schedule prepared by Baburam would have given you a good
insight into the use of this tool for production control. The next phase of operations
is service. We shall review the service records next.

9.3.7 Service Records

Service involves assembling prepared menu items and distributing them to the
consumers. Baburam realized that it was important to know on a day-to-day basis,
the number of meals served. This was necessary for forecasting, purchasing and
production requirements. The number of people served is essential information for
calculating cost per meal, average sales per person and distribution of meals to various
categories of customers. Baburam used a sheet of paper and divided it horizontally
into the number of days he would be operating and also divided the sheet vertically
into the meals served. A monthly census report that he prepared is given in Figure
9.8.

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 Food Management:
MONTHLY CENSUS REPORT Records and Controls
Monthly Census Report Month
Year
Date Breakfast Lunch Dinner Snacks Employee Special
Meals Functions Total

Figure 9.8: Monthly census report

Apart from this record, whenever Baburam catered for special functions, he kept
records of these special meals. The charges for these meals were different from what
he usually charged based on the menu items.
So we have so far looked at the records on the basis of the operations involved in
a food service unit, which included purchase/procurement → receiving → storage →
preparation → service. Next, we shall review yet another record called the income
and expenditure records which are essential to keep track of cash coming into the
catering unit and cash spent by the catering unit. Let us get to know them.

9.3.8 Income and Expenditure Records

Apart from the records, highlighted above, Baburam maintained two other records
which are essential to keep track of cash coming into the catering unit and cash spent
by the catering unit. These are also essential for preparation of monthly financial
statements. These are called as Income and Expense records. The first of these
records is called cash register. These are filled by the cashier. Look at the example
cash register illustrated in Figure 9.9. This record provides accurate data on number
of sales and total cash received. In some places, you must have seen electronic
machines at the point of sales in various fast food units. In other places, the waiters
hand over a written bill at the end of the meal so that we can pay the due amount.
When you look at the bill carefully, you would have seen that apart from some cost
indicated as food, a certain amount of tax is also charged. The counterfoils of these
bills are maintained by the cashiers, which helps them to prepare a daily cash report.
Whether done manually or electronically, cash registers provide information about the
number of sales, total sales, tax collected, the number of customers who paid by cash
and others who paid by other systems and total number of servings for each type
of food sold.
CASH REGISTER
Tasty Bite Restaurant
Date 20/06/2019
Receipt No. Total Amount Other than Cash Payment Amount
12134 206.80 Visa card 471.00
12135 765.00 Cheque (Narang) 650.00
12136 121.30

Figure 9.9: Cash register record

193
Entrepreneurship and Food The second record that he maintained was the cash disbursement register. This
Service Management included the cash paid to various heads of expenditure such supplies, utilities, payroll,
rent and other expenses. This register should be filled in daily with the disbursements
amounts from bills received and paid by cheque; the cash received from the cash
register reports and other cash payment received. It is, however, essential to keep
accurate daily records.
A sample of Baburam’s cash register and cash disbursement records are shown in
Figure 9.9 and Figure 9.10, respectively.
CASH DISBURSEMENT RECORD
Tasty Bite Restaurant
Month: December Year: 2019
Date Name of Account Amount Paid Classification of Expense Account
Food Utilities Payroll Rent

Figure 9.10: Cash disbursement record

At the end of every month, the cash receipt record of every day would be consolidated
to cash receipt for a month, which will give an accurate picture of the cash flow during
a particular month.
We have so far reviewed the various records maintained at the different levels of
operation in a food service establishment. Certainly, you would now be in a better
position to identify these records and use these records skillfully in analysis of food
cost. Let us check your understanding of the topic so far. Answer the questions given
in the check your progress exercise 1.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) What is a budget? Discuss the steps involved in budget making.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) What are the different income and expenditure records?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Briefly discuss the benefits of maintaining income and expenditure records.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

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 Food Management:
4) Vikram was manager in a new restaurant which catered to about 500 customers Records and Controls
a day. He felt that there was need for strict control in the stores area. What
records do you suggest that he should maintain and why?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
5) Seema caters to kitty parties in her neighbourhood. Her dishes are
very popular among her customers. But of late she finds it difficult to
supply the required dishes within the specified time. What do you suggest she
should do?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Next, we shall move on to review the actual performance reports.

9.4 REVIEWING ACTUAL PERFORMANCE REPORTS

In the section above we saw how Baburam maintained each and every record specific
to each of the food service operation. However, it is important to note that keeping
daily records does not ensure the accountability of expenses incurred. For this, the
records must be analyzed and then used to improve existing financial situation. This
can be achieved by preparing certain reports using data from the records maintained.
These reports include daily food cost report, cumulative food cost report, daily
cumulative food cost report and profit and loss statement. Let us review each of these
in detail in the following sub-sections.

9.4.1 Daily Food Cost Report

Baburam everyday prepared the daily food cost report using 3 records. The first was
the cash register of total income from sales for the day, second was the census record
of the number of people served and the third was the store room issue record. By
adding up the value of the store room issues, the food cost for the day can be
calculated. Baburam had learnt that this was the most important of the reports as it
can provide up-to-the-minute information about sales, food costs and number of
people served. Expenses other than food are not included in the daily report as they
do not fluctuate as much as food costs.
The actual food cost percentage can be calculated by dividing food cost by income
and express it as a percentage as indicated in the formula given herewith:

Food cost
Food cost percentage = —————— × 100
Income
By calculating the food cost percentage, Baburam could quickly tell whether it meets
the standard set for his operation. Normally, luxury restaurants with elaborate service
may have 25% as food cost. A canteen in a college may have 50 - 60% as their food
cost. Baburam, you may recall reading earlier in sub-section 9.3.1, had planned that
his food cost percentage will be 60%. Checking the food cost percentage gave him
a good idea as to whether he was functioning alright or whether he needed to change.
Next, let us review the cumulative food cost report.

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Entrepreneurship and Food 9.4.2 Cumulative Food Cost Report
Service Management
In addition to the daily food cost report, cumulative report for the month is also very
important. In this the sales and food cost figures of each day is added to the previous
day throughout the month and the average is calculated by dividing it with the number
of days in a month. Ideally, the cumulative figures should be used to determine the
food cost percentage because they tend to average the “ups and downs” of a single
day’s operation.

Besides the cumulative food cost report there is a daily cumulative report which can
be maintained. Let us see how.

9.4.3 Daily Cumulative Food Cost Report

In this, the daily food cost report is added up to the specified day and divided by
the specified number of days and compared to the budget. For example, if
Baburam wanted to know what the daily cumulative food cost report was on
15th day, he had to add up the daily food cost of each day up to day 15 and divide
by 15 to arrive at the daily cumulative cost report. This is another valuable tool
because it shows deviations from the budget as soon as they occur and corrective
action can be taken at once. Thus daily cumulative records can help as an ongoing
evaluation tool.

Next, let us get to know about the profit and loss statement.

9.4.4 Profit and Loss Statement

This is a summary of all the income, as well as, all the expenses of the organization
to determine the amount of profit or loss for a given period. It shows deviations
from the budget at the time they occur and corrective action can be taken at once.
Also, it shows the true cost of food used based on purchases; adjust with inventories
and all other actual expenditures. Usually Baburam prepares it at the end of each
month.
A simple summary of the profit and loss statement is:
• Gross Profit = Income from sales – Cost of food sold
• Net Profit/Net Loss = Gross profit – ( Labour + Overhead and Operating Costs)
Income from sales is obtained from the cash register for the month, as well as, special
meal record. The cost of food sold must take into consideration the amount of stock
on hand at the beginning and at the end of the month.

The cost of the food sold is calculated in the following manner:

Purchases ( figures obtained from vendor’s end of the month statement verified
by the manager with daily invoices)
+ Beginning Inventory (Value of goods in the store room available for use at
the beginning of the month)
– Ending Inventory (value of goods on hand on the last day of the month)
= Cost of Goods Used

Let us look at the profit and loss statement that Baburam had prepared for the month
of June, 2019 as given in Figure 9.11.

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 Food Management:
PROFIT AND LOSS STATEMENT Records and Controls
Tasty Bite Restaurant
June, 2019
(operating days: 26)
Percent of
Sales
Sales Rs. 2, 86, 650
Less: sales tax 13,650
Net sales 2, 73, 000 100
Cost of foods sold
Inventory-November 1 32,000
Purchases Rs. 1,54,000
———————
Rs. 1, 86, 000
Less: inventory June 30 Rs. 17,000
———————
Net cost of food sold 1, 69, 000 61.9
Gross profit on food 1, 04, 000
Labour:
Regular employees Rs, 16, 000
Casual workers Rs, 10, 200
——————
Overhead expenses: 26, 200 9.6
Rent 26, 000 9.5
Utilities:
Electricity Rs. 10, 000
Laundry Rs. 2, 000
Fuel Rs. 15, 000
————————
27, 000 9.9
Net Profit 24, 800 9.1

Figure 9.11: Profit and loss statement

In our discussion so far we have seen how the records maintained for the different
food service operations can provide valuable data which can be further used to analyze
the actual performance of the food service unit. A profit and loss statement finally
helps to review the performance of the unit. Review of performance thus involves
checking whether the action or performance is according to the plans. If performance
is not as planned we need to adopt control measures. This then brings us to another
important concept called cost control. Let us get to know about it next.

9.5 COST CONTROL

We have learnt through the experiences of Baburam about various records and reports
that need to be maintained at a food service unit. Baburam being an astute manager
carefully reviewed the records and reports that he maintained. He knew that if his
operations were proceeding according to the budget, he need not take any action. But
his records and reports clearly indicated that his food costs were high and profits were
not according to expectations. This clearly indicated that he needed to take follow-
up action if he wanted to improve his financial position. In this context he would need
to review all the factors that affects the food cost. Let us review these factors next.

9.5.1 Factors Affecting Cost Control

Baburam decided that he will take the advice of his friend Ramu once again. Ramu
warned Baburam that in an effort to maintain profit, he must not immediately think
of increasing prices or reducing portion size or lowering the food quality as the first
step. Ramu suggested that Baburam must critically look at the menu as it is the most
important factor in the control of food costs. The first step he suggested was that 197
Entrepreneurship and Food Baburam must pre-cost the menu since food is the most readily controlled item of
Service Management expenditure and is subjected to greatest fluctuations in the food service budget.
Baburam was not sure what pre-costing meant. Ramu explained further. He asked
Baburam how much of ingredients he used for making 100 urad dal vadas. He made
him write it down on a sheet of paper. He also told him to make 2 additional columns
for calculating cost. Figure 9.12 depicts what Baburam wrote with the help of Ramu.
Urad dal Vadas (100)
Ingredients Amount Unit Cost Actual Cost
Rs. Rs.
Urad dal 2 kg 40/kg 80.00
Ginger 100 g 60/kg 6.00
Green chillies 50 g 24/kg 1.20
Oil 1 kg for frying 60/kg 60.00
Total 147.20
Cost of 1 vada 1.47
Cost of 1 plate (2 vadas) 2.94

Figure 9.12: Costing for urad dal vadas

Ramu suggested that Baburam should pre-cost all the dishes that he sold including
the accompaniments like chutney and sambar as these also cost a lot of money.
Together with the accompaniments the dishes should be within the food cost percentage
planned. Baburam calculated the cost of coconut chutney in a similar manner and
found the cost/person to be Re. 1.00 and the cost of sambar to be Rs. 0.90. One
plate of urad dal vada in his canteen meant that 2 vadas with sambar and coconut
chutney was served and this was sold at Rs. 6.00. But according to pre-costing of
recipes, 2 vadas cost Rs. 2.94 and along with chutney and sambar was costing
Rs. 4.84. Baburam had planned that the food cost in the canteen will be 60%. That
meant that out of Rs. 6.00, 60% i.e. Rs. 3.60 should cover the cost of food, whereas
his food cost was much more than that. Baburam realized how important pre-costing
of recipes were in controlling food cost and decided that he would do the pre-costing
first for all the recipes.

Ramu went on to explain that in the menu, Baburam should also consider the choices
offered and remove those items that were not selling well. Baburam did not understand
why this should affect the food cost. Ramu explained that preparing small quantities
of various items was not economical. Instead he suggested that Baburam must feature
a Daily Special that can be made from surplus food on hand or seasonal food items
and this would bring in more profit. Baburam liked this idea very much. He thought
of various items he could feature as a special in his canteen that his customers would
enjoy – soup and grilled sandwiches could be offered one day, vegetable pulao and
boondhi raita another day, stuffed parathas and curds the third day. He knew that they
would be popular.

Once the menus were pre-costed, next selling prices were determined for the various
products. Let us see how.

9.5.2 Determining Selling Price of Food

Ramu also taught Baburam about pricing of his dishes. He asked Baburam how he
priced his dishes. Baburam said that he looked at what price his competitors were
offering the food item and he offered at the same selling price. Ramu pointed out that
this was not a scientific method of calculating selling price. Ramu said that there are
various methods of pricing. The most commonly used method is based on the raw

198
food cost of menu items plus a mark-up to give a selling price appropriate for the Food Management:
type of organization and the desired food cost percentage level that the food service Records and Controls
wishes to maintain.

We have learnt about precosting of standard recipes. The mark up is determined by

dividing the desired food cost percentage into 100 (representing total sales or 100%).
The resulting figure is called the mark up factor. The raw food cost is multiplied by
the mark up factor to obtain the selling price.
Ramu used the following example to illustrate what he was saying:
Assuming that Baburam wished to maintain a food cost percentage of 60%,

100 (represents total sales)

Mark-up factor = —————————————— = 1.66 or 1.7
60 (per cent of income for food)
If we assume the cost of any dish to be Rs. 5, then the selling price will be
Rs. 5 × 1.7 = Rs. 8.5.

However, the mark up factor cannot be used alone to determine the selling price.

Baburam could not understand it. Then, Ramu went on to add that we need to
consider various free items that are given with the food such as salt, pepper, sugar
and other spices and sauces. These are not accounted for in recipe costing but must
be accounted for while selling. Many managers of catering units add a standard 10%
to cover these costs, as well as, the costs of overproduction and unavoidable wastes,
before the mark up. If we apply this, in the above example:
Rs. 5 + (5 × 10 / 100) = Rs. 5 + 0.50 = Rs. 5.50
Rs. 5.50 × 1.7 = Rs. 9.35 = Rs. 9.5
It is important that the values obtained be rounded off to the most convenient figure.
We have looked at the mark-up concept of determining the selling price. Another
method is called demand oriented pricing. This is based on what the customers
perceive the value/cost of the item and their willingness to pay and prices are set
accordingly. These prices are set as high above the raw food cost.

The third method of pricing is called as prime cost pricing. In this not only the food
cost but also labour cost is considered while determining the selling price. In
Baburam’s catering units, food cost and labour cost together account for 70% of the
total of all expenses. The mark up in this case will be 100/70 = 1.4. The raw food
cost and the labour charges are added up together and multiplied by the markup factor
to determine the selling price.

Baburam realized that the reason for his profits not being according to his expectations
was because he had not priced his products in a scientific manner.

Now geared with this knowledge about cost control Baburam certainly hereon will
adopt these control measures in his establishment. But fluctuation in food cost/
purchase/non-receipt of goods at proper time/improper storage etc., meant that Baburam
must keep a checklist for each stage of operation. This check list for control cost is
discussed next.

9.5.3 Checklist for Cost Control

Apart from menu and pricing, various factors right from purchasing to selling affect
costs. Ramu showed Baburam the checklist that he used. The checklist consisted of
controlling cost right from purchasing, receiving, storage right up to food production
and selling, as well as, labour and other overhead costs. Let us quickly review the
checklist. We shall begin with the first and foremost step i.e., purchasing. 199
Entrepreneurship and Food Checklist for Purchasing
Service Management
• Develop specifications for every food item. These should be followed while
purchasing.
• Visit to the markets is necessary to study market conditions and recent trends.
A capable buyer is one who is alert to ever changing market conditions and has
knowledge of new products as they become available.
• Decide on the amount of convenience foods to be used as this will decrease the
labour requirement but may substantially add to the food cost.
• Adopt appropriate methods of purchasing.
• Close cooperation and good working relations between the food buyers and
production manager.
Checklist for Receiving
• All items received must be checked against the purchase order.
• The quantity and quality must be checked against specifications.
• Substandard quality should be immediately returned and the vendor should be
informed
Checklist for Storage
• Buy only what can be used at once or those that can be stored adequately without
deterioration in quality.
• Store only whatever is essential for a limited period of time. Unnecessary storage
of large amounts might result in loss through spoilage, waste, pilferage or theft.
• Keep the store room locked and let the supplies be issued by an authorized person
against written requisition.
• Storage temperature has to be checked regularly so that foods are stored in the
best possible temperature.
• Keep the store room in an orderly and logical manner and adopt first-in first-out
system.
Checklist for Food Production
• Ensure that standardized recipes are used.
• Train the employees in using the right equipment and the right method of work.
Too much of time in the potato peeler will reduce the yield of potato dishes; too
much of trimming of tomatoes and onions will reduce the edible portion. A little
extra cream or nuts in preparation will increase food costs at the end of the
month.
• Use previous records in estimating the amount to prepare. These records should
have information about the amounts prepared, amounts sold and leftover amounts.
This gives a realistic basis for estimating quantities required.
• Attempts must be made to store leftover foods properly and use them skillfully.
Leftover mutton or vegetable curry can be converted to biryani; salads can be
converted to interesting sandwich fillings.
Checklist for Portion Size
• It is important to establish portion size for every item and this information should
be communicated to the employees.
• It is necessary to provide suitable equipment to give the correct portion such as
standard ladles, ice cream scoops and standard glasses.
• Standard recipes and portion control are essential not only for cost control but
also in maintaining customer satisfaction. No one likes to receive smaller portions
200 than other customers for the same price so the portions should be uniform.
Checklist for Labour Cost Food Management:
Records and Controls
• Adjust the hours of service for greater profitability.
• Evaluate if there is enough business and income at certain hours to justify being
open at that time.
• Think up ways to generate more sales at slack periods.
• Plan additional tasks for employees at slack time to improve productivity.

Checklist for Physical Layout and Equipment Placement

• Check if the kitchen is efficiently organized.
• Ensure that equipments are placed properly to avoid waste of human energy.
• Evaluate amount and adequacy of labour saving equipment. All power equipment
can process food more quickly and reduces labour cost. However when small
quantities are involved, hand operations may be more efficient as the labour
involved in setting up and cleaning the machine may be much greater.
Checklist for Overhead and Other Expenses
• Calculate cost of repairs and maintenance over a specific period.
• Train employees to report any broken equipment.
• Service equipments at regular schedules.
• Keep a record of breakage.
• Train employees in proper dish handling procedures to keep breakage at a minimum.
• Keep a check over cleaning materials, paper goods such as paper towels, kitchen
paper and other office supplies.
• Use equipments that are energy efficient.
Baburam was very impressed with the check list that Ramu showed him. He realized
that there were certain areas that needed changes. He was buying a large quantity of
convenience food. He felt that if he got them made in his catering unit, the cost would
be less. He never looked at the portion control or trained his workers in using suitable
equipments for portion control. He decided that he would buy the required ladles first
and train his service personnel. He had never considered utilizing leftover food though
he had good storage conditions. He planned that he will skillfully transform the leftover
food items. He was sure that with all the advice and help that Ramu had given him,
he will be able to control cost very effectively.
Having gone through the control measures described above certainly you would have
got a clear picture of how to manage and control costs while operating a food service
unit. Let us test your understanding of this topic next. Answer the questions given in
check your progress exercise 2.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Define the following terms:
a) Profit and Loss Statement
..........................................................................................................
b) Mark-up factor
..........................................................................................................
c) Demand oriented pricing
..........................................................................................................
d) Prime cost pricing
..........................................................................................................
e) Cumulative food cost report
..........................................................................................................
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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 2) Keshav who is managing a canteen in a college feels that he needs to adopt
a proper method of pricing for his dishes. How can he adopt the mark-up
method for determining the selling price?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) What information will be needed by Keshav to prepare a profit and loss
statement?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) Prepare a checklist for store room and portion size.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

9.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we learnt about the management of food by means of records and
controls. The first part of this unit dealt with budgets, what are these and the types.
Then subsequently we learnt about different records that must be kept for a catering
unit. These, you would recall, included purchasing, receiving, storage, production,
service, income and expenditure records.
In the next part, we learnt about different food cost reports that included daily food
cost cumulative food cost, daily cumulative and profit and loss statement.
Finally, we had an insight into cost control, factors affecting it and how to determine
selling price of food. Lastly we had a detailed checklist for cost control for various
operations including purchasing receiving, storage, food production, portion size,
labour cost, physical layout and equipment placement, and overhead and other
expenses.

9.7 GLOSSARY
Budget: a total sum of money allocated for a particular purpose or period of time.

9.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) A budget is a systematic plan for the expenditure of a resource or total sum of
money allocated for a particular purpose or period of time. Refer to sub-section
9.3.1 and write the steps involved in preparing the budget.
2) The different income and expenditure records include cash registerand the cash
disbursement register.
3) Income and expenditure records provides accurate data about the number of
sales, total sales, tax collected, the number of customers who paid by cash and
others who paid by other systems and total number of servings for each type of
food sold.
4) Vikram could use records such as store room requisition record, perpetual inventory
202 and physical inventory to have better control in the stores area.
 Reasons: Food Management:
Records and Controls
a) Store room requisition: To Vikram goods held in storage represent money,
he should keep the store area locked and leave the responsibility of issuing
and receiving items to one person. Nothing should be removed from the
stores without a written requisition.
b) Perpetual Inventory: This record provides information about the balance
stock on hand each day, fast and slow moving items and consumption of a
particular item over a period of time. It also helps to control pilferage and
forms the basis of purchasing.
c) Physical inventory: In this the actual count of items in stores is taken and
value of each item is calculated. The total value of the inventory is reflected
in the profit and loss statement.
5) Seema needs to prepare and follow a production schedule so that she is able to
supply the food items at the specified time. In a production schedule, the various
menu items, their quantities, time schedule, the person assigned to prepare it, as
well as, the pre-preparation duties are listed. This will help her in planning out
her production according to time schedules.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) a) Profit and loss statement is a summary of all the income, as well as, all the
expenses of the organization to determine the amount of profit or loss for
a given period.
b) The mark up is determined by dividing the desired food cost percentage into
100 (representing total sales or 100%). The resulting figure is called the mark
up factor.
c) Demand oriented pricing is based on what the customers perceive the value/
cost of the item and their willingness to pay and prices are set accordingly.
d) Pime cost pricing is the pricing where not only the food cost but also labour
cost is considered while determining the selling price.
e) Cumulative food cost report is the report in which the sales and food cost
figures of each day is added to the previous day throughout the month and
the average is calculated by dividing it with the number of days in a month.
2) The mark up is determined by dividing the desired food cost percentage into 100
(representing total sales or 100%). The resulting figure is called the mark up
factor. The raw food cost is multiplied by the mark up factor to obtain the selling
price. Keshav also needs to consider various free items that are given with the
food such as salt, pepper, sugar, somph and sauces. These are not accounted for
in recipe costing but must be accounted for while selling. He can add a standard
10% to cover these costs before the mark up. It is important that the values
obtained be rounded off to the most convenient figure.
3) Keshav will need the following information to prepare a profit and loss statement:
• Income from sales obtained from the cash register for the month, as well as,
special meal record.
• The amount of stock on hand at the beginning and at the end of the month.
• Total cost of purchases (obtained from vendor’s end of the month statement).
• Total cost of labour.
• Overhead expenses such as rent, insurance.
• Utilities such as fuel, electricity, paper goods, laundry.
4) Refer to sub-section 9.5.3 and write on your own.
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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management UNIT 10 FOOD MANAGEMENT: DELIVERY
AND SERVICE — GOALS AND ISSUES
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Food Service Systems
10.3 A Food Service Systems Model and its Significance
10.3.1 Components of a Food Service System
10.3.2 Significance of the Food Service Systems Model
10.4 Methods of Delivery and Service System
10.4.1 Centralized Delivery System
10.4.2 Decentralized Delivery System
10.4.3 Centralized vs Decentralized
10.5 Choice of Delivery Systems and Services Attached to It
10.5.1 Choice of Delivery/Service Systems
10.5.2 Types of Services
10.6 Use of Disposables in the Service Area
10.7 Let Us Sum Up
10.8 Glossary
10.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

10.1 INTRODUCTION
In our previous unit, we learnt about different aspects of records and cost control
system as a means of food management in a food service establishment. In this unit,
we shall study the last aspect of food management i.e. food service systems and the
food service systems model.

We shall study about the different methods of delivery service systems for meals in
different types of institutions. After a brief review of these methods, we will have a
look at the various factors that may affect the choice of a particular delivery system.

Finally, we shall learn about the use of disposable items in food service institutions
and the factors that lead to the usage of disposables.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the functioning of a food service organization as a set of units having
interrelated functions,
• describe the significance of a good delivery/service system,
• explain the factors that affect the choice of a delivery system,
• enumerate the different methods of food service and its applications to the
different food service systems, and
• examine the factors behind the use of disposables in food service establishments.

10.2 FOOD SERVICE SYSTEMS

Until now, we have studied food service establishments as an industry. Here, in this
unit, we shall study about food service organization as a system. As you know, system
is a set of interrelated parts with a purpose. These interrelated parts are referred to
204 as subsystems, which depend on each other for achieving a common goal. These
subsystems operate within the environment of the organization utilizing the various Food Management:
supporting resources such as money, materials, time, equipments, facilities and personnel. Delivery and Service —
Goals and Issues
With the increase in the number of food service organizations, catering to the many
segments of society, there have been many changes taking place within this varied
industry. Managers are seeking approaches to deal with complexities of food service
organizations to meet the continually changing technological, economic, political and
sociological demands of today’s world. The “systems approach” you may recall
studying in Unit 2 earlier in section 2.6, has been one such outcome to facilitate
problem solving and decision making as this approach focuses on the totality of the
organization. A food service systems model is an example that holds true the systems
approach. We shall learn about it in the next section. In the transformation, element
delivery and service are considered to be subsystems, which meet the goal of providing
quality food and services to a given clientele. The choice of method of distribution
and service will depend on the type of food service system, and its significance is
reflected on consumer needs.

Let us then understand the food service system model.

10.3 A FOOD SERVICE SYSTEMS MODEL AND ITS

SIGNIFICANCE
In this section, we shall have an insight to a food service system model and its
components and its significance.

10.3.1 Components of a Food Service System

Refer to Figure 10.1, which illustrates a food service systems model.

CONTROL
Plans (Standing and single-use)
goals and objectives
standards
policies and procedures
programmes
Contracts
Laws and Regulations
local, state, federal
INPUT OUTPUT
Human Meals
labour, skill quantity
Materials TRANSFORMATION quality
food supplies Clientele
Operational Management satisfaction
money, time, functions Functional
information functional linking accountability
Facilities subsystems processes Personnel
space, equipment satisfaction

MEMORY
Records
(Financial, personnel, forecasting)

FEEDBACK

Environmental factors

Figure 10.1: Food service systems model

205
Entrepreneurship and Food As you may have noticed in Figure 10.1, this system indicates the basic components
Service Management of any open system i.e. input, transformation and output. The additional components
of control, feedback, memory are integral parts of the food service systems model.
What are these components and what is their role in a food service system? Let us
read and find out. We shall begin with inputs first.
A) Inputs are the physical and human resources that are transformed to produce
the outputs of the system. These inputs also known as resources as highlighted
in Figure 10.1 can be classified as:
• Human: Labour and skill
• Materials: Food and supplies
• Operational: Money, time, utilities and information
• Facilities: Space and equipment
The input requirement depends on the objectives of the organization for e.g. a
specialty restaurant serving fine cuisine will have a major impact on type and skill
of staff, the raw ingredients and supplies needed for the service. In comparison,
a fast food operation with take away counters would require only minimal staff
with few skills, and the raw ingredients and supplies would also be limited.
B) Transformation, one of the other basic components in the food service systems
model (refer to Figure 10.1), has been defined as the collective changes of inputs
into outputs. It is further made up of functional subsystems, managerial functions
and linking processes. All these are interrelated. The functional subsystems may
be classified according to their purpose and may include procurement, pre-
processing, production, delivery and service maintenance. Refer to Figure 10.2,
which illustrates a food service system model emphasizing distribution and service
as one subunit of the transformation component.

Controls
Plans
Contracts
Laws and Regulations

Transformation

Management
Input
Functions Output
Materials
Human Meals
Operational Distribution & Clientele
Facilities Service Linking Satisfaction
Procurement Processes
Production

Memory
Service
Records
Feedback

Figure 10.2: Food service model emphasizing distribution and service as one subunit of
transformation

206
 The type of system, you would realize, will determine the activities of the sub- Food Management:
systems for e.g. hospital, the distribution and service is very complex, as the Delivery and Service —
Goals and Issues
challenge lies in delivering the appropriate food at the right temperature and of
a high quality, to patients in different locations. It is, therefore, important to design
a subsystem to meet the characteristics of the organization, as can be seen in
airline catering, where the food contractor providing meals for several airlines
faces the complexities of different menus and schedules, varying numbers of
passengers, and sometimes problems of delayed or cancelled flights. Management
functions provide for the co-ordination of the subsystems. All functions like
planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling co-ordinate the uses of
resources, towards achieving the objectives. The linking processes are described
as decision making, to select a course of action, communication where decisions
and other information are transmitted throughout the system, and balance which
refers to adaptations the management has to make to changing economical,
political and social conditions.
C) Outputs, as one of the component of food service systems model, are the
products and services that result from transforming inputs of the system and
express how the objectives are achieved. The primary output in any foods service
system is the meal provided as shown in Figure 10.1. Various types of services
may be outputs, and clientele and personnel satisfaction are desired outcomes.
Let us have a look at this definition more closely. We just studied about the
different inputs and how these are to be transformed into outputs. Now what do
you mean by the term objective? Well, in simpler terms, objective may be defined
as the goal intended to be attained. In terms of food service system, the word
objective has a similar meaning. Let us get to know what it is.
Spears et. al. (89) define the objective as production of food to satisfy the
expectations, decries and needs of the customers, clients or patients of particular
food service. The customers’ desires, needs and expectations must be taken into
account in planning, producing and evaluating the food served in any organization.
Some of the outputs that may be taken into account could be personnel satisfaction,
which is related to the quality of work done by people in an organization.
Financial accountability, as highlighted in Figure 10.1, is another output required
to maintain the entire system. Profit is not the only concern especially in non-
profit food service organizations. Accountability in terms of expenses and revenue
could be an indicator of how funds could be utilized for running the organization.
D) The control element refers to the policies, procedures and standards of an
organization. These are internal controls. Contracts, Local, State laws and
regulations are external controls.
E) Feedback provides information to continuing the effectiveness of the system. It
gives information for control and evaluation, and hence assists the system in
adapting to changing conditions. Some examples of such feedback are clientele
comments, plate waste, patronage, profit or loss, employee performance and
morale, which a food service manager can utilize for regular evaluation.
Let us next understand the significance of the model we just learnt.

10.3.2 Significance of the Food Service Systems Model

Quality assurance and improving quality is the theme of any food service industry.
What do you understand by these terms? Let us find out.
Quality assurance is a term applied to the process of defining quality standards. At
each step of the operation, quality controls are essential, from procurement specifications
to delivery and service to the clientele of the food service operation.
Achieving the goal of producing an acceptable quality product, served in an acceptable
manner of the consumer, requires continuous surveillance. Figure 10.1 indicates the
207
Entrepreneurship and Food food service system model with emphasis on control being an important aspect of
Service Management quality assurance.
With this, we come to an end on our discussion of concept and significance of food
service system model. Before we proceed further, let us check our understanding of
what we have learnt so far.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) What is a food service system?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Briefly discuss the various components of a food service system model.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Highlight the significance of feedback in the improvement of a food service
organization.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) What do you understand by the term ‘quality assurance’?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

With a basic understanding of the food service system model, let us next get to know
of the different methods of delivery service systems.

10.4 METHODS OF DELIVERY SERVICE SYSTEM

The term ‘delivery’ refers to making ready prepared foods, and transporting them
from the site of production to the place where these will be served i.e. the place
of service. The process of service, on the other hand, involves assembling prepared
food items and distributing them to the consumers. With reference to the food service
208
systems model (Refer to Figure 10.2), distribution (delivery) / service represents a Food Management:
third major subsystem. Along with procurement and production, it meets the goal of Delivery and Service —
Goals and Issues
providing quality food and services to a given clientele. In any organizations, these
two processes of delivery and service may be two distinct but interrelated functions,
and depending on the type of food service system, distribution may or not be a major
function.

Let us have a look at those food service systems where distribution and service of
food serves a crucial role and is a rather complex process. For instance, in hospital
food services where patients must be served in individual rooms, located on many
floors and perhaps in separate buildings, distribution may be a major concern. Ensuring
that appropriate food is sent to the appropriate place, to a particular patient, is a rather
complex process. Further more, the food must be at the right temperature and
aesthetically appealing.

Now let us have a look at another case where the process of distribution and service
of the food prepared is not the sole responsibility of food producers rather the client
is equally involved. Such as in fast food operations, where clients take the food from
the counter, directly after production, distribution is relatively simple. It does become
apparent that distribution and service becomes the responsibility of the customer and
not the personnel.

Service too will vary ranging from highly trained skilled service in upgrade restaurants
to self-service counters as in cafeterias. The method, speed and quality of services
provided can “make or break” a food service establishment.

The quality of the food may be excellent, the sanitation and hygiene good, procurement
and storage ideal, but if the service is lacking, the establishment will be rated poor
by the clientele. It has been seen that in restaurants serving mediocre food, the
clientele will repeatedly return if the waiter/waiters provides high quality service. Even
we as consumers do often visit a place where the service of food has been pleasant
and of high quality. So, let us focus on the methods of delivery/service systems that
are employed in food service establishments.
Methods of delivery/service
Meal assembly can be of two types. These include:
a) Centralized
b) Decentralized
Let us understand these systems.

10.4.1 Centralized Delivery System

In centralized delivery method, prepared foods are portioned for individual service
and meals are assembled at a central area, which may be inside or close by to the
main kitchen or the main production facilities. In this facility, the time between
production, assembly, distribution and service can be minimal. This, in turn, facilitates
the delivery of meals to the clients where plates are served in a central location and
are then transported by various means to the dining areas. Also, this helps to maintain
the right temperature of the foods served. Hot menu items are held in food warming
cabinets, where they remain until placed in hot food serving units during tray assembly.
A diagrammatic representation of centralized meal assembly is presented in Figure
10.3. Cold food items are held under refrigeration. The assembled trays are then
distributed to the patient using a variety of carts. Some institutions use heated and
refrigerated tray carts, which may be motorized or pushed manually by hospital
personnel.

209
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management

Hot Food Cooking Area

Typical application of equipment to width-restricted area.

19 8
10
11 11 9
1 2

6 3
16 14
18
13 13 7 5 4
18
15

Reach in Refrigerator

1 Tray Make Up Conveyor 7 Ice Cream Cabinet 13 Bread and Toast Caddy
2 Tray Dispenser 8 Soup Bowl Dispenser 14 Toasters
3 Tray Starter 9 Hot Soup Caddy 15 Bread and Butter Plate Dispenser
4 Temperature Lock Underplate 10 Heated Plate Dispenser 16 Double Overshelf
5 Cup and Saucer Dispenser 11 Hot Food Caddy 17 Dome Cover Caddy
6 Cold Food Rack 12 Milk Cabinet 18 Reject Tray Caddy
19 Patient Tray Trucks
Figure 10.3: Centralized meal assembly

The high initial and maintenance costs of heated and refrigerated carts have led to
other methods for maintaining proper temperatures on assembled trays. One such
system uses specially designed dishes that have been preheated in an infrared oven,
and then transferred to an insulated base. The hot menu items are portioned
onto the plate, which is covered by a dome designed to fit the base container,
thus keeping the food warm until service to the patient. This unit is placed on the
individual patient’s tray, and other menu items that have been individually
wrapped are added. The assembled trays are then transported in an unheated cart for
service.

This process of distribution includes activities relating to the movement of assembled

trays from point of assembly to the patient area. Some of the methods used for hot
and hot/cold thermal retention are enlisted herewith:
Hot Thermal Retention Hot/Cold Thermal Retention
• Pellet system • Pellet and sublimation refrigeration
• Insulated components • Split tray
• Heat support cart • Match-a-tray
• Insulated trays
• Insulated components
A brief review of these major meal distribution systems, and a few others (such as
microwave ovens, convection ovens, infrared ovens etc.) along with their benefits and
constraints is presented later in Table 12.1 in Unit 12.

The size of the area and the number will determine the type of conveyor system
required to provide support. Such systems include:
210
• Manual conveyors — trays bide Food Management:
Delivery and Service —
• Simple mechanical conveyors — roller type Goals and Issues
• Motorized conveyors — straight line/circular
Next, we move on to the second type of delivery system, that is, decentralized delivery
system.

10.4.2 Decentralized Delivery System

In the decentralized delivery system, as the name suggests, the food products are
produced in bulk in one location and transported to various locations for assembly at
sites near patients. Equipments to maintain proper temperatures – food warmers, hot
food counters, and refrigerated equipment must be provided at each location. Thus,
instead of one central serving area, there are several smaller ones close to the
consumers. The equipments that are provided in the smaller serving areas also
sometimes include provision for ware washing. In cases, where it is not possible to
provide dish washers or the facility of ware washing, the soiled utensils and equipments
are returned to the central area. This, in turn, has an added advantage of eliminating
the need for duplication of dishwashing equipment for each pantry and hence cutting
down the equipment costs, as well as, maintenance cost and labour charges. However,
it duplicates the effort involved in transportation of utensils and equipments to and
from the central area to the respective pantries. Hence, over a period of time, it might
get more expensive than providing separate dish washing facilities for each serving
area. The types of food service that involve this type of delivery system include large
hospitals and medical centers, industrial plants with several serving units, hotels
providing room service facility and banquets from serving kitchens within the facility.

Now, that we have gone through both the systems of delivery of food items, let us
briefly compare both the methods and find out which one is better or has the
maximum potential and far-fetched benefits for any food service institution.

10.4.3 Centralized vs Decentralized

Many health care institutions have moved towards centralized assembly system as this
system has the advantages of eliminating double handling of food and facilitating
supervisions of real assembly because the activity takes place in one location rather
than in many. It allows for standardization of portions, uniformity in presentation, and
decreased waste. Less staff time is needed and the space occupied by floor kitchens
can be used for other purposes.

Decentralized real assembly is still used in some institutions. It offers the advantage
of less time between assembly and service to patients, allowing for potentially higher
quality food. It allows for greater flexibility in providing for individual patient needs
and in making last minute substitutions and changes.

With this review we end our study of the different methods of food service. Next,
let us get to know what are the different factors that affect the choice of delivery
systems.

10.5 CHOICE OF DELIVERY SYSTEMS AND SERVICES

ATTACHED TO IT
Most of the characteristics of distribution and service are common to all types of food
service systems; differences in the system will lead to different demands in some
aspects of the distribution function.

Here, we have a brief discussion on these food service systems. However, a detailed
discussion on all these systems is presented in Unit 12. The choice of the delivery/ 211
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management service system you will notice vary according to the food service system and hence
the discussion presented herewith will indicate the choice of the delivery/service
technique according to the type of food service system and the types of services
attached to it. A detail discussion on the types of services is also given in Unit 12.
Here a mere introduction to these services is presented.

10.5.1 Choice of Delivery/Service Systems

These four food service systems prevalent in food service establishments include:
— Conventional Food Service System
— Commissary Food Service System
— Ready Prepared Food Service System
— Assembly/Serve
Let us get to know about them.
A) Conventional Food Service System
In the conventional system, most menu items are produced on the premises and
distributed to serving areas close to production facilities. Various types of hot/cold
holding equipment would be required to maintain the proper temperature for various
menu items before service. Depending on the type of service areas, this holding
equipment may be stationary or mobile.

Food can be transported to the required dining area, in modular units, which provide
a service counter for self or waiter/waiters service.

In hospital settings, a choice of either centralized or decentralized real assembly may

be the method chosen. Hospitals required more complex distribution system as
compared to other types of food service operations.

Depending on the layout and design, a combination of real assembly and distribution
methods may be used.
Next, let us review the commissary food service system.
B) Commissary Food Service Systems
Commissary food service systems are characterized by centralized production with
distribution of prepared menu item to several remote areas for service or final
production.

Depending on the nature of the operation for school kitchen, airline catering, distribution
and service can take many forms. The unique feature here is that a method must be
provided for transporting the food to remote locations of the service centers. These
facilities may be closely located or they may be located great distances away from
the central production unit as in many large commercial chain operation like Mac
Donalds. For this reason, this system requires specialized distribution equipment.
Foods produced in the central commissary may be transported frozen, chilled, or hot,
in bulk or in individual portions. The receiving areas must be designed to accommodate
the delivery equipment. Special precautions are necessary to preserve the microbiological
quality of foods because of the length of time between production and service.
C) Ready Prepared Food Service System
In the ready prepared food service system, menu items are produced and held either
frozen or chilled for service later. They are packed in bulk or individual portion or
in combination as in airline services, wherein two or three menu items may be

212
portioned onto individual serving dish. The type of distribution equipment needed by Food Management:
ready prepared system depends on whether they use a cook-chill or cook-freeze Delivery and Service —
Goals and Issues
technique. A unique characteristic of the ready prepared service is the heat processing
of prepared items prior to service. Microwave, connection or infrared oven is
normally used. This means that food is transported in a chilled or frozen state, and
therefore cold temperature support is needed during the delivery process.
Finally, let us move on to assembly/serve delivery system.
D) Assembly/Serve Food Service System
The assembly/serve system uses foods that are ready to serve or require little or no
processing prior to service. Many items are stored as bulk, pre-portioned or preplated
frozen foods.

When foods are served cafeteria style, the bulk form is generally used where the heat
processing before service can be done in a service unit or auxiliary area, in a similar
manner used in the ready prepared system. If proportioned or preplated items are used
similar heat-processing techniques must be used.

We have briefly reviewed the service systems, which can be chosen for a food service
establishment. Next, let us have a look at the different types of services that exist in
food service institutions.

10.5.2 Types of Services

Services in this industry can be categorized in many ways, and different combinations
exist. However, most of them can be discussed under three broad categories, which
include:
a) Table/counter service
b) Self service
c) Tray service
Table service has been predominantly used in commercial organizations but many
forms of self-service have also become popular. A wide range of self-service from
cafeterias and buffet to vending machines makes it possible to permit flexibility and
versatility needed for different service styles. Tray service remains the choice in
hospitals for patient meal service and for flight meals in the airline industry.

A more detailed study of different services is discussed in Unit 11 later in this course.
Hence, let us now move on to another important aspect linked with food service i.e.
the use of disposables in the service area.

10.6 USE OF DISPOSABLES IN THE SERVICE AREA

In the past 20 years, there has been a considerable growth in the use of disposables.
By disposable we mean any item that is designed to be disposed of after use. The
use of many public house catering, fast food and take away establishments in the
reason why disposables are so commonly used, in fact has now become a bend.

To meet the requirements of disposable-use in food service establishments, a myriad

of items are available these days in market. Let us quickly review what are these
and which are the areas where these are utilized.

Types of Disposables
The main varieties of disposables available are used in the following areas:
• Storage and cooking 213
Entrepreneurship and Food • Service of food and beverages e.g. plates, knives, forks, cups etc.
Service Management
• Decor — napkins, table cloths, slip cloths, banquet rolls place mats.
• Hygiene — wipes
• Clothing — approves chefs’ hats gloves
• Packaging — for marketing and presentation
The types of disposables that may be used to replace restaurant linen, like service,
napkins/tray cloths etc. may be beneficial in preventing contamination or cross infection,
which would be more likely with the use of a traditional glass cloth. Most forms of
disposables, can be of various colours, patterned or may have the logo or motto of
the hotel printed on them. Choice of colours and patterns must be aesthetic enough
to blend with the surroundings and food and beverages served. Throw away packs
of knives forks and spoons more convenient and hygienic, where customer turn over
is very high in a short span of time. This is applicable in transport catering and large
canteens where delays at service points will be eliminated and there would be no need
of washing cutlery napkins etc. Hospitals also could use disposables to avoid cross
infection, which would also give a saving on costs and labour.

Materials used for serving/holding food can vary. Aluminium containers, plastic paper
may be used. The choice of material will vary according to the method of preparation,
packaging and style of service. High quality materials, where the disposables, look
very much like chinaware have also been introduced. These have a high quality,
overall finish, and a smooth hard surface. The plates are strong and rigid and they
do not bend under pressure. A plasticizing ingredient used ensures that they are grease
and moisture proof even against hot gravy. They are available in various forms, such
as oval lunch plates, snack trays, and compartment plates.

Helping to cut costs in one of the prime reasons why many establishments use
disposables. At the same time, the disposables must be attractive, presentable and
acceptable to the client. The choice of disposables may be determined by the
following:
1) Necessity because of — outdoor catering
— automatic vending
— fast food
2) Cost considerations as — cost of laundry
— savings on wash-up staff.
Next, we shall have a look at the factors involved in selection of disposables.
Factors involved in selection and use of disposables
Due consideration must be given to the cost of disposables such as dinnerware, space
and other equipments for food processing, preparation and washing. Enough labour
must be employed for handling the disposable items such as paper or plastic.

Apart from these factors, there are certain other factors, which play an important role
in selection of disposables. These include quantities to purchase. This is further
determined by the space available to store these. Another important consideration is
the relative closeness to market supply, number of people to be served at a given
period of time and the menu items offered. Next, we shall briefly look at the reasons
behind the increased use of disposables.

The factors, which have caused the growth in the market of ‘disposables’ or
‘throwaway’, are as follows:

214
• The need to reduce costs Food Management:
Delivery and Service —
• Difficulty in obtaining labour Goals and Issues
• Cutting the high cost of laundering
• Improved standards of hygiene
• Breakage cost minimization
• Reduction in storage space required
• Changes in cooking and storage technology (cook chill/cook freeze)
• Needs of transport catering on trains, ships and planes
• Fast food development related to customer acceptability.
So then there has been a considerable growth in the use of disposables is the use of
disposables recommended? Well read the advantages and disadvantages of using
disposables highlighted next and find out for yourself.

Advantages
The advantages of using disposables include:
• equipment and labour reduced
• standards of hygiene improved
• service can be speeded up
• temperature maintenance of cooked food is possible
• can be used as promotional aids.
• reduces the amount of capital investment
• easily transported
• cheaper than hiring conventional equipment
Let us have a look at the disadvantages, next.
Disadvantages
• customer acceptability may be poor.
• may not be very cost effective as the amount required is more and may be written
than buying conventional equipment.
• large quantities specially, back up quantities are required.
• there is a great reliance on supply and delivery time.
• Disposal of large quantities of disposables poses problems to some extent.
With this, we end our discussion on disposables that are used in food service
institutions. Hope that you have understood the various types of delivery/service
systems. Before we move on to our next unit on delivery and service styles, let us
check our understanding of this topic.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) The method, speed and quality of services provided can make or break a food
service establishment. Discuss.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
215
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 2) What are the two methods of delivery/service systems? Highlight the advantages
and disadvantages of both.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) List a few hot and cold thermal retention systems. Briefly discuss the benefits
and constraints of using a microwave oven.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) What are the different types of food service systems that are employed in
food service establishments? Discuss delivery/service technique of any one of
them.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
5) Highlight the factors that have led to the growth of disposables in the service
area. Also, give any two advantages and disadvantages of disposables.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

10.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we read about the food service system model. We learnt that a food
service system model helps to understand the functioning of any food service organization
in totality. It explains that all its functions are interacted and work with the sole
objective of achieving goals. One such major subsystem is the delivery and service,
where the goal of providing quality food and services to target clientele is achieved.

Further the unit highlighted that the choice of a delivery, service system will vary
according to the type of food service system i.e. conventional, commissary, ready
prepared and assembly serve. The centralized and decentralized methods of assembly
can be applicable to any food service system. Major factors that determine the choice
would be complexities of the organization as in hospitals control is evident, transportation
of cooked foods to remote locations or whether foods are distributed in bulk quantity
or individual portions. Different types of heat processing equipment may be used.
Services can be broadly categorized as table/counter, cafeteria/buffet and tray services.

Finally the unit dwelt on the use of disposables in food service unit. Disposables are
now available in several of material, colours and shapes and have made service cost
effective, hygienic and labour saving. However the choice of using disposable depends
on organizational policies which center on clientele satisfaction and availability of large
amounts of disposable items for service.

216
 Food Management:
10.8 GLOSSARY Delivery and Service —
Goals and Issues
Cook-chill : it is a simple, controlled system of food preparation designed
to provide more flexibility in food service. The technique
involves the full cooking of food, followed by rapid chilling
and storage at controlled temperatures (for up to five
days).
Disposable : any item that is designed to be disposed of after use.

10.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) A food-service establishment is an example of a system. The outcome of the
system (food served to customers) is influenced by numerous factors that make
up the system, such as ingredients, workers, equipment, preparation/cooking
processes, and the economics of the establishment.
2) The various components of a food service system model include input,
transformation and output. The additional components are control, feedback, and
memory. Refer to sub-section 10.3.1 for a detail discussion on these components.
3) Feedback is significant in the improvement of a food service organization because
it provides information to continuing the effectiveness of the system. It gives
information for control and evaluation, and hence assists the system in adapting
to changing conditions.
4) The term quality assurance is applied to the process of defining quality standards.
At each step of the food service operation, quality controls are essential, from
procurement specifications to delivery and service to the clientele of the food
service operation.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) The method, speed and quality of services provided can make or break a food
service establishment. This is true because the quality of the food may be
excellent, the sanitation and hygiene good, procurement and storage ideal, but if
the service is lacking, the establishment will be rated poor by the clientele.
2) The two methods of delivery/service systems are centralized and decentralized
method. Refer sub-section 10.4.3 and write the advantages and disadvantages of
these two systems based on your understanding.
3) The hot and cold thermal retention systems include pellet and sublimation
refrigeration, split tray, match-a-tray and insulated trays. Refer Table 10.1 for the
constraints and benefits of using microwave oven and write the answer on your
own.
4) The different types of food service systems that are employed in food service
establishments include conventional food service system, commissary food service
system, ready prepared food service system and assembly/serve. Refer to section
10.5 and describe the technique of any one of them in your own words.
5) Refer to section 10.6 and list the factors that have led to the growth of disposables
in the service area and also mention any two advantages and disadvantages of
using disposable as highlighted in this section.

217
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management
UNIT 11 FOOD MANAGEMENT: DELIVERY
AND SERVICE STYLES
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Different Types of Service in Food Service Establishments
11.2.1 Table and Counter Service
11.2.2 Self Service
11.2.3 Tray Service
11.3 Types of Service in a Restaurant
11.3.1 Silver Service
11.3.2 Plate Service
11.3.3 Cafeteria Service
11.3.4 Buffet Service
11.4 Summary of Service Styles
11.5 Specialized Forms of Service
11.5.1 Hospital Tray Service
11.5.2 Airline Tray Service
11.5.3 Rail Service
11.5.4 Home Delivery
11.5.5 Catering and Banquet
11.5.6 Floor/Room Service
11.5.7 Lounge Service
11.6 Let Us Sum Up
11.7 Glossary
11.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

11.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we learnt about the functioning of a food service organization as a
set of units having interrelated functions, emphasizing distribution and service as one
subunit of the transformation component of the food service system model. We also
learnt about different delivery/service methods and types in food service establishments.
In this unit, we shall further proceed in the same direction and find out more about
delivery/service styles in food service establishments. Food service operators must be
aware that over the years, forms of meal service have changed. Serving of meals in
traditional ways may no longer seem feasible for both practical, as well as, financial
reasons. Whether eaten at home or eaten out, the time when meals have been taken,
and the style of waiting service that accompanies them have constantly altered.
Nouvelle cuisine, specialty ethnic restaurants, health food and fast food operations are
some of the types of catering that prompt changes in forms of service. The elimination
of unnecessary staff and hence pruning labour consuming rituals is a rising trend,
unless they add positively to meal merchandising. Forms of service, which demanded
large and elaborate skilled staff, are now less frequently encountered. What are the
types of service styles? What are the specialized forms of service employed by
different food service operators? These are a few aspects covered in this unit.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• identify the different types of food service practiced in restaurants, hospital
setting, airline, railway catering and other specialized forms of food service,
218
• describe the important features, characteristics of the different types of food Food Management:
service adopted in a restaurant, and Delivery and Service Styles

• discuss the specialized forms of food service such as hospital tray service, airline
tray service, home delivery etc.

11.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SERVICE IN FOOD SERVICE

ESTABLISHMENTS
The service of food and beverages may be carried out depending on
• type establishment,
• type of customer to be served,
• time available for a meal,
• turnover of customer/clients,
• type of menu presented,
• cost of the meal served, and
• site of the establishment.
The essentials of a good service are that quality meals are served efficiently and at
a good price. Complaints about poor service are quite common in this industry.
Whether they are profit or non-profit organizations all food services must focus on
food services. Service approaches can be broadly categorized in three ways. You may
recall reading about these previously in Unit 11. Can you name them? Well, these
are:
1) Table and Counter Service
2) Self Service
3) Tray Service
Let us get to know about each of these in greater detail.

11.2.1 Table and Counter Service

It is the most commonly used service in the commercial segment of the industry. It
can be extremely single or elaborate, and its distinguishing characteristic is service by
a waiter/waitress. You will find a detail review on the types of table service in section
12.3.

Counter service is often found in coffee shops, fast food outlets, hostels, schools
where the customers are looking for speedy service. These may use different counter
arrangements and with limited member of staff to serve. Often table and counter
service may be combined. The handling and controlling of guest checks is a major
concern in this type of service.
Points of control would be checking if:
• all items are charged,
• proper prices are charged, and
• all payments have been settled.
Next, let us review the self-service.

11.2.2 Self Service

Self service is characteristic of the food service industry, with variations like counter
pick up, take away, drive through, etc. Buffets, vending machines, refreshment-stands
at public places and mobile food service units could also be placed in this category.
The need for this type of service is really increasing as it provides service at any hour
and in every imaginable place. Let us get to know about these variations next. 219
Entrepreneurship and Food a) Cafeteria Service: Cafeteria service is mostly used in industrial and employee
Service Management feeding operations. Customers queuing in line formation past a service counter
choosing their menu requirements in stages and loading them on to a tray or plate.
It is common to see self-bussing of trays and dishes. This is a common practice
to lower labour costs.
Various types of counters like the straight-line counter or the u-shaped or hollow
square counter may be used as highlighted in Figure 11.1. The straight-line
counter may have many sections, depending on the quantity and variety of menu
items offered. In the hollow square the food counters are positioned to form three
or four sides of a square with space to move between counters. This layout
allows customers to move from one station (counter) to another without being
held up by the entire line. They can go to the counters that they wish to select
which not only decrease lines but also permit more people to be served in a
smaller place.

Kitchen

Kitchen
Straight-line Counter

U-Shaped Counter

Kitchen
Regular Counter

Kitchen

Kitchen Straight-line Counter

A Series of One or More Bays, (Preparation to Kitchen)
or U-Shaped, Counter
Figure 11.1: Some of the counters used in cafeteria service

b) Buffet: Buffet service is used in commercial and institutional food service. It has
gained popularity over the years because of its convenience, as well as, satisfaction.
College and school, hostels, employee cafeterias in hospitals or industrial
organizations, events like receptions, coffee parties, promotional campaigns, etc.
can use this type of service. It enables a facility to serve more people in a given
time with fewer personnel. Food items like main dishes, salad, desserts, and
beverages are all served on separate counters. Sometimes, salad bars and dessert
counter may be buffet options but the main courses may be served using table
service.
c) Vending Machines: Vending machines are used for self-dispensing of items like
hot and cold beverages, chocolates and in some places items like sandwiches and
snacks. Vending machines offers the advantage of automatic dispensing to customers
at any hour with limited personnel, i.e., only those required for maintenance of
these machines. Machines and food items may be provided by a commercial
vending operator on a contract basis and need to be serviced and maintained by
service personnel of the food service organization. This can be done by minimal
training given to food service employees.

220 Next, let us learn about the tray service.

11.2.3 Tray Service Food Management:
Delivery and Service Styles
Tray service in which food is carried to a person by a food service employee is used
by healthcare institutions and for an in flight meal service in the airline industry. Room
service in hotels is a variation of tray service.

Let us review the hospital and airline tray service briefly here. A detail review on
hospital and airline service is presented later in section 12.5. These you would notice
are specialized forms of service.
A) Hospitals Tray Service
The Ganymede system or tray service is one of a number of commercially available
tray service methods used in hospital catering. Basically, individual patient trays are
made up on a conveyor system according to the patients’ pre-ordered requirements.
Differing methods are used to keep the food hot or cold, ranging from the heated or
chilled pellet method to specially insulated ways. Trays once completed are transported
to the wards in ambient cabinets. Beverages may be added at ward sites before
presentation to the patient.
The advantages of this system are that:
• The patients receive their meal presented appetizingly on the plate and piping hot.
• Labour and administration costs can be reduced.
• Time originally spent in the ward ‘plaint up’ meals may now be put to better use
by completing other duties.
• The patient is able to select the meal required from a given menu.
Another form of tray service used is in the airline sector. Let us get to know about
this service next.
B) Airline Tray Service
In an airline tray service, when all the food has been prepared, the required quantities
of each dish are placed on trays which are either put into hot cupboards and kept
hot until being transported into the plane, or alternatively are chilled and stored in the
catering unit until required and, when necessary, re-heated on board the aircraft. Each
airline will supply its own equipment such as tableware, china and glassware. A detail
review on airline food service is presented later in section 11.5 under specialized forms
of service. Having gone through this section will give you a complete perspective on
airline service.
With tray service we end our general review of different types of services establishments.
Next, let us review the types of service offered specifically in a commercial set-up
such as a restaurant.

11.3 TYPES OF SERVICE IN A RESTAURANT

The outcome of any food service operation as you may recall reading in Unit 10, is
the service of quality meals and clientele satisfaction. Therefore, the choice of a
service style is of utmost importance. Quality food served poorly will often result in
consumer complaints, whereas mediocre food served well may be met with satisfaction.
Complaints about food service rank high in the food service industry.

Commonly, you would face complaints from consumers about having to wait in a long
queue, or wait for a long time for the food to arrive, or if they are served a wrong
dish or an item prepared differently than what was ordered. Whether the organization
is a profit or non-profit one, all food service operations must focus on service. Service
of food and beverages can take many forms and can be chosen selectively by the food
service operator.
221
Entrepreneurship and Food Most of the restaurants and hotels employ formal patterns of food and beverage
Service Management service. However, the degree of formality and informality varies to a great extent
across the worlds. In assessing the foregoing styles of restaurant service, we can
identify four forms in use today. These are:
• silver service (including French, English, Russian, and American styles)
• plate service
• buffet service
• cafeteria service
Let us get to know these service styles.

11.3.1 Silver Service

Silver service is, in effect, what has emerged from restaurants blending together
elements of French, English and Russian service. Today, in silver service, food is
placed on or in appropriate silver plated dishes in the kitchen by the chef for
presentation for service by waiters. The term ‘silver’ embraces stainless steel and also
fire-proof enamel dishes, china or earthenware. These latter dishes are normally
presented on oval ‘flats’ of silver or stainless steel.
Sometime, silver service has been called ‘Continental’ which includes four major
services. The four major service styles are thus recognized as:
• French service - gueridon service
• English service - silver service
• American service - pre-plated service
• Russian service - silver service
Let us read and find out about these service styles next.
A) French Service
In France itself, service a la Francaise is delivered from that used in “bourgeous”
households and is found in both family pensions and in banqueting, where the dish
(accompanied by its lid) is presented to the left of each guest who serves himself.
Look at Figure 11.2, which depicts the different types of French service.
A fundamental element on true French service is that it affords guests an opportunity
to help themselves. For small parties up to three guests, dishes may be placed directly
on the table. The main dish (possibly on a table rechaud, perhaps of the ‘night light’
type) is positioned before the guest expected to be served first. A French full service
place setting is shown in Figure 11.2. As you can see in this, the plates are placed
conveniently near the dish.
For larger parties, certainly for tables of four or more, a gueridon or side table should
be used. In this case, the waiter brings plates and dishes to the gueridon, sets the plates
at guests’ covers and then presents the dishes to guests to help themselves. What
is gueridon service, then? Let us next read and find out.
Gueridon Service
The most elaborate form of silver service in restaurants today is called gueridon. In
this case, a side table (or gueridon) is exploited to the full. This side table can also
be on wheels (in trolley form), and it usually is mobile.
Often, of course, some preliminary treatment of portioning or carving may be required
from the gueridon. Thus, elaborated French service can also enable guests to see food
‘finished’ by their table, for carving and portioning and salad mixing may be effected
in front of them. Refinements or simplifications internationally depend on the grade
of the restaurant.
Basic French service, as practiced in France, has advantages in that it demands
relatively few staff and does not require great skill, but it can be slow and less ‘sure’,
because of possible guest ineptitude in serving themselves. The other advantages and
222 some disadvantages of gueridon service are highlighted herewith.
 Food Management:
Delivery and Service Styles

1. Dinner fork 1. Butter knife

2. Knife 2. Dinner fork
3. Teaspoon 3. Knife
4. Entree plate 4. Bread and Butter plate
5. Water glass 5. Show plate
6. Napkin 6. Napkin
7. White wine glass
7

1 2 3 1 2 3

A family style dinner place setting A la carte french service place setting

1. Dinner fork 1. Butter knife

2. Salad fork 2. Salad fork
3. Knife 3. Dinner fork
4. Soupspoon 4. Knife
5. Tea spoon 5. Soupspoon
6. Dessert fork 6. Dessert fork
7. Bread and Butter plate 7. Tea spoon
8. Butter knife 8. Bread and Butter plate
9. Show plate 9. Show plate
10. Water glass 10. White wine glass
11
11. White wine glass 11. Napkin
12. Napkin
10 11
5
7
7 6
6

1 2 2 3 2 5
2 3 4 4

Banquet service place setting French full service place setting

Figure 11.2: Different forms of French service
223
Entrepreneurship and Food Advantages and Disadvantages
Service Management
Advantages claimed for gueridon service is that it helps merchandise meals and foods
of all levels in an up market or high class restaurant because it is ‘classy’ and can
be spectacular. A handed service is also safe (from spillage and accidents) and there
is little or no risk of a napkin or clothing touching food. But among its disadvantages
are that it is labour and time-consuming. It may also tempt waiters to over serve guests
and give them more than they require.
Next, we shall study the English service.
B) English Service
On the Continent, service a I’anglaise is used especially in function service, fixed
price table d’hote and in travel catering (rail and ship). In this style, the dish is
presented to the left of the guest and served by the waiter. It is thought to have
originated in the British tradition of the ‘master’ or family head/carving or portioning
and serving all at the table. In restaurant English service, the waiter fulfills this role,
that is, the fundamental element is that he serves and at the same time, in effect,
decides the portions as distinct from the guest taking his own. Again, refinements or
simplifications depend on the grade of the restaurant.
Generally, English service is also a ‘silver’ service with portioning largely effected in
the kitchen so that food, particularly when it involves a varied or complicated garnish,
may be easily separated and served by the waiter.
The waiter brings plates and dishes to the sideboard, places a plate before each guest
at his own cover, presents the main dish to the host or guests and then passes round
the table serving each customer.
English service has the advantage of conveying a stylish or up market impression with
relative speed and efficiency but it does require skill from staff. It is, for example,
difficult to apply successfully to fragile food, for example, fish fillets, omelets etc.
This form of service also can be (and in high grade establishments is) affected from
the gueridon. In this case, the waiter places the dishes (a lamp or rechaud is needed
-at least for the main dishes) with the required number of plates on the gueridon. He
serves by completing one plate at a time, which is immediately placed before the
guest. Gueridon service is greatly facilitated by the use of an assistant waiter to aid
in passing the completed plates.
Next, let us review the Russian service.
C) Russian Service
The Russian style introduced during the nineteenth century, meant that each individual
dish was served to guests from a sideboard and removed when finished. Thus,
separate ‘courses’ based on each dish were established. This contrasted with former
dining style when many dishes of diverse kinds were placed simultaneously on the
table rather in the way in which Indian meals are served today.
In France (possibly because of the sideboard or side table connection), service a la
Russe is gueridon service in that dishes are served garnished on the gueridon and then
placed before the guest at table. In Russia itself, appetizers (Zakouskis) or hors
d’oeuvre were served outside the dining room in an anteroom close by.
Russian service, doubtless is derived from the old Russian style of having large joints,
whole fish or birds, often decoratively treated on dishes with elaborate garnish, on
the sideboard, visible to guests before being served. In Russian service, these items
were then carved, portioned, placed on platters and passed for guests to help themselves.
The great waiting authority of the Edwardian period, J. Rey (author of Guide du
Maitre d’Hotel and The Modern Caterer’s Encyclopedia) described service a la Russe
as ‘serving the dishes one after the other, “piping hot” straight from the kitchen,
without letting the guests wait for anything.’
224
But course and style later became integrated into French and English forms of service Food Management:
– particularly, English. Indeed, Russian service can be confused with both French and Delivery and Service Styles
English service but its distinguishing feature is that in England and America, the
moveable side table or gueridon (as distinct from sideboard) is not used. Russian
service survives today in the sense that in ‘silver’ service, proportioned food is passed
by waiters to guests. Thus, for banquets or functions, Russian service (though often
with French and English adaptations) is still applied.
Finally, let us get to know about the American table service.
D) American Service
Fundamentally, this simplified form of restaurant service evolved more recently than
French, English and Russian services. It depends on pre-plating and the pre-setting of
tables with silver needed throughout the meal. The guests are provided with a menu
card for the meal. Maitre d’ host or waiters bring plated food from the kitchen by
tray that is then placed on a tray stand by the guest’s table (an elementary form of
gueridon). A typical American service setting is shown in Figure 11.3.
American service may be slightly elaborated by fine table equipment and by ancillary
serving procedures such as dispensing by separate waiters of hot rolls and trolley or
‘cart’ service for salads and so on. An all-purpose American service setting is shown
in Figure 11.3.
American service is, therefore, plate service adapted to restaurant usage. Its advantages
lie in its economy of equipment (sparing of dishes and silver), speed and simplicity.
Hence, inexperienced staff can learn it easily.
Restaurateurs, prompted by guests’ demand for convenience, and tempered by common
sense and good manners, have formed service styles in order to smooth or facilitate
a meal’s progress. In the restaurant business, these customs and styles are affected
also by staffing and cost considerations so that restaurateurs constantly seek to modern
needs and realities.
Despite the reservations already expressed regarding large brigades and costly labour
usage, silver service (and adaptations of silver service) have long been accepted in
Britain and the rest of the Western World as the standard of good waiting practice.
Therefore, change is likely to be evolutionary rather than revolutionary.
Next, we shall get to know about the plate service which is another form of food
service used in restaurants.

11.3.2 Plate Service

In this style, the customer is served in the simplest manner with food already placed on
the plate. Such service, as already mentioned earlier is used in canteens, many boarding
houses, hostels and restaurants, where more personal silver service cannot be given. It is
also used in up-market operations when chefs wish to ensure fine plate presentations.
In some higher-class operations otherwise using silver service, grills may be served on
plates. Can you think any example of this? Yes, indeed it is sizzles, that most of us
often enjoy white eating out. But what is its benefit? This is to speed service and
ensure that they are hot when served direct from the grill without unnecessary
manipulation.
Plating food requires care and supervision. For example, the plate should be the right
size for the food item and adequate to accommodate its garnish and accompanying
vegetables. In arranging the food, colour and consistency should reflect a chef’s
artistry or when done by service staff, should aid or recreate such artistry.
In implementing plate service in popular style operations, metal plate rings enabling
food to be stacked one plate on another may be used. Vegetables are not always
‘plated’ or pre-served but may be offered separately in a vegetable dish placed on the
table, with its serving spoon (and possible fork) for guest self-service. Trays are used
by waiting staff for this type of service. 225
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management
1. Dinner fork 1. Salad fork
2. Knife 2. Dinner fork
3. Teaspoon 3. Knife
4. Water glass 4. Soupspoon
5. Teaspoon 7
6. Bread and Butter plate
7. Water glass
8. Napkin

1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5

Typical American service setting An all purpose American service setting

1. Salad fork
1. Dinner fork 2. Dinner fork
2. Knife 3. Knife 11
3. Teaspoon 4. Soup spoon
4. Salad Plate 5. Dessert fork
5. Bread and Butter plate 6. Teaspoon
6. Cup and saucer 7. Bread and Butter plate
7. Entree plate 8. Entree plate 10
9. Napkin
10. Water glass
11. Wine glass

5
6
7

8 9

7
6
4

1
2 3
1 2 3 4

American full - service place setting American full - service dinner place setting

Figure 11.3: American service

226
Next, we shall review the cafeteria service used in restaurants. Food Management:
Delivery and Service Styles
11.3.3 Cafeteria Service
Industrial and institutional catering makes widespread use of cafeteria service. The
basic principles of cafeteria food service have remained relatively stable. Food is set
out on one or more counters with heated, unheated and refrigeration sections. Customers
pick up a tray at the entry to a service line, and pass along the line selecting food
as required. Cutlery and paper napkins are at the end of the line (or sometimes set
on tables in the dining room) next to a cashier who receives payments. This may not
be required in some institutional services where meals are pre-paid.
Commercial cafeterias may augment service by having staff at each station to assist
or provide call-order service for grills, breakfasts or toasted sandwiches, etc.
In institutional catering where meals are presold through an ‘en pension’ charge to
students or other types of institutional customer, dishes are usually set up on the
counter in order of consumption from soup through to sweet.
In cafeterias, where each dish is individually priced, the servery line is arranged with
merchandising and maximizing sales in mind. Thus, an attractive salad display, hors
d’oeuvres or side dishes might be first line, for hungry customers are more likely to
be tempted with such extra items when they are seen before main dishes.
Finally, let us review the buffet service.

11.3.4 Buffet Service

Modern hotel operations increasingly adopt a buffet service, which involves guests’
self-service (and is thus an adaptation for hotels and restaurants of cafeteria approach).
Guests help themselves to most items and these can include hot dishes. Carveries are
a form of buffet service.
For buffet service, food is arranged on a buffet table in trays, on chafing dishes, oval flats,
entree dishes, etc. Plates, hot or cold (as applicable), are stacked at the head of each line
or table. Napkins and silverware are normally located at the end of the buffet line.
A qualified member of the waiting or kitchen staff is available to deal with carving
or portioning and is in attendance even in self-carving operations.
Cold buffets are usually embellished with decorative dishes such as ham, salmon and
poultry but center-pieces can be of flowers, ice carvings, butter mouldings or company
insignias or other relevant feature. Spot-lighting a buffet table is an effective finishing
touch especially when highlighting a center-piece.
U-shape, L-shape or V-shape and other shapes of table arrangement can be assembled
to accommodate the food to be served and the numbers to be catered for. Some items,
for example soup or beverages, are often set up separately so as to not to cross the
regular buffet lines and to increase traffic flow speed.
In our discussion above we have reviewed different types of service available for
commercial, non-commercial food service establishments. Let us next have a look at
the summary of all these service styles in our next section and discuss their respective
advantages and disadvantages.

11.4 SUMMARY OF SERVICE STYLES

This section presents a summary of service styles, we just learnt, and a few other
styles. The uses along with their advantages and disadvantages are tabulated for your
better understanding in Table 11.1. So let us proceed.

227
Entrepreneurship and Food
Table 11.1: Summary of service styles
Service Management
Types of Service Principal Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Plate: simplest form of service; American service; guest houses; Rapid turnover and fast service. Increased kitchen time and
food assembled in the kitchen platter meals; breakfasts; ca- Labour saving. Fewer waiters labour. Food can cool on hot-
on plates fes; set menus; design- con- needed. Costs minimized. Easy plate. Presentation can be poor
scious up-market service to understand. Preserves chef’s e.g. over-loaded appearance
presentation
Silver (English) : food served Good-class establishment; ban- Dishes look good. Chef shows Needs skilled staff to do well.
by waiter with spoon and fork queting, directors’ dining room, skill. Waiter can show skills. Costs more. Food can cool.
from flats, etc. cruise liners & other related ca- Conveys impression of high Service can be slow. Extra
tering class service washing-up
Semi-silver: combining plate Good medium-class establish- Quicker than full silver service. Kitchen assembly time, other-
and silver service. Main food ments; department store restau- Reduces wash-up. Customers wise as for plate service
item plated. Vegetables, etc. rants decide amount of accompani-
served by waiter ments taken
Family: plated main course Banqueting; clubs; institutions Fewer and less-skilled staff. Cus- Customer can spill or burn him-
and vegetables on table for tomer decides his vegetable por- self. Poor presentation. Cus-
customer self-service tion. Quite quick. Reduces ser- tomer can feel neglected
vice time. Enables more covers
to be served
Traditional family (English): Country houses; family Readily understood. Food can be Food can go cold. Depends on
host serves main course (or served without fuss. Suits infor- customer’s attitude
carves joint), then as for fam- mal occasions
ily service
French: food to be pre- Highest standard; small ban- Good presentation. Personal Possible poor portioning. Only
carved, cut or portioned on quets; royal functions suitable for small numbers of
dishes, passed (left). Custom- covers
ers help themselves
Gueridon: using side table House specialities; top class es- Personal service. Ideal for a la Expensive to run.
or trolley, waiter shows his tablishments; night clubs carte. Pampers guests. Good Heavy staff costs. Difficult to
skills, e.g. carving, cooking, for sales organize. Food can go cold.
flambage
Russian: similar to silver Functions and private parties Good presentation As silver service
service
Gannymede: heated pellet in Hospitals Food kept warm. Can travel and Expensive to install. Good hy-
a plate keeps food hot stay hot. Good when service giene essential
times vary

Call orders: orders called Fast food operations; snack Cheap to run. Minimum Pressure on ‘caller’. No
to kitchen, thereafter plated bars staff required. Quicker record of orders. Noisy to
service. Good for certain run
trades
Cafeteria/counter: customer Motorway services; institu- Visually good. Economical Food can cool while custom-
collects tray then takes items tions (schools, etc.) on staff. Clean ers wait. Dependent on good
from counter, finally paying back-up and cashier.
cashier.
Prepared counter: good paid Service areas; cafeterias etc. Better quality food. No Larger food stocks. Difficult
for a cash desk. Chits queuing. Effective control for customer to understand.
handled in at the counter for Clear menu essential.
goods.
Single: items in a vending Industrial canteens; travel Twenty-four hours food Machine breakdowns. Clean-
machine sold singly. Pos- termini (bus stations, etc.) service. No service staff liness vital. Can frustrate
sible reheating in adjacent cost customers
microwave
Buffets service: includes caf- Hotel self-service; functions Low staffing, customers Possible queen delay. Erratic
eteria style modified for please themselves food control
hotels
Fast food: quick cooking Chain and franchise opera- Fast turnover. High profits. Quality control essential. Ex-
of popular goods for take- tions Low staff costs pensive to install. Depen-
away or eating on the pre- dence on convenience foods.
mises from disposables. Can wane in popularity

228
Another way of categorizing types of service is given in Table 11.2. In this summarization Food Management:
you would notice the type of service is grouped under table service, assisted service, Delivery and Service Styles
self-service, single point service, or specialized service. The description for each of
these types of service is included.
Table 11.2: Types of service
Type of Service Description
Group A : Table Service
Service to Customers at a laid cover
1) Waiter a) Silver/English Presentation and service of food to
customer by waiting staff from food
flat or dish.
b) Family Main courses plated with vegetables
placed in multi-portion dishes on
tables for customers to help
themselves; sauces offered.
c) Plate/American Service of pre-plated food to customers.
d) Butler/French Presentation of food individually to
customers by food service staff for
customers to serve themselves.
e) Russian Table laid with food for customers to
help themselves (also sometimes
confusingly used to indicate Gueridon
or Butler service)
f) Gueridon Food served on to customer’s plate at
side table or trolley; also may include
carving, cooking and flambage,
preparation of salads and dressing, and
fish filleting.
2) Bar Counter Service to customers seated at bar
counter (usually U-shaped) on stool.
Group B : Assisted Service
Combination of Table Service and Self-service
3) Assisted Commonly applied to ‘carvery’ type
operations. Some parts of the meal
are served to seated customers; other
parts are collected by the customers
(also used for Breakfast service).
Buffets where customers select food
and drink from displays or passed trays;
consumption is either at tables,
standing or in lounge area.
Group C : Self-Service
Self-Service of Customers
4) Cafeteria a) Counter Customers queuing in line formation
past a service counter choosing their
menu requirements in stages and
loading them on to a tray (may include
a ‘Carousel’ – a revolving stacked
counter saving space).
b) Free-flow Selection as in counter (above) but in
food service area where customers
move at will to random service points;
customers usually exit via a till point.
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Entrepreneurship and Food c) Echelon Series of counters at angles to
Service Management customer flow within a free-flow area,
thus saving space.
d) Supermarket Island service points within a free-
flow area.
(Note: some ‘call order’ production may be included in cafeterias)
Group D : Single Point Service
Service of Customers at Single Point – consumed on premises or taken away
5) Take-away Customer orders and in served from
single point, at counter, hatch or
snackstand; customers off the premises
(some take-away establishment provide
seating)
Drive-through; form of take-away where
customer drives vehicle past order,
payment and collection points.
Fast food : originally used to describe a
service at a counter or hatch where
customers receive a complete meal or
dish in exchange for cash or ticket;
commonly used nowadays to describe type
of establishment offering limited range
menu, fast service with take-facility.
6) Vending Provision of food service and beverage
service by means of automatic retailing.
7) Kiosks Outstation to provide service for peak
demand or in specific location (may be
open for customers to order or used
for dispensing only).
8) Food Court Series of autonomous counters where
customers may either order and eat (as
in bar counter, above) or buy from a
number of counters and eat in separate
eating area, or take-away.
9) Bar Term used to describe selling point and
consumption area in licenced premises.
Group E : Specialized (or in situ)
Service to Customer’s in Areas not Primarily Designed for Service
10) Tray Method of service of whole or part
of meal on tray to customer in situ,
eg. Hospitals, aircraft; also used in
ODC.
11) Trolley Service of food and beverages from
trolley, away from dining areas, e.g. for
office workers, in aircraft or on trains.
12) Home
Delivery Food delivered to customer’s home
or place of work, e.g., ‘meals on
wheels’ pizza home delivery.
13) Lounge Service of variety of foods and
beverages in lounge area.
14) Room Service of variety of foods and
beverages in guest apartments or
meeting rooms.
15) Drive-in Customers park motor vehicle and are
230 served at the vehicles.
So that was an exhaustive list. It is evident that a wide variety of service styles can Food Management:
be used. Certain specialized forms of service also exist that are used in varying food Delivery and Service Styles
service establishments such as hospitals, air line, railways etc., We shall get to know
about them in section 11.5. But first let us review what we have learnt till now. Answer
the questions given in the check your progress exercise 1.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Fill in the blanks:
a) Service of .................................. meals and .................................
satisfaction are the outcomes of any food service operation.
b) For larger parties, a ................................... is used in French service.
c) ....................................... service is also referred to as ‘silver’ service.
d) The distinguishing feature of Russian service is that ...................... is not
used.
e) The use of grills for serving food is used in ............................ service.
2) How the service approaches are broadly categorized?
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
3) Discuss buffet service as one of the methods of food service.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
4) What do you understand by gueridon service? Highlight its advantages and
disadvantages.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
5) Match the following:
A B
a) Ganymede service i) Breakfast
b) French ii) Hospitals
c) Plate iii) Motorway services
d) Cafeteria iv) Royal functions
e) Russian v) Private parties

11.5 SPECIALIZED FORMS OF SERVICE

This group of service methods includes methods of service found in hospitals and
aircraft and sometimes in outdoor catering (ODC), as well as, lounge service, room
service and home delivery. Let us start our discussion with hospital service, with
special emphasis on the hospital tray service which forms a very important food
service method. 231
Entrepreneurship and Food 11.5.1 Hospital Tray Service
Service Management
All hospitals were dependent on income from patients’ fees, private donations, proceeds
from garden parties and so on. Owing to this, the service of food varied considerably
from one hospital to another and generally went from bad to worse. Very little
consideration was being given to such things as providing an attractively served meal,
correct nutritional value, supplying a wide variety of food, or serving hot and freshly
cooked food.
The slow growth and development of the hospital catering service meant that it took
some time to achieve the major food service goals, namely, that all meals should reach
the patient quickly look attractive and have the correct nutritional value. To this end,
the American Ganymede Tray System was introduced in 1964. You may recall
studying about this system earlier in section 11.2 under hospital tray service. We learnt
that in this system, individual patient trays are made up on a conveyor system
according to the patients’ pre-ordered requirements. Trays once completed are
transported to the wards in ambient cabinets. Thus the Ganymede system, is one of
a number of commercially available tray service methods used in hospital catering
In a hospital setting, the menu, on which there is a choice, is given to each patient
the day before. They then mark off their requirements for lunch, dinner and breakfast
for the following day by putting an ‘X’ in the appropriate box. These menus are then
collected and sent to the catering manager. All order cards are then collated and a
production schedule is drawn up.
At service time, depending on the type of dish, extra portions are available in case
they are required. The patient may also mark on the card if he/she required large or
small portions. The private patient’s choice of menu is larger and more varied than
the main wards, and here the service is similar to hotel room service.
Microwave ovens are also used in hospitals to provide quick re-heating facilities for
food at certain periods of the day and night. All forms of dishes required can be
prepared the day before during ‘off peak’ hours in a central kitchen and blast-frozen
or chilled. When required the following day, the dishes can be ready for service
quickly.
It can be seen that the systems are devised to boost the morale of the patient by
continually presenting him/her with well-cooked food, attractively plated-up and piping
hot. At the same time over the period of a week or a fortnight the patient has a wide
and varied selection of dishes from which to choose. When in hospital likes and
dislikes become more important to the patient and this is an important factor that the
catering officer or a dietitian must not overlook.
The patients may be said to fall into six categories, namely:
• Medical: usually in hospital for a long time
• Surgical: only stay in hospital for a short time
• Geriatric: older people who require hospital treatment and may have special needs
• Orthopaedic: these patients, with bone and joints problem, are not normally
physically ill but may often be unable to move without help.
• Maternity
• Paediatric: children
The timing of patient’s meals generally follows the same pattern as given herewith:
Breakfast 7.30 - 8.00 am
Lunch Tea 12 noon
Supper 3.00 - 3.30 pm; 6.00 - 6.30 pm
Later hot drink Any time between 8.00 and 10.00 pm
232
Another form of tray service used is in the airline sector. Let us get to know about Food Management:
this service next. Delivery and Service Styles

11.5.2 Airline Tray Service

The first catering seen on planes could best be described as a packed lunch of assorted
sandwiches plus a flask of tea, and it was a case of ‘take it or leave it’. Airlines now
have a catering commissary. A commissary is a term used to cover the catering, cabin
requirements, bonded stores, cleaning and other passenger requirements. It is now
accepted that, where short distances and flight times are involved, only snack-type
meals, or sandwiches, and beverages are offered. Where longer distances are involved,
then the airline staff has time to give an extensive service of food and beverages.
For the economy and tourist flights, all meals must be of the same size, with all
portions identical. The meals are arranged in individual portion containers, sealed,
chilled and then stored until required. For the business and first-class passenger, who
often receives a food and beverage service equivalent to that of a first-class hotel or
restaurant, there is little portion control. The first-class service may be such that joints
may be carved from a carving trolley as it moves up the central aisle, and served with
the appropriate garnish and vegetables. This, combined with the use of fine bone
china, glassware and silver plated tableware, creates an atmosphere of content and
well-being whilst the meal is being served. The economy or tourist class meal is often
served on a plastic or melamine tray using disposable place mats, cutlery, and
tableware and serviettes and disposable glasses for any drinks required. Great use is
made here of pre-portioned foods such as salt, peppers, mustards, sugars, cream,
cheeses, dry biscuits and preserves.
When all the food has been prepared, the required quantities of each dish are placed
on trays which are either put into hot cupboards and kept hot until being transported
into the plane, or alternatively are chilled and stored in the catering unit until required
and, when necessary, re-heated on board the aircraft. Each airline will supply its own
equipment such as tableware, china and glassware.
High-speed ovens can heat meals in 20 minutes. The tray with the meal on it is then
given to the passengers on a pull-down table. In between meals tea, coffee, biscuits
and cakes are served, together with cold drinks. If special dishes are required for
vegetarians, children or invalids, these are available. The menus and wine lists are
presented in a colourful and decorative fashion.
All alcoholic beverages and cigarettes are drawn from the bonded stores on the
catering premises under the watchful eye of a representative of Customs and Excise.
When the aircraft is in the air, it is the well-trained cabin crew who provide the service
to the passengers. Their job at times is very difficult especially when the time for a
trip is very short, i.e. 45-60 minutes, in which a meal has to be served. No cooking
is done on a flight.
From airline service we move on to rail service.

11.5.3 Rail Service

Food and beverage operations on trains are as in the main conventional restaurants,
take away counters and trolley operations. On sleepers, a limited type of room service
is provided. However, these services are provided on moving trains away from base
stations and suppliers. In some specialized trains like luxury holiday trains or tourist
specials there could be a tray system similar to airlines, where the food and drink is
served to passengers at any seat. In some trains, there is a restaurant car where tables
are laid and the waiter-waitress service is provided.
Next, from tray service in hospitals, airlines or railways we move on to home delivery.

233
Entrepreneurship and Food 11.5.4 Home Delivery
Service Management
Probably the first type of home delivery and the most well known is the Meals on
Wheels service provided by local authorities as part of their welfare activities. More
recently, home delivery service has become a part of the profit sector. Services range
from Indian and Chinese takeaway deliveries, to restaurants providing full meals (hot,
or cold for customers to re-heat). One chain of establishments was specifically
designed to be primarily a home delivery operation. This was a pizza operation based
upon an American concept.

Methods of delivery, which endeavour to ensure preservation of the product in heat

retention presentation packages, vary. The most sophisticated are the Meals on
Wheels services. This is because of the nature of the customer demand being met
(the elderly) where consideration for nutritional value is uppermost. The most simple,
but nevertheless effective, is the pizza home delivery system which utilize thick
cardboard with internal corrugations to provide a form of insulation to keep the pizza
hot. The time required for heat retention is limited by the extent of the delivery area.
Indeed, the company endeavours to deliver the pizza within 30 minutes.

11.5.5 Catering and Banquet

This kind of service is also gaining popularity. It can be quite profitable, because the
number of guests is known in advance, and the menu if fixed. Overproduction and
wastage can be avoided. A guarantee on the member of meals that will be paid for
is required to given by sponsor of the event. Buffet service is the most widely used
form, but table service can also be used.

Events such as receptions, cocktail parties, conference lunches, can use this form.
The advantage is that the service may take place on or off the premises of a facility.
In off premises catering or Outdoor Catering (ODC), the food is transported to a wide
variety of places. Here, temperature support equipment to keep food hot or cold
would be required. Equipment for reheating and transport are also very important.
Often skilled semi-skilled labour would be required, however, in such cases many part-
time personnel are used, to have sufficient staff on hand for service and also to control
labour costs.

Other types of specialized food service are seen in room service, lounge service in
hotels, restaurants and other such food service establishments. Let us finally review
these systems.

11.5.6 Floor/Room Service

Floor or room service varies from basic ‘in room’ tea and coffee making facilities,
as well as, possibly mini-bars, to vending machines on floors, or to the service of a
variety of meals in rooms. Depending on the nature of establishment, the extent of
service in guest rooms will vary. In five-star hotels 24-hour room service is expected,
whereas two and three star hotels service may be limited to ‘in room’ tea and coffee
making facilities with only continental breakfast available to be served in the room.
Let us review these different types of room services.
A) Full and Partial Room Service
In this operation, full room service is offered and the room service staff are employed
to provide service at the times indicated on the menus.

Service may be operated from a floor pantry, there may be one on each floor of an
establishment or one sited to service two or three floors. An alternative system is
where all food and beverages come from a central kitchen and are sent to the
appropriate floor by lift and then taken to the rooms, possibly in a hot trolley.
234
Floor service staff must have considerable experience as they have to deal with the Food Management:
service of all types of meals. They also have to deal with the service of all alcoholic Delivery and Service Styles
beverages and so must have a good knowledge of the licensing laws. The
floor service staff works on a shift system, as the service has to be provided 24 hours
a day.

The guest may call for service by pressing a button, which lights up a series of
coloured lights in the corridor, or alternatively lights up a panel in the floor pantry,
which is divided into numbered sections denoting the rooms. The customers may
telephone direct to the floor pantry, or telephone their request to reception or the
restaurant or dining room.

A food or wine cheque is made out of all requests from the guests or in the event
of special luncheon or dinner parties, a bill is made out and presented to the host who
will sign it to show that the services listed have been received. It is most important
that a signature is obtained in case of any query or complaint when the bill is presented
to a guest on leaving an establishment. All cheques once signed by the guest should
be passed immediately to reception or control so that the services rendered may be
charged to his/her account. All orders are usually taken in triplicate, the top copy going
to control or reception (after being signed by the guest) and the third copy kept by
the floor service staff as a means of reference.

The pantry from which the floor service staff operates may be likened to a mini still-
room and holds the equipment required for the preparation and service of any meal.
This equipment can include:
• Sink unit • China
• Hotplate • Cutlery, flatware and hollow-ware
• Refrigerator • Glassware
• Lift to central kitchen • Chafing lamps and Suzette pans
• Salamander • Linen
• Open gas rings • Gueridon trolley
• Small still set or other coffee • Cruets, Worcestershire sauce,
making machine sugars, etc.
• Cutting boards, Knives • Trays
• Storage space shelves and • Wine service equipment, wine buckets,
cupboards stands, baskets, etc.
Sufficient equipment must be available to enable efficient service to be given at all
times and a high standard maintained.

The service staff carries out all their own pre-service preparation (mise-en-place)
before the service of a meal. This includes the checking and refilling of cruets and
other accompaniments, laying up of breakfast trays, changing of linen, laying up of
tables, washing and polishing of glasses, cleaning of trays and so on. Some establishments
provide a different style and design of china etc. for the service of meals on the floors.

Floor service staff must also co-operate with other staff within the establishment. The
floor service staff should ensure that all rooms are cleared as soon as meals are
finished so as not to be in the way when rooms are being cleaned.

235
Entrepreneurship and Food B) Breakfast only Service
Service Management
In some hotels, only breakfast service is available, which is often provided by the
housekeeping staff. The breakfast menu also acts as an order which, when completed,
is hung on the outside of the guest’s bedroom. The bottom portion of the card is
detachable and sent to the billing office for charging to the guest’s account. The
remaining portion goes to the floor service pantry or to the central kitchen. Trays are
then made up and delivered to the room within the appropriate time range.

The laying-up of a breakfast tray involves the same procedure, with a few exceptions,
as when laying up a table for full English or continental breakfast in the restaurant,
although as most orders for the service of breakfasts in the rooms are known in
advance, the tray may be laid according to the order. The main differences between
laying a tray and a table for the service of breakfast are as follows:
• A tray cloth replaces the tablecloth.
• Under plates are usually left out because of lack of space and to reduce weight.
• There will be no ashtray or table number on the tray.
With standing orders for breakfast in the rooms, the trays should be laid up the night
before, placed in the pantry and covered with a clean cloth. The beverage, toast, rolls
etc. and first course, together with the preserve and other accompaniments that may
be required according to the order given, will normally be prepared by the floor service
staff in the service or floor pantry. The main course is sent up already plated from
the kitchen, by the service lift. Before taking the tray to the apartment room, it is
important to check that nothing is missing and that the hot food is hot. The beverage
and toast should be the last items on the tray for this reason.

The positioning of the items on the tray is important. The items should be placed so
that everything may be easily reached and to hand for the guest, i.e. beverage and
breakfast cup, saucer and teaspoon to the top center-right of the tray. This helps
balance the tray and is in the correct position for pouring. Any bottled proprietary
sauce required on the trays should be laid flat to avoid accidents when carrying the
tray. On arriving at the apartment door, the member of staff should knock loudly, wait
for a reply, and then enter, placing the tray on the bedside table.

If there are two or more people taking breakfast in the apartment, it may be necessary
to lay up a table or trolley, and to serve the breakfast in the same way as in the
restaurant. After approximately 45 minutes, the floor service staff should return to the
room, knock and wait for a reply, enter and ask if it is convenient to clear the
breakfast tray away. It is important to note that all trays and trolleys should be cleared
from the rooms and corridors as soon as possible; otherwise they may impede the
housekeeping staff in their work, and may also inconvenience guests.

When breakfast service is finished all equipments must be washed up in the floor
pantry and foodstuffs such as milk, cream, butter, rolls and preserves should be
returned to the refrigerator or store cupboard. The pantry is then cleaned and the
mise-en-place carried out for the day.

Finally a word about the mini bar.

C) Mini Bar
The card acts as a guest self-completion bill. Mini bars are restocked each day and
the consumption reconciled with the billing office.

The standard stock for these facilities includes a teacup and saucer, a teaspoon (one
per person), tea/coffee pot (or both), kettle (self-switching) and a selection of tea,
236
coffee, sugar, chocolate, creamer, non-sugar sweetener and, possibly, biscuits. The Food Management:
stock should be a standard stock, replaced each day by the room attendants. Delivery and Service Styles

Having reviewed the room service, next we will get to know about the lounge service.

11.5.7 Lounge Service

Lounge service ranges from the service of continental breakfast, morning coffee,
luncheon snacks, afternoon tea, dinner or late evening snacks, as well as,
alcoholic beverages. Although mainly associated with hotels, it is also found in public
houses, wine bars and on ships. Let us learn about the organization of the lounge
service.

Organization of Lounge Service

In a first-class establishment, lounge service staff may possibly operate from
their own service pantry. However, in most instances, the lounge staff work and
liaise with the stillroom, or one of the dispense bars, for the service of all types of
beverages, required, alcoholic or non-alcoholic. The lounge staff may have a small
service cupboard, of which only they have the key, and which holds a basic
stock of items that they may need in case of emergency. These items may be as
follows:
• Small linen stock Ashtrays Salvers
• Glasses: assorted
• Cups, saucers for the service of hot beverages
• Dry goods: coffee, tea and sugar
• Check pads, bill pads, stock sheets for alcoholic drink
• Basic alcoholic drink stock for use when guests must be served in the lounge
because bars are closed to include
— spirits, — brandies — mineral water
— aperitifs — liqueurs
• Cocktail snacks :
— cocktail onions — salted peanuts — gherkins
— cocktail cherries — olives — cheese sticks, etc.
• Other beverages
— Horlicks — cocoa
— Ovaltine — chocolate etc.
The lounge staff must be prepared for the service of the following in the lounge:
• Morning coffee
• Aperitifs and cocktails before luncheon afternoon tea
• Aperitifs and cocktails before dinner
• Coffee, liqueurs and brandy after dinner
• Service of late night beverages, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic
• Other snacks throughout the day depending on the type of establishment
For those of you, who would like to read further about alcoholic and non-alcoholic
beverages and like to know how these items need to be served, refer to Box 11.1,
which highlights this aspect.

237
Entrepreneurship and Food Box 11.1 Beverages and Procedures for Serving the Beverages
Service Management
Beverages can be classified as follows:
A) Non-Alcoholic: Water, Refreshing drinks-colas, lemonades, Stimulants-coffee,
tea, Nourishing drinks-malted beverages (Ovaltine, Horlicks, Bournvita)
milkshakes, fruit juices).
B) Alcoholic: Wines, Liqueurs, Spirits, Beers, and Cocktails.
Here are some standard practices for the service of beverages.
Note: All beverages are served from the right.
Let us begin our discussion from the non-alcoholic ones, first.
Tips for Serving Non-Alcoholic Beverages
i) Water
a) Water goblets should be kept on the right at the tip of the large knife.
b) Water is served from the right after the guest has taken his seat.
c) Water is served from a jug with a folded waiter-cloth under it to
prevent it from spilling on to the table.
d) Water should be filled 3/4~ below the rim of the glass.
e) Water should always be chilled, unless the guest asks for water at
normal temperature.
f) The water jug should be covered with a folded waiter-cloth when kept
on the sideboard.
ii) Refreshing Drinks
A) Aerated drinks like coca cola, lemonade, etc. are served in hi-ball
glasses.
B) Tall drinks, such as floats, shakes and house cocktails are served in
Tom Collins.
C) Certain tall drinks require long spoons, which must be presented on
quarter plates with a doyley paper on it.
iii) Stimulants and Nourishing Drinks
These beverages are served in a cup and saucer with a teaspoon.
If only a beverage is to be served, the cup and saucer are placed in front of the
guest; otherwise, to the right of the cover.
The beverage is poured into the cup and also the milk or cream (as per the guest’s
requirement) and both pot and the creamer are left on the table to the right of the
cover.
Tips for Serving Alcoholics Beverages
Straight drinks are served in a glass with the peg’s required and placed on the table
on a coaster and any accompaniment like soda water or tonic is poured into the
glass in front of the guest. In the case of beer, the bottle is left on the table, if
there is any beer left in the bottle after pouring the first mug-fu1l of beer.
Let us next get to know how individual alcoholic drinks are served.
Wines
Wine is the juice of freshly gathered grapes, grown in the open and fermented
according to local custom and traditions without the addition of any foreign
substance or ingredient. This juice is fermented, matured and aged over years to
give it mellowness. It has an alcoholic content of 16%. There are four types of
238 wines:
 Food Management:
1) Table: Red, White and Rose. These are further categorized into Still, Natural, Delivery and Service Styles
Sweet and Dry.
2) Fortified: Brandy, Port and Sherry.
3) Sparkling: Champagne
4) Aromated: Vermouth, Quinine Wines.
Traditionally, red wines are served with red meats such as beef, lamb etc. White
wines with white meats such as chicken, game bird, and fish. Champagne is drunk
at the end of a meal. However, now a days, a guest may have any type of wine
at any point of the meal. Let us see how these wines are served.
Procedure of Serving Table Wine
Once the wine is ordered, it has to be requisitioned from the wine store.
Without cleaning the bottle, the wine bottle is presented to the host for approval
from his right, with the level facing him.
White wine glasses are placed just below the water goblet to the right. Red wines
glasses are placed below the white wine glass to the right. If the guest does not
order white wine then the red wine glass may take the place of the white wine
glass. Remove the seal of the bottle at the sideboard and with a corkscrew uncork
the bottle. Place the corkscrew with the cork on a side plate of the guest for the
host to approve. The cork should be wet and firm. Wipe the bottle mouth and
inner neck with a clean cloth.
Wrap the bottle with a clean napkin and pour a little into the host’s glass for him
to taste and approve.
After the host has approved, change his glass with a fresh one, then proceed to
serve the guests clockwise (ladies first and host last). While pouring the wine,
observe the following rules:
1) Pour the wine gently without making contact between the mouth of the bottle
and the rim of the glass.
2) Only three-fourth of the glass should be filled.
3) Once the glass is filled, twist the bottle to one side with a Jerk to avoid spillage.
For white wine or champagne, place the bottle in an ice bucket to the right of the
host and cover the mouth of the bottle with a clean napkin. In the case of red wine,
place it straight on the table with a napkin folded around or in a red wine basket.
Refill the glasses as and when they become empty.

It is normal for a chance customer to pay cash for a service rendered, but a resident
may not wish to pay cash and the lounge staff must ensure that the guest signs the
bill to confirm the services received. The bill must have the appropriate room number
against it. The amount outstanding should then be charged to the guest’s account,
which will be paid when he/she leaves the establishment at the end of his/her visit.
All bills are usually in triplicate, the top copy going to the supplying department, i.e.
stillroom, or dispense bar. The second copy should either stay with the lounge staff
if they have to make out a bill for a chance customer, or go to reception or control
so the resident’s account can be charged accordingly. The ‘flimsy’ or third copy
remains with the lounge staff as a means of reference.

Stocktaking should be held at regular intervals with the occasional spot check on
certain items. Stock sheets should be completed daily and are often in the form of
a ‘daily consumption sheet’ showing the daily sales and cash received, which may be
checked against the bills showing the orders taken.

239
Entrepreneurship and Food Lounge staff commences preparation in the morning ensuring the entire lounge is
Service Management clean. The carpets must be vacuumed, coffee tables polished, ashtrays emptied and
cleaned, tables positioned correctly, brasses polished and everything ready for service.
In a busy establishment, once the service commences in the morning, it may be almost
continuous throughout the day and, therefore, it should be one of the lounge staff’s
duties to keep the lounge presentable at all times, the table tops clean, ashtrays
emptied and all dirt removed.
Before luncheon and dinner, cocktail snacks may be placed on the coffee tables and,
after lunch, the tables must be prepared for the service of afternoon tea. The lounge
is very often the front window of the establishment, so the standards of service should
be high, reflecting the overall standards. This responsibility rests with the lounge staff
and they must therefore be of smart appearance, efficient and attentive to the guests.
They should have a good knowledge of food and beverage service, especially the
licensing laws and their obligations to both guest and management.
For some service in the lounge, e.g. afternoon tea, a buffet may be set up to display
the range of foods on offer. Alternatively, a gueridon may be used to offer a selection
of foods of customers seated within the lounge areas.
With these services we end our study of specialized forms of service here. Before
we proceed further, let us review our understanding of specialized forms of service.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) What is the ganymede system of service in hospitals? Discuss its advantages.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) How does the airline tray service varies from economy class to first-class
service?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Differentiate between home delivery and room service type of food service.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) What does a lounge service include?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

11.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we learnt that food service is the most important consideration in any
food service organization. A number factors such as type of establishment, type of
customer, menu plans, costs incurred affect the choice of service. We saw, restaurant
service is essentially a waiter-waitress service, which can use any of the following
240
styles, French, Russian, and American style. While, cafeteria service, would use self- Food Management:
service and use different counter arrangements. Tray Services is used in hospitals, and Delivery and Service Styles
in flight services in the airline industry. Rail service does not have any specific type
of service but can use conventional restaurant service at stations or have stalls, with
counter service or have modified tray services. Home delivery service could be
delivery of full meals from conventional restaurant, or speciality foods like pizzas,
which requires considerations like packaging and good transport facilities.

11.7 GLOSSARY
Aperitifs : an alcoholic drink taken as an appetizer befor a meal.
Cruet : a small glass, bottle or any container used for holding
water, wine etc.
Serviette : it refers to a table napkins.

11.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) a) quality, clientele
b) gueridon
c) English
d) gueridon
e) plate
2) The service approaches are broadly categorized as table or counter service, self-
service and tray service.
3) Buffet service as one of the methods of food service which involves guests’ self-
service and is used in commercial and institutional food service. It is an adaptation
for hotels and restaurants of cafeteria approach. Guests help themselves to most
items and these can include hot dishes.
4) In gueridon service side table is used which enable guests to see food ‘finished’
by their table, for carving and portioning and salad mixing may be effected in front
of them. Advantages claimed for gueridon service is that it helps merchandise
meals and foods of all levels in an up market or high-class restaurant because it
is ‘classy’ and can be spectacular. A handed service is also safe. But among its
disadvantages are that it is labour and time-consuming

5) a) - (ii)
b) - (iv)
c) - (i)
d) - (iii)
e) - (v)
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) The Ganymede system, is one of a number of commercially available tray service
methods used in hospital catering. The advantages of this system are that:
• The patients receive their meal presented appetizingly on the plate and piping
hot.

241
Entrepreneurship and Food • Labour and administration costs can be reduced.
Service Management
• Time originally spent in the ward ‘plaint up’ meals may now be put to better
use by completing other duties.
• The patient is able to select the meal required from a given menu.
2) For the economy and tourist flights, all meals must be of the same size, with all
portions identical. The meals are arranged in individual portion containers, sealed,
chilled and then stored until required. Meal is often served on a plastic or
melamine tray using disposable place mats, cutlery, and tableware and serviettes
and disposable glasses for any drinks required. Great use is made here of pre-
portioned foods such as salt, peppers, mustards, sugars, cream, cheeses, dry
biscuits and preserves. For the business and first-class passenger, who often
receives a food and beverage service equivalent to that of a first-class hotel or
restaurant, there is little portion control. This, combined with the use of fine bone
china, glassware and silver plated tableware, creates an atmosphere of content
and well-being whilst the meal is being served.
3) Home delivery deals with food delivered to the client’s doorstep. The most
sophisticated are the Meals on Wheels services. Room service on the other hand
varies from basic ‘in room’ tea and coffee making facilities, as well as, possibly
mini-bars, to vending machines on floors, or to the service of a variety of meals
in rooms in a food service establishment.
4) Lounge service is associated with hotels, it is also found in public houses, wine
bars and on ships. It ranges from the service of continental breakfast, morning
coffee, luncheon snacks, afternoon tea, dinner or late evening snacks, as well as,
alcoholic beverages.

242
 Food Management: Types
UNIT 12 FOOD MANAGEMENT: TYPES OF of Food Service Systems

FOOD SERVICE SYSTEMS

Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Introduction to Food Service Systems
12.3 Types of Service Systems
12.3.1 Conventional
12.3.2 Commissary
12.3.3 Ready Prepared
12.3.4 Assembly/Serve
12.4 Distribution and Service in Food Service System
12.4.1 Conventional Food Service System
12.4.2 Commissary Food Service System
12.4.3 Ready Prepared Food Service System
12.4.4 Assembly/Serve Food Service System
12.5 Conduct and Appearance of Service Unit Personnel
12.6 Let Us Sum Up
12.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

12.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 10 earlier, we learnt about service systems model and various types of services.
These were, as you may recall, conventional, commissary, ready prepared and assembly/
serve. Here, in this unit, we shall have a deep insight of these service systems. We
will get to know what are these, their characteristics, the food service organizations
where these are in operation and how these are carried out.

Next, we shall understand the meal distribution system and service styles in food
service systems. This too, you may recall, you have already studied earlier. Here,
however, we will have a look at all of these in terms of distribution and service issues.
So let us proceed with our discussion.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• understand different types of service,
• discuss distribution and service styles in food service system, and
• highlight the factors which are important for the service personnel.

12.2 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SERVICE SYSTEMS

New production/service systems for food service organizations have developed in
recent years. Characterized by a separation of production and service of food in time
and/or place, these new systems have been primarily aimed at increasing productivity,
decreasing cost, or strengthening control of operations. Because food service managers
assume primary responsibility for food safety and quality regardless of the type of
system, complex managerial decisions are required to develop and implement appropriable
food service systems that serve quality food at minimal cost. The physical, chemical
and microbiological changes occurring in food throughout all stages of procurement,
production and service must be monitored and controlled to ensure the quality and
safety of the finished products.
243
Entrepreneurship and Food Spiraling labour costs and technological innovation in both food and equipment have
Service Management led to implementation of these new types of systems. Faced with these costs and a
lack of available highly skilled employees, food service managers have been receptive
to using the new forms of food with built-in convenience or labour-saving features.
These foods, in their various forms and stages of preparation, have appeared on the
market in increasing numbers each year. Many require specialized equipment for final
production, delivery and service.

As highlighted in Unit 10 earlier, four major types of food service systems have been
identified – the conventional or traditionally used system, and three newer systems,
commissary, ready prepared and assembly/serve. A series of conceptual diagrams for
food service operations, developed by a regional research group to illustrate food
product flow within these various types of food service systems, will be presented and
discussed further in this section.

A major distinguishing characteristic of the four systems is the degree of processing

of the foods, which may vary from little or no processing prior to purchase of the foods
to completely prepared foods ready for service. This food processing continuum, deals
with the procurement sub-system and the process of bringing into the system one of
the most important inputs, food. Figure 12.1 illustrates the interrelationship between
the inputs of the system and the transformation processes. It also emphasizes the
critical role procurement plays and indicates how the types of food used in the system
the quality standards enforced and quality assurance programmes affect the nature and
characteristics of the entire system and the output.

Organizational Goals
and Objectives

Quality Standards

Performance Measures

Quality Assurance
Programme

Input Transformation Output

Figure 12.1: Quality assurance in food service model

In many food services, a combination of foods with varying degrees of processing is

utilized. Look at Figure 12.2, which presents the food processing continuum. At the
far left of this diagrammatic continuum, as you would have noticed, food items receive
little or no processing prior to purchase by the food service operation; at the far right,
however, the food products have undergone complete processing and are ready for
service. Fresh apples, sugar, flour, and shortening for use in baking an apple pie are
examples of foods with little or no processing, whereas frozen baked pie is an example
at the other end of the food processing continuum.

Food Processing Continuum

None Complete

Food
Procurement
Alternatives
Food Service System

Figure 12.2: Food processing continuum

244
With a brief understanding of the food processing continuum, let us next review the Food Management: Types
four systems of food service which as mentioned earlier are distinguished based on of Food Service Systems
the degree of processing of the foods, which may vary from little or no processing
prior to purchase of the foods to completely prepared foods ready for service.

12.3 TYPES OF SERVICE SYSTEMS

You may recall studying about different types of services in Unit 10. Let us have
a look at these in detail in this section. We shall begin with conventional type of service
first.

12.3.1 Conventional
The conventional food service system is the type most establishments have traditionally
used. Foods are purchased for an individual operation in various stages of preparation,
but all production is completed and foods are served on the same premises. Following
production, foods are held hot or chilled, as appropriate for the menu item, and served
as soon as possible as illustrated in Figure 12.3.

Food Processing Continuum

None Complete

Food
Procurement
Conventional Alternatives
Food Service System

Food Production

Hold Heated Hold Chilled

Consumer

Figure 12.3: Conventional food service system

In previous years, conventional food service systems often included a butcher shop,
bake shop, and vegetable preparation unit. Currently, many conventional food service
operations use pre-portioned meats, baked goods, and canned and frozen vegetables
rather than purchasing all types of foods raw and completing processing on premises.

Although alternative systems have evolved, the conventional system continues to be

the dominant type of food service in the United States. Because of increasing labour
costs, managers of conventional food services have gradually made changes in ingredients
and menu items purchased in an attempt to reduce the labour needed for meal
production. Food procured for conventional systems vary from those with no processing,
to those with a limited amount of processing, to those processed completely.

Foods with varying degrees of processing are brought into the system and prepared
for service in the food production sub-system. As shown in Figure 12.3 some food
are merely purchased and held chilled before service, such as milk or butter patties,
whereas other menu items are produced in the system from raw foods and held either
heated or chilled until time of service.

Following receipt and appropriate storage of food items and ingredients, menu items
should be prepared as near to service time as possible. Considerable labour is required 245
Entrepreneurship and Food before and during food service periods. Otherwise, food subjected to hot-holding
Service Management conditions is affected by temperature, humidity and length of holding time, all of which
can adversely affect its nutritional and sensory quality and must be considered when
scheduling food production.

Foods prepared in the conventional system may be distributed for service directly to
an adjacent or nearby serving area, such as a cafeteria, dining room, or lunch counter.
In hospitals or other healthcare facilities, as you know already, food may be served
on trays, using a centralized or decentralized service approach. In centralized
service, as you would recall, the individual patient trays are assembled and set up at
some central point in or close to the production area. Trays are then distributed by
carts or conveyors to patient floors, where they are delivered to patient rooms. In
decentralized service, food is distributed in bulk quantities to another area in the
facility where trays are assembled. In some facilities, a combination of these two
approaches is used.
Next, let us review the commissary food service system.

12.3.2 Commissary
Technological innovations and the design of sophisticated food service equipments
have led to the evolution and development of commissary food service systems.
These commissary systems are characterized by a centralized food procurement
and production facility, with distribution of prepared menu items to several remote
areas for final preparation and service. The centralized production facilities are often
referred to as central commissaries or food factories, and the service units as satellite
service centers. The economies of scale concept have guided the design of these
systems. The potential for economies from large-scale purchasing and production in
a central facility has been used to justify design and construction of these complex
operations with expensive automated equipment for production of foods from
unprocessed states.

In commissary food service systems, the foods purchased have received little or no
processing, as indicated in the continuum at the top of the Figure 12.4. These foods
are generally purchased in large quantities and held after delivery at the facility under
appropriate environmental conditions in frozen refrigerated or dry storage. Most
menu items in commissary systems are processed completely in the central facility.
Because of the large quantities produced, the equipment for preprocessing and
production is often different from the equipment used in conventional systems. These
large central production centers may be designed using equipment frequently seen in
food industry operations, such as canneries or frozen food processing
plants. Because of the large scale production quantities, recipes and food
production techniques require major modification. For example, the degree of
doneness is less for most menu items because of the additional heating or thermalization
needed at the satellite service centers to bring the foods to an acceptable serving
temperature.

Foods are held after production, frozen, chilled, or heated, for distribution to the
service centers as you may have noticed in Figure 12.4. These menu items may be
stored in bulk or in individual portions. The type of storage used may depend on the
time lag necessary between production and service. In many instances, however, the
type of storage for prepared menu items may be the concept guiding the design of
the system. For example, a decision to use frozen storage for menu items may be
made before proceeding with the design. Many menu items that have been held frozen
or chilled require an additional thermal process to heat them to desirable service
temperature. Highly specialized distribution equipment may be needed, depending on
the type and location of satellite service centers.

246
 Food Management: Types
Food Processing Continuum of Food Service Systems
None Complete

Food
Procurement
Commissary Alternatives
Food Service System

Food Production

Store Frozen Store Chilled Hold Chilled

Heat

Distribution
Consumer

Figure 12.4: Commissary food service system

A modification of the food service systems model illustrates unique characteristics of

commissary food service systems. As indicated, the major modifications affecting
inputs to the system are the type of food and facilities used. In the transformation
element, the nature of the functional sub-systems is vastly different from the convenient
system, mainly because of the larger scale production capacity, the storage necessary
for prepared menu items, and the distribution capabilities required for transporting
prepared menu items to a wide array of satellite service centers.

The packaging and storage of prepared menu items present challenges for control in
commissary systems. A variety of packaging materials and approaches is used in
systems now in operation, varying from individual pouches or serving dishes, specially
designed for frozen or chilled holding, to disposable or reusable metal pans adapted
to various types of distribution and transportation equipment. Preserving the
microbiological, sensory, and nutritional quality of foods during holding and
thermalization at point of service can present problems. Specialized equipment is
required for the packaging, storing and distributing of products prepared in central
commissaries. In large food factories, a food technologist or microbiologist is frequently
on staff, responsible for monitoring quality control.

In food service organizations with many serving units, centralized production and
other activities with commissary type systems have been tried in an attempt to curtail
labour and other costs. The commissary food service principles have been adopted
in systems where service areas are remote from, yet accessible to, the production
center. Reducing duplication of production, labour, and equipment that occurs if
production centers are located at each food service site has been the objective.
Space requirements at the service centers can also be minimized because of the
limited production equipment required. The high capital cost for construction of these
large central production units and also the high cost for transportation equipment and
the increasing expenses for distribution are current concerns in evaluating the
effectiveness of these systems.

Commissary systems are adaptable particularly for food service operations with service
in unique places. One of the best examples can be found in airline food service,
where the commissary system has been applied for many years. Menu items for
airlines are produced in ground level facilities according to specifications of the
247
Entrepreneurship and Food various airlines, portioned into individual meals for passengers, and distributed in
Service Management various containers and carts for holding on site in the production facility and on the
planes until service. Commissary systems are, in large measure, an outgrowth of airline
food service applied to other types of operations.

Commissary systems have long been applied in school food service, although many
systems have combined conventional and commissary approaches. In recent years,
centralized production facilities located away from schools have been constructed,
usually in urban districts with a large number of schools. Often the larger secondary
schools have their own conventional systems, so the central production facility only
produces meals for the smaller elementary schools in the district. A more common
system, however, uses the larger secondary school kitchens as the commissary for
producing meals that are transported for service in bulk or portions to the smaller
elementary schools. In this instance, the secondary school operation is both a
commissary and a conventional system, because secondary students are also served
in an adjacent cafeteria. These secondary school operations are often referred to as
base kitchens.

In commercial food service in large, multi-unit operations, systems combining

characteristic of commissary and conventional systems are found. For example, some
menu items may be prepared in a central commissary and then shipped to a variety
of operations, often great distances from the commissary. In the individual units, a
combination of menu items is served, including both those procured from the central
commissary and others prepared on site.

The discussion above we hope presented a good insight into the commissary food
service system and its application in the food industry. Let us next move on to study
the third food service system i.e., ready prepared.

12.3.3 Ready Prepared

Ready prepared food service systems have been developed in response to increased
labour costs and to a critical shortage of skilled food production personnel. In ready
prepared systems, menu items are produced and held frozen or chilled for service. A
key difference between ready prepared and conventional systems is that menu items
are not produced for immediate service in ready systems. Many of the production,
packaging and storage techniques are similar to those used in commissary systems;
however, the scale of production is not as large because the ready prepared system
is designed for a single operation. Generally, ready prepared systems have been
adopted because completely prepared foods are not available in the market to meet
the needs of an organization. In the healthcare industry, in particular, prepared foods
are often not available to meet the specialized needs of patients with varying health
problems.

The food product flow in ready prepared food service systems is shown in Figure 12.5.
As indicated, foods from the entire spectrum of the food processing continuum are
used. Foods brought into the system that are completely processed are merely stored
frozen or chilled, as appropriate to the food item. Foods procured with little or no
processing are used to produce menu items that are stored either frozen or chilled.
A distinct feature of these systems is that prepared menu items are readily available
at any time for final assembly and/or heating for service.

Menu items such as entries and hot vegetables require two phases of heat processing
in ready prepared food service systems, the first occurring during the quantity production
of menu items. The second occurs after storage, in bringing items to the appropriate
temperature for service to the consumer.

248
 Food Management: Types
of Food Service Systems
Food Processing Continuum
None Complete

Food
Procurement
Ready Prepared Alternatives
Food Service System

Food Production

Store Frozen Store Chilled

Heat

Consumer

Figure 12.5: Food flow in ready prepared food service system

Cook-chill and cook-freeze are two variations of ready prepared systems. In cook-
chill food service operations, most menu items are maintained in the chilled state for
various periods of time. In cook-freeze systems, menu items are stored in the frozen
state for periods generally ranging from two weeks up to three months.

Procured foods are placed in appropriate shortage conditions, and then produced for
holding in one of the two forms discussed above. Careful production scheduling is
needed along with accurate forecasting to maintain quality of foods and avoid prolonged
holding beyond the planned time. In cook-chill systems, prepared menu items are
portioned for service several hours or as much as a day in advance of the serving
period. In both, cook-chill or cook-freeze approaches, final heating occurs just before
service, usually in facilities near the serving areas. For example, hospitals have
facilities on patient floors called galleys, where specialized heating equipment is used
to finish the preparation for menu items immediately before service. Microwave ovens
are the most commonly used heating equipment. Often, minor preparation, such as
preparing toast for a breakfast menu, may occur in these galleys. In the initial
preparation, menu items should be slightly undercooked to avoid overcooking and loss
of sensory quality in the final heating for service.

In cook-freeze systems, special recipe formulations are needed for many menu items
because of the changes that occur in freezing. Development of off-flavours may be
a problem with some food items. Substituting more stable ingredients, by exercising
greater control of storage time, temperature, and packaging, or by adding stabilizers
may control some of these changes.

The challenge in the ready prepared systems using either cook-chill or cook-freeze
approaches in retention of foods’ nutrient content, microbial safety and sensory
quality. Prolonged holding should be avoided, and careful control in the final heating
stage prior to service is important. In addition to microwave ovens for this final heating
process, immersion techniques and convection ovens have also been proven to be
effective. Convection ovens, in which the air is circulated during the heating process,
are effective for heating foods held in bulk because appropriate temperatures are
reached more rapidly than in conventional ovens. Immersion techniques, which involve
immersing pouches of food in boiling water or in steamers, are used for reheating moist
food items, such as entrée items in sauces. 249
Entrepreneurship and Food The food service systems model, already described earlier in Unit 10, that we are using
Service Management as a framework for this unit has direct application to the ready prepared system. In
the transformation process, however, special attention must be focused on the production
and holding of prepared menu items. As indicated above, special systems for heating
menu items for service to consumers are required.

Ready prepared food service systems have been adopted in many operations to reduce
labour expenditures and use labour more effectively. Peak demands for labour are
removed because production is designed to meet future rather than immediate needs.
Production personnel can be scheduled for regular working hours rather than during
the early morning and late evening shifts that are required in conventional systems.
The heating and service of menu items does not require highly skilled employees and
thus, reductions in labour costs are often possible. Food procurement in volume may
decrease food costs in these systems.

Finally let us review the assembly/serve system.

12.3.4 Assembly/Serve
The development of assembly/serve systems – also referred to as convenience food
systems or systems using minimal cooking concepts – came about primarily because
of the availability of foods that are ready to serve or that require little or no processing
in the food service operation prior to service. Another factor has been the chronic
shortage of skilled personnel in food production and the increasing cost of labour.

The primary objective of assembly/serve systems is to provide food ready for service
while minimizing the amount of labour resources employed within the food service
operation. Food products are brought into the system with a maximum degree of
processing as you would notice in Figure 12.6. Only storage assembly, heating and
service functions are commonly performed in these systems; little, if any, preprocessing
is done and production is very limited.

Food Processing Continuum

None Complete

Food
Procurement
Assembly / Serve Alternatives
Food Service System

Store Frozen Store Chilled

Protein

Heat

Consumer

Figure 12.6: Food flow in assembly/serve food service system

The three market forms of foods used predominantly in these systems are bulk, pre-
portioned, and preplated frozen foods. The bulk form requires portioning before or
after heating within the food service service operation, whereas the pre-portioned
market form requires only assembly and heating. The preplated products require only
heating for distribution and service, and thus are the most easily handled of the three
250 forms.
In many assembly/serve operations, a combination of foods is used, some requiring Food Management: Types
a limited degree of processing in the food service operation and others requiring none. of Food Service Systems
Often partially prepared foods are purchased to be combined with other ingredients
before heating or chilling. In many operations, completely processed foods may be
enhanced in the assembly/serve system as a way of individualizing menu items; for
example, a sauce may be added to an entrée. Glew (1972), however, contends that
the use of completely processed foods is probably more cost effective than using total
convenience foods along with those requiring more preparation in the food service
system.

Following procurement, in assembly/serve systems, food items are held in dry,

refrigerated, or frozen storage. When menu items are heated in bulk or pre-portioned
form, quality control is a particular concern. Foods must be thawed under appropriate
conditions if thawing is required prior to heating. The thawing and heating processes
must not be scheduled too long to advance of service because of the potential loss
of microbial, nutritional, and sensory quality of the food. For this reason, specialized
systems for heating frozen foods to appropriate serving temperatures have been
developed, in which convection and microwave ovens are frequently used.

The assembly/serve approach to food service systems gained some degree of acceptance
because it appeared to offer an easy solution to labour and production problems.
However, a readily available supply of highly processed, high quality food products
is a prerequisite for a successful assembly/serve operation. As indicated in the discussion
of ready prepared systems, the availability of food products is sometimes a problem,
particularly in healthcare institutions. Although foods for special modified dietary
needs have been developed in recent years, these foods are not always readily
available, particularly in rural and small communities. Therefore, if a convenience food
system is used for patients or nursing home residents without special dietary needs,
food production may be needed to prepare items for those on modified diets.

Another common complaint about the assembly/serve systems is the lack of individuality.
Comments are frequently heard about the “sameness” of the ready prepared foods
available in the market place. As we discussed in the section on conventional food
systems, a trend toward use of foods with some degree of processing is evident. This
trend appears to be more predominant than total adoption of assembly/serve systems.
In some instances, however, an assembly/serve system meets the needs of particular
operations in which space is very limited for production facilities or labour is not
available.

Before we further move on to study distribution and service, let us take a break here
and recapitulate what we have learnt till now.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Discuss the reasons behind the increased need of new food production/
service systems.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) What are the four major types of food service systems?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
251
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 3) Packaging and storage of prepared menu items present challenges for control
in commissary systems. Discuss.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) What are the benefits and challenges of using ready prepared systems?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
5) Bring about the drawbacks of assembly/service systems.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Now that we have a good knowledge of the different food service systems, let us next
review the distribution and service in food service system.

12.4 DISTRIBUTION AND SERVICE IN FOOD SERVICE

SYSTEM
Depending on the type of food service systems, distribution may or may not be a
major function. In hospital food service, where patients must be served in individual
rooms located on many floors and perhaps in separated building, distribution is a major
concern. You would recall reading about this before in Unit 10 as well. Ensuring that
the appropriate food is sent to the appropriate place for service to a particular patient
is a complex process, further complicated by the need to ensure that the food is at
the right temperature and aesthetically appealing. In contrast, in the fast food operation,
where patrons pick up the food items directly after production and either carry them
off premises for consumption or to a table in the facility, distribution is relatively
simple. In fact, the distribution and service becomes the responsibility primarily of the
customer, not the personnel.

Service takes many forms in a food service establishment, from that in the upscale
fine food restaurant involving several highly trained personnel to that in the many types
of self-service operations – cafeteria, vending or buffet. The method, speed and
quality of the services provided can “make or break” a food service establishment as
already discussed earlier in Unit 11. The quality of food may be excellent, the
sanitation of the establishment above reproach, the procurement and storage of food
ideal, but if the service is lacking, the operation will be rated poor by the clientele.
In some instances, clientele will repeatedly return to an establishment with only
mediocre food because a favourite waiter or waitress provides high quality
service or because they can depend on being served and back to work in a short period
of time.

In this section, the four basic types of systems will be discussed from the standpoint
of distribution and service issues. Different types of service in these food service
systems/operations will then be outlined. So let us begin our discussion with conventional
food service system.
252
12.4.1 Conventional Food Service System Food Management: Types
of Food Service Systems
In the conventional system, most menu items are produced on premise and distributed
for service to a serving area or areas close to the production facilities. In this system,
hot and cold holding equipment is needed to maintain the proper temperature for
various menu items between the time of production and service as you may have
already noticed in Figure 12.3. Depending on the type of service areas, this holding
equipment may be stationary or mobile. Some equipment is quite versatile and can
be used for distribution, holding and service. For example, the mobile modular-serving
units could be used for transporting food for a catered function in a dining room away
from the main kitchen and also for holding the food until time of service. The units
then provide a service counter for self or waiter/waitress service.
In a healthcare facility, however, patient service may take place throughout the
facility, requiring more complex distribution systems that in other types of food service
operations. Meal assembly, for example, may be centralized or decentralized. In a
facility with centralized meal assembly, the time between production, assembly,
distribution and service can be minimal. The trays are first assembled for service at
a central location in or close to the main production facilities. Hot menu items are held
in food warming cabinets, usually in cafeteria counter pans, where they remain until
placed in hot food serving units during tray assembly; cold items are held under
refrigeration. The assembled trays are then distributed to the patient units using a
variety of types of cars. Some institutions use heated and refrigerated tray carts, which
may be motorized or pushed manually by hospital personnel. A few institutions have
an automated cart transport system, which only requires setting a dial or pushing a
button to move carts along specially designed corridors to designated service areas.
This type of system must be a design feature of the facility during construction.
The high initial and maintenance costs of heated and heated/refrigerated carts have led
to development of other methods for maintaining proper temperatures on assembled
trays. One of these systems uses specially designed dishes that have been preheated
in an infrared oven, and then transferred to an insulated base. The hot menu items
are portioned onto the plate, which is covered by a dome designed to fit the base
container, thus keeping food warm until service to the patient. This unit is placed on
the individual patient’s tray, and other menu items that have been individually wrapped
are added. The assembled trays are then transported in an unheated cart to patient
units for service.
The process of meal distribution in a centralized tray system includes activities to the
movement of assembled trays from the point of assembly to the patient area. A method
for thermal retention is needed in larger operations in which the time between meal
assembly and service to the patient is too long to maintain proper temperatures.
Refrigerated support for cold foods may also be needed. We had already described
the types of methods that are widely used in healthcare institutions in Unit 10 earlier.
These categories include hot thermal retention/support, hot and cold thermal retention
systems, and no thermal support. Benefits and constraints of these distribution systems
and of few others (such as microwave ovens, convection ovens, infrared ovens etc.)
are described for your reference in Table 12.1.
The layout uses mobile equipment, which has been widely accepted because of the
flexibility and the ease of facility maintenance provided. This type of set-up can be
readily rearranged or moved for cleaning.
Each assembly area requires support equipment to assemble the trays. The size of
the area and the number of trays to assemble will determine the type of conveyor
system required to provide support. Hysen and Harrison (1982) outline options for
tray assembly equipment, including manual conveyors, such as a tray slide; simple
mechanical conveyors, such as a roller type, and motorized conveyors, which may be
straight-line or circular. The straight-line lay out illustrates other equipment needed
for holding and dispending food and other items needed for tray assembly.
253
Entrepreneurship and Food Table 12.1: Major meal distribution and service systems along with their benefits and
Service Management constraints

Major Meal Distri- Benefits Constraints

bution and Service
System
Hot and Cold Thermal Retention Systems
Pellet and sublima- • A synergistic heat main- • The operational cost of com-
tion refrigeration tenance effect is plexity of the required carbon
achieved. dioxide cooling system is
• Simplicity of cart con- consideration.
struction and ease of • Patient trays are not com-
sanitation. pletely assembled at a
• The cast is lightweight, central assembly point. Final
which provides for ease assembly occurs in patient
of mobility. areas.
Split tray • Centralized supervision • The card is heavy and bulky.
and control of the total A motorized version may be
assembly process. required if any ramps are to
• Non reassembly of tray be negotiated.
components is required • The cards are difficult to
in the patient areas. sanitize.
• Good temperature re- • The initial cost of the cart is
tention of both hot and high and maintenance costs
cold items. can be high.
• The system accommo- • Due to the relatively heavy
dates late trays within a weight and limited manoeuvra-
reasonable period. bility, carts and wall surfaces
are subject to damage.
Match-a-tray • Same as described for • Same as described for split
split tray except that tray.
consolidation is re- • Additional labour must be ap-
quired on the patient plied at the patient area to re-
level. assemble the complete patient
meal.
Insulated trays • The purchase of special dis-
• Maintains hot and cold posable dishes results in
zones well without ex- higher operational costs.
ternal hat or refrigerant Food holding time is limited
sources. to 45 minutes.
• Simplicity or transport
• The long range cost could be
is achieved. It does not
substantially higher than other
require a heavy, en-
systems due to disposable and
closed delivery cart.
lease costs.
Stacked trays protect
and insulated food. • Hot foods may take on a
• There is a less load on “steamed” appearance in the
the dish washing facility hot compartment due to its
due to disposables. relatively small volume and
• There are no complex lack of venting.
components to repair,
• Possible adverse patient reac-
replace or maintain.
tion to eating from a
compartmentalized tray.
• Trays can be difficult to sani-
tize completely due to deep
cavity construction.
254
 Food Management: Types
• The top and bottom tray of Food Service Systems
compartments do not nest,
more storage area required.
• Rigid presentation and
placement of dishes is a
limitation of the system.
Insulated components • Only the dinner plate and • Additional service ware
food are heated. There are pieces need to be invento-
no pellet bases to heat. It ried, stored, transported, and
is simple in operation, re- washed.
quiring no special pellet • Attractive insulated compo-
dispensers to purchase. nents are often taken home
• There is no burn hazard to by patients as useful me-
the attendant or patient mentos of their hospital ex-
because there is no hot perience.
pellet base or pellet disk. • Hot food holding time is
• No special insulated de- limited to 30 minutes; cold
livery cart is required. food items can be held longer.
No Thermal Support
Covered Tray • The tray is a simple stand- • Requires an immediate and
ard unit. responsive transportation
• The equipment cost of the system.
system is low. • High labour component is
required for transportation
process.
• No thermal support is avail-
able for entrée and other
food items.
Hot Thermal Retention Systems
Pellet system • Support equipment and • Provisions for maintenance
system operation are con- of cold items such as milk,
ventional and uncompli- salads, jellies, ice cream
cated. etc. are not made.
• There is no requirement • Hot food cannot be held for
for a special plate; any a long period of time (more
standardized china. than 45 minutes)
• No special insulated de- • Additional service ware
livery cart is required. pieces need to be invento-
ried, stored, transported and
washed.
Insulated components • Only the dinner plate and • Additional service ware
food are heated; there are pieces need to be invento-
no pellet bases to heat. It ried, stored, transported and
is simple in operation, re- washed.
quiring no special pellet • Attractive insulated compo-
dispensers to purchase. nents are often taken home
There is no burn hazard to by patients as useful me-
the attendant or patient mento of their hospital ex-
because there is no hot perience.
pellet base or pellet disk.
• No special insulated de-
livery cart is required.
Heat support cart • Thermal energy can be • Special sophisticated motor-
controlled to place and/or ized carts and special trays
bowl as required. The cart with heaters are required. The
allows for food to remain potential for maintenance/re-
pair problems is high. 255
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management heating until tray is re- • The cart and the trays are
moved for service to the dependent on the use of dis-
patient. posable dishes. Disposable
• Each cart has an insulated dishes could be uneconomi-
drawer for ice cream and cal from an operational cost
other frozen desserts. standpoint and could be
considered unacceptable
• Heat energy continues to
from an aesthetic perspec-
be supplied to food during
tive.
the transportation process.
• No provisions are made for
maintenance of cold food
items at proper temperatures
except ice cream.

Other Systems
Microwave ovens • The food is cooked very • Food is easily overcooked,
rapidly. “on-demand” pa- and some foods tend to
tient feeding can be rather malize unevenly, leav-
achieved. ing hot and cold spots.
• Food does not brown, caus-
ing some foods to have an
unnatural appearance.
• A trained operator is re-
quired to re-thermalize all
food products. Employee
training is essential to the
success of the programme.
• Maintenance of microwave
ovens can be a significant
cost factor.
Convection ovens • Oven cavities can accom- • The speed is increased as
modate 12 to 30 meals at a compared to a conventional
time; thus higher efficiency still air oven; however, the
can be achieved in the re- process is not a fast as a mi-
thermalization and crowave oven.
reassem-bly process as • Some food products expe-
compared to a microwave rience excessive cooking
system. losses; in others, there is a
thickened surface layer on
the food from the re-
thermalization process.
• Some food products do not
re-thermalize to a uniform
temperature.
Infrared ovens • Energy consumption for re-
• Food is re-thermalized at a thermalization is compara-
faster speed than conven- tively high.
tional still air ovens. • Soups are not accommo-
• Oven cavities can accom- dated by the infrared
modate 16 - 24 meals at a equipment and must be
time; thus higher efficiency separately handled.
can be achieved in the re- • Dishes and covers become
thermalization and reasse- very hot in the re-therma-
mbly process as compared lization process.
to a microwave system.

256
 Food Management: Types
Integral heat ovens • Minimum intervention by • Food products may burn to of Food Service Systems
and carts employees is required to or stick to the heated dish.
re-thermalize foods. • Certain food items, such as
• Efficiency and speed of soup or hot breakfast cereals,
service is enhanced due to are difficult to re-thermalize.
multiplicity of meals re- • Dishes must be sprayed with a
thermalized at the same release agent to prevent sticking
time. when using certain food items.
• Integrally heated dish acts • Ware washing time is in-
as “pellet” system to con- creased, particularly for the
tinue to provide thermal breakfast service, because of
support to hot food after the food that sticks to dishes.
service to patient.
• Ongoing operation costs are
comparatively high due to re-
placement to lease costs.
• An inflexible presentation of
the tray and rigid placement
of items when employing the
cart-borne system.
Contact plate heater • Reduced pantry labour due • Cart maintenance may be a
carts to re-thermalizing and re- problem due to complex
frigerating patient trays in electrical components.
the delivery cart. • Special trays and dishes are
• Allows pantry to be re- required–usually disposable
duced in size and lowers dishes–which can increase
equipment cost by elimi- operating costs.
nating need for reheating • Re-thermalization can only
ovens. be done from the chilled
• Minimum intervention by state, not from the frozen state.
employees after assembled • The cart is presently being
tray has been dispatched field tested; its performance
from main tray assembly has not been proven.
location.
• Operating cost appears to be
high, based on preliminary
data available.
• An inflexible presentation of
the tray and aesthetic limita-
tions of the system.
Source: Hysen, P. and Harrison J. State-of-the-art review of health care patient feeding
system equipment. In Hospital Patient Feeding Systems. Washington D C: National
Academy Press, 1982.

Let us see how decentralized meal assembly works.

In a decentralized meal assembly, the food products are produced in one location and
transported to various locations for assembly at sites near patients. Equipment to
maintain proper temperatures – food warmers, hot food counters, and/or refrigerated
equipment – must be provided at each location. Since, some foods, such as grilled
or fried menu items, do not transport or hold well, some cooking equipment may be
available in the service units for these difficult-to-hold foods. Even in a centralized
meal assembly system, a few menu items such as coffee and toast may be prepared
on the patient units.

Since the early 1950s, healthcare institutions have moved toward centralized tray
assembly systems, with the early systems patterned after airline food service. The
centralized system has the advantage of eliminating double handling of food and
facilitating supervision of meal assembly because the activity takes place in one
location rather than in many throughout the facility. In addition, it allows for
257
Entrepreneurship and Food standardization of portion, uniformity in presentation, and decreased waste. Finally,
Service Management less staff time is needed and the space occupied by floor kitchens can be used for
other purposes. Decentralized meal assembly is still used in some institutions, however,
because it offers the advantage of less time between assembly and service to patients,
allowing for potentially higher quality food. Decentralized facilities also offer greater
flexibility in providing for individual patient needs and in making last minute substitutions
and changes.

Depending on the layout and design of the healthcare facility, a combination of meal
assembly and distribution methods may be used. Some facilities may even serve
groups of patients in a dining room, while others are provided tray service in their
hospital rooms. Group service is especially common in nursing homes and other types
of extended care facilities, such as psychiatric hospitals.
Next, let us get to know the distribution system followed in a commissary food service
system.

12.4.2 Commissary Food Service System

Commissary food service systems are characterized by centralized production, with
distribution of prepared menu items to several remote areas for service and possibly
final production. Service at these areas may be self-service, cafeteria service, tray
service, or some other method. The centralized production facility is referred to as
the commissary; in this unit, we refer to the service areas as satellite service
centers.

The commissary food service system can take many forms and may, in fact, be a
combination of systems. In school food service operations, for example, a central
kitchen may be a conventional food service for a secondary school but may also
provide food to several satellite service centers for elementary schools in the district.

Depending on the nature of the operation, distribution and service in commissary food
service systems can thus take many forms. The unique feature of distribution in this
system is that a method must be provided for transporting food to the remote locations
of the service centers. As we pointed out, these facilities may be relatively close,
within the same city or country, as is the case for most school food service operations,
or they may be located great distances away from the central production unit, which
is typical of many large commercial chain operations.

For this reason, a commissary system requires specialized distribution equipment,

tailored to its particular needs. Food items produced in the central commissary may
be transported frozen, chilled, or hot, in bulk or in individual portions. The receiving
area of the commissary and the satellite service centers must be designed to accommodate
the distribution equipment. Also, special precautions are necessary to preserve
microbiological quality of foods in commissary food service systems because of the
length of time between production and ultimate service to the customer. In evaluating
commissary systems, the transportation costs must be considered, because they may
add materially to the total cost of the operation, involving as they do, purchase,
operation, and maintenance of the trucks for distribution.

12.4.3 Ready Prepared Food Service System

In ready prepared food service systems, menu items are produced and held, either
frozen or chilled, for service at a later time as we had seen in Figure 12.5 earlier. They
may be packed in bulk, in individual portions, or in combination containers. For
example, in airline food services, two of these menu items may be portioned into an
individual serving dish.

The type of distribution equipment needed by ready prepared systems depends on

258 whether foods are in bulk quantities or individual portions and or whether they use
a cook-chill or cook-freeze approach. The systems in which foods are portioned into Food Management: Types
individual servings an assembly system is needed. A unique characteristic of the ready of Food Service Systems
prepared food service system is the heat processing of prepared item prior to service.
Microwave, convection, and infrared ovens are commonly used in the service unit for
this final heat-processing step. Usually, foods are transported in the chilled or frozen
state, and this final heating occurs just before service. Therefore, cold temperature
support is needed during the distribution process.

Two types of carts are used predominantly for cold temperature support. One type
is insulated to maintain temperature during distribution to remote pantry areas where
the carts are connected to wall-mounted or floor-borne refrigeration units. Hysen and
Harrison (1982) describe these carts as light weight and thus easy to transfer; they
are also easy to sanitize. In more common use is the roll-in-refrigerator cart. If the
cart is the enclosed type, the doors should be opened prior to placing in the refrigerated
unit to permit proper circulation of chilled air.

In addition to the type of equipment used for heat processing prior to service
mentioned above, two other types of equipment for patient tray service are in use in
some institutions: contact plate heater carts and integral heat ovens and carts. The
benefits and constraints of the various methods of heat processing for patient services
are enumerated in the Table 12.1 above.

The place on the patient floors where final heat processing and meal assembly occurs
is generally referred to as a galley as we had learnt earlier also. The equipment in
a galley includes the cold temperature support equipment, the equipment needed for
the final heat processing of menu items, some small equipment such as a coffee make
and toaster, a sink, a small storage area and a desk area for the dietetic personnel.
Finally let us review the distribution in assembly/serve system.

12.4.4 Assembly/Serve Food Service System

The assembly/serve food service system uses for the most part foods that are ready
to serve or that require little or no processing prior to service. As pointed out, bulk,
pre-portioned, and preplated frozen foods are the three market forms of foods that
fit into this category.

When foods are served cafeteria style, the bulk form is generally used, the primary
requirement being heat processing before service. This heat processing can be done
in the service unit or in an auxiliary area, using one of the methods described in the
discussion of the ready prepared system. If pre-portioned or preplated items are
purchased, heat processing similar to the methods described for ready systems can be
used. Cold temperature support equipment may be needed for distribution foods to
service areas and for holding prior to heat processing for service.

With this we end our study of distribution and service in food service systems. Let
us take a break here and try to recall what we have learnt so far. Answer the questions
in check your progress exercise 2. Thereafter, move on to section 12.5, which focuses
on conduct and appearance of food service unit personnel.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Discuss centralized meal assembly system in a health care facility.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

259
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management
2) Distribution and service in commissary food system assumes different forms.
Explain giving an example.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) How is cold temperature maintained during distribution system in ready
prepared food service system?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Now then let us review another important aspect specific to food service i.e. conduct
and appearance of personnel involved with food service in a food service unit. You
would realize that food service workers can make or break a unit depending on their
behaviour, attributes and conduct. Let us review this aspect now.

12.5 CONDUCT AND APPEARANCE OF SERVICE UNIT

PERSONNEL
This section seeks to indicate factors which are important in the personal characteristics,
appearance and development of service personnel. These factors are important for us
as food managers or dietitians to know and ensure in the service personnel. What are
these? Let us read and get to know.
• Clothing
A waiter or waitress is usually required to wear some form of uniform. At one time
when dress was more formal at all levels of society; the reason for wearing uniform
was to distinguish staff from customers.
There are other more relevant reasons for wearing uniforms. Two important reasons
are:
— hygiene, encouraging the selection of suitable, protective, washable clothing,
keeping the wearer cool and healthy, and enabling frequent laundering and changes
of clothing; and
— aiding the merchandising and selling of a meal service by an appropriate integration
of staff appearance into a restaurant’s theme and décor.
Modern waiting dress for men, especially day dress, is often a neat jacket with epaulets
or a blazer-type jacket, including ‘themed jackets’ to match the surroundings. Commis
(assistants) are likely to wear washable white jackets as their work is more likely to
soil their clothes.

Modern dress for waitresses should also be washable. Uniforms are usually bright,
attractively coloured and ‘themed’ with the décor. Waitresses rarely wear traditional
uniforms of black dress with white aprons except in banqueting, and they seldom wear
white caps with this outfit.

Neither men nor women waiting staff should appear in the public part of a hotel or
catering establishment when not in uniform or when not wearing full uniform. Waitresses,
for example, should put on aprons (and caps, if worn) in the dressing or locker room
and not in the restaurant.

260 Some common rules for dressing are highlighted herewith:

• Rules of dress Food Management: Types
of Food Service Systems
— Make sure that uniform is neat and clean, is kept in good repair and fits well.
— Change washable clothing frequently and wear freshly laundered. Linen
should be immaculately clean.
— Keep suits and shirts (or dresses, skirts and blouses) well-pressed and free
from spots. When clothing is not washable, regular sponging is usually
necessary.
— Shoes should fit well (with ample room for toe movement), be of conservative
design and kept clean, well-polished and always in a good state of repair.
Avoid high or pointed heels, or badly supported shoes. Change tights or socks
daily.
Although the waiter may be responsible for the supply and upkeep of his clothing, it
is customary for many hotels and restaurants to arrange, at the establishment’s cost,
for laundering his linen.
Jewellery, earrings and rings (except wedding rings) should not be worn.
Good waiters are as proud of their uniforms as they are of their jobs. They show
it by an upright stance and by walking erect.
Head-dress
The former requirement for waitresses to wear caps has increasingly declined. One
original intention was that caps would confine hair tidily and prevent loose hairs
dropping into food. With proper hair styling and grooming, there is no particular reason
for head-dress to be worn by modern waiting staff.
Personal Qualities
The desirable personal qualities (as distinct from technical skills) of waiting staff may
be considered under two broad headings: one largely concerned with physical matters
and hygiene; the other related to attributes and attributes including courtesy, honesty,
co-operation and speech.
Hygiene
Waiting staff should have a positive attitude to hygiene, which is about the maintenance
of health.

A waiter or waitress needs abundant energy, should have a fresh, wholesome appearance
and naturally must not spread disease. Part of this positive attitude to hygiene should
involve taking care to eat and sleep properly, being temperate in relation to alcohol,
taking proper exercise, sufficient outdoor activity and fresh air.

Because waiting staff deal with food, utmost cleanliness and good grooming is necessary
at all times. This applies not only in high class hotels and restaurants but in every
branch of catering, however, humble customers may be. Guests are not likely to
return to an establishment where they know the waiter or waitress is dirty. Indeed,
whenever a guest enters a catering establishment, he judges standards of hygiene and
cleanliness by his personal observation. This observation includes the waiters and
waitresses.

Everybody in the catering business has to remember that though not frequently
expressed openly, all customers expect high personal standards from those who serve
them food and drink.
• Reporting ill health
Apart from aesthetic considerations of not offending by unclean appearance or
unpleasant odour, waiting staff have statutory obligations in regard to health and
261
Entrepreneurship and Food hygiene. Any catering employee (including waiters and waitresses) suffering from,
Service Management or a carrier of certain illnesses must immediately inform their employer. Illnesses
include; typhoid fever; paratyphoid fever, or any other salmonella infection; amoebic
or bacillary dysentery or any staphylococcal infection likely to cause food poisoning.
Many waiting staff may be unfamiliar with the nature of such illnesses; they should
look for, and report to their employer such symptoms as:
— Diarrhoea or vomiting
— Septic cuts or sores, boils or whitlows
— Discharge from ear, eye or nose
Some rules for clean products are given herewith.
• Rules for clean product
To prevent germs contaminating food, observe the following rules:
— Ensure scrupulous cleanliness of hands, face and parts of the body which directly,
or through touch, may come into contact with food; for example, hair, scalp and
forearms (when short sleeves are worn). Avoid touching nose and lips while
handing food. Wash hands frequently.
— Keep personal clothing and uniform clean.
— Cover completely (with a coloured, waterproof dressing) all open cuts and grazes.
— Never smoke, or use snuff, while handling ‘open’ food or while in a room where
there is such food even when not on duty.
For aesthetic, as well as, hygienic reasons, waiting staff should avoid touching their
hair or face when on duty in the restaurant. Waiters should not, of course, sneeze
or cough carelessly (ensure that this is done into a handkerchief). Though always
carrying a clean handkerchief, a waiter should avoid using it in the restaurant unless
it is absolutely necessary.
Care of the person
The following require particular attention:
Finger nails and hands: Must be washed frequently. Always wash immediately before
service and always following use of the toilet. Nails and cuticles should be neatly
trimmed and kept clean by use of a nail brush. Waitresses should avoid nail varnish
whether clear or coloured when on duty. Smokers must ensure that they remove all
traces of nicotine from fingers (pumice and bleach are useful).

Body cleanliness: Cleanliness of the whole body is essential. Any suggestion of odour
or staleness is a most grave offence in a restaurant employee. A daily bath or shower
should be the minimum standard for good waiting staff. Underclothing should be
changes frequently and deodorants regularly used. Talcum powder for body and feed
is acceptable but scent (even for a waitress) must be avoided and aftershave used
sparingly.

Hair: Hair should be kept neatly trimmed and shampooed frequently to avoid dandruff
and odour. Hair should be well brushed, as well as, combed. Men, as well as, women
should avoid styles which cause hair to fall over the eyes; for tossing hair away from
eyes, especially by hand, is offensive to guests during food service. Waitresses’ hair
should be no longer than collar length, and waitresses should adopt neat hair styles.
Long hair should be tied up and tied back.

Teeth: Sound teeth and a clean mouth are vital both for appearance and a wholesome
breath. Teeth should be kept clean by brushing at least twice a day – certainly morning
and night. Inspection by a dentist is advisable twice a year and certainly not less
frequently than once a year. Dentures, if worn, must similarly be kept clean.
262
Feet: Feet need care both for comfort and cleanliness. Keep toe nails trim and feet Food Management: Types
well washed. Corns and other painful blemishes may require treatment by a chiropodist; of Food Service Systems
for more serious foot weakness, medical advice should be sought.

Posture: Good stance is also important for the appearance, comfort and efficiency of
waiting staff. To stand upright and walk erect is to give a good impression to guests
and also to avoid the bodily stresses that accompany slouching. Waitresses who require
support garments are advised to choose sound quality and properly fitting ones to aid
posture and health, as well as, comfort and appearance.
• Attributes and Behaviour
The following personal qualities which a waiter should cultivate, or how he should
behave, are should cultivate, or how he should behave, are in no particular order of
importance. Indeed, some types of operation encourage emphasis on some qualities
or some styles of behaviour as against others; but all the observations which follow
are considered relevant.

Addressing guests: Innumerable market studies reveal that an important element in a

customer’s choice of eating place is friendliness, in welcome and in service. It is also
well established that a customer is eager for recognition. He likes to hear his own name
for that expresses and establishes recognition. Therefore, the use by restaurant staff
of a guest’s own name is welcomed by most customers.

Whenever a guest’s name is known (through former custom or through pre-booking)

it should desirably be used. Many modern restaurants are successful because in the
total dining experience they feed a guest’s ego as much as his appetite. Ways in which
remembering a guest’s name can be aided are:
— Listen carefully to the name when it is given.
— Jot the name on a piece of paper (not in the guest’s presence).
— Repeat the name mentally several times.
In addition to using a guest’s name when greeting or re-greeting, use his name when
asking him for subsequent orders or about his satisfaction with food and service. A
modern waiter may have greater difficulty in adapting his mode of speech to modern
requirements than did waiting staff in earlier generations. In former times waiters were
expected to adopt a more formalized style with, for example, invariable use of ‘sir’
or ‘madam’. Despite injunctions to staff that they should be respectful rather than
servile, these older styles of speech did, in fact, tend to mark customer/staff distinctions
in a way often less acceptable to both parties today.

On first welcoming guests, a waiter should address them by name, for example, Mr
or Mrs Patron. But name usage should not be overdone and ‘sir’ or ‘madam’ is more
appropriate during service period.

Speech is linked with courtesy. Style of speech and mode of manners change.

The points about speech which follow here should be read against its general background;
namely that a pleasant, friendly manner (but certainly without undue familiarity) is
acceptable today at almost every level of restaurant operation. To achieve an ease
and friendliness of manner with giving offence requires sensitivity from staff. From
management it requires a lively policy of training whether in college, hotel school or
on-the-job.

A respectful manner of speech towards customers still remains appropriate. A waiter

is not servile, for he is proud of his skill, particularly if he is a good waiter; but he
is a technical salesman of his establishment and a good salesman should aim to
please. 263
Entrepreneurship and Food Clear Speech: A waiter’s voice should be clear, low in pitch and natural, if still
Service Management somewhat formal. He should be able to pronounce words properly and to express his
ideas. He should acquire a sound knowledge of good English and be able to converse
easily, for customers like to hear a well-modulated, pleasing voice, with well-expressed
answers to any questions they may ask.
Knowledge of a second language is a help, particularly to waiters who seek service
in large hotels or restaurants or other tourism centers where there are foreign visitors.
French is useful, for not only are menus still often written in French, but it is the
language used in cookery book and in repertoires of fishes based on ‘la cuisine
francaise’.
Courtesy: It is the hallmark of a good waiter to be courteous on all occasions. Indeed,
a waiter must often go out of his way to be considerate or forebearing to a critical
or ill-tempered person. He will certainly be courteous to customers, but should also
carry these good manners through to the service room and the locker room. His
manners should not be just a part of the ‘techniques of the restaurant’, but inherent
in his nature and a sign of well-bred desire to please those with whom he comes into
contact. The aim is to be friendly without being familiar.
Memory: Cultivation of memory (and using aids of memory) is essential if customers’
likes and dislikes are to be noted and remembered. Sensitive awareness of what a
customer wants should also be sought.
If a waiter studies his customers’ preferences, even their ‘fads’ he will find that they
will be delighted when they realize that their wishes are known and anticipated.
Honesty: In recent years an increasing amount of research has been undertaken into
hotel keeping and catering. This has included work by sociologists, and others into
practices and attitudes of waiting staff. Some studies have revealed persistent instances
of pilfering unfortunately there are still opportunities in some establishments for waiter
to seek to defeat checking systems (adding up bills incorrectly against the customer)
or to secure privileged treatment or serving over-large portions to guests so as to gain
larger tips.
Some waiters fall into dishonest habits, such as taking food from the restaurant for
consumption elsewhere in the establishment or to their homes, ‘borrowing’ silver or
linen for similar purposes. All this is stealing and denotes at the very least that a waiter
has not acquired a truly professional attitude to his work. Opportunity for dishonesty
makes it doubly important for waiting staff to have high personal standards of conduct,
and equally when they reach supervisory levels to create conditions which reduce
temptation and create a positive morale.
The waiter should take the greatest care of all equipment belonging to an establishment
and never think he can deal with it wastefully or carelessly because it is not his own.
A waiter must be scrupulously honest in all his dealings; with guests, colleagues and
management.

Co-operation and reliability: A dedicated waiter accepts unsocial hours, enjoys service
to others and in ready to work until tasks are finished. He should not, for example,
hurry customers in an attempt to ‘clear’ his station in order to leave promptly and
early. He aims to be a good timekeeper and to carry out his duties without fuss and
with minimum supervision.

His personal qualities and his professional skills will all help a waiter to remain
courteous even-tempered, able to work under pressure and to summon up a smile even
when tired, or under difficult circumstances.

Since an establishment’s success depends on effective co-ordination of all staff, a

264 waiter should aim to help his fellow workers. This implies such conduct as: not being
jealous if another waiter has customers who pay higher tips; taking his proper turn Food Management: Types
in the servery queue; learning and keeping to rules of the house in spirit, as well as, of Food Service Systems
to the letter.

Receiving gratuities: A waiter must never indulge in preferential treatment of customers

according to, or in anticipation of, tips he may received from them. Indeed, every
customer, irrespective of his financial standing, should be treated alike. There should
be no fawning on lavish tippers. Tips should be acknowledged graciously; if placed
on the table they should not be removed until the customer has left and certainly never
counted in front of a guest.

A waiter must never lean against the wall or sideboard, tables or other furniture. He
must especially never lean on a chair back (above all no the customer’s) when
speaking with a guest. When addressed by a customer, a waiter should stand erect
and steady.

Conversing: A waiter must not converse, far less argue, with other members of staff
and emphatically never argue with guests. He should not interrupt a guest’s conversation
with a waiter, the latter must answer politely and as briefly as possible. The waiter
should ask to be excused at the first opportunity, but must use tact to avoid offending.
He must never start a conversation with guests.

A waiter never discusses other guests with his customers nor must he give information
regarding guests. A waiter must discipline himself not listen to guests, conversation,
whether it is carried out loudly enough for him to hear or not. If he has any complaints
to make to the head waiter or to colleagues, a waiter must wait until service if over.
There should be no quarrelling or horse-play on duty. Waiters should not, of course,
talk among themselves or neglect guests by so doing.

Mistakes and Complaints: If a mistake is made by the head waiter or by one of his
assistants, a waiter should never remonstrate with or criticize him in the restaurant.
First, he should remedy any fault (for example, bring the customer the dish he states
he ordered). Any explanation that may be necessary to present an error recurring,
or to apportion the blame for it, should be made outside the restaurant, preferably at
the end of service. Tact, courtesy and a sense of responsibility (informing superiors
of complainants) must be brought to bear on complaints as in all customer contact.

Technical skill: In addition to cultivating social qualities and modes of conduct to

support his sales function a waiter uses technical skills. He must be hungry for
knowledge, know and like food and be eager to learn service methods. The skills and
knowledge that a waiter needs are listed herewith:
1) Knowledge of the catering trade, of which he is an important member.
2) Knowledge of foods that he will serve, menus and cooking times.
3) Layout of restaurant or dining room and its preparation for the service.
4) Actual method of serving, for example, generally on floors and in lounges, or in
canteens and bars.
5) Service of tabacco, cigarettes and cigars.
6) Service of liquor (wines, spirits, etc)
7) A good groundwork, general education and attitude, ability to speak a foreign
language or understand French terms used in catering.
Remember an informed knowledgeable waiter sells more. Refer to Figure 12.7 which
highlights this aspect.

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management Knowledge of techniques
(e.g. food, wine, tabacco) More Confidence

Knowledge of techniques Water Customer Heightened

(e.g. cookery, service and and/ or Or appreciation
selling) Waitress Guest

Knowledge products
(e.g. dishes, beverages) Interest Stimulated

Figure 12.7: Informed knowledgeable waiter sells more

Personality and Professionalism: A waiter’s personality merges with, and is part of,
his professionalism. He needs to integrate social skills and attributes with technical
skills and knowledge. Many personal qualities have already been touched upon, and
the technical skills needed have been indicated.

A waiter should be proud of his work and not treat it as an ordeal. He must always
be in good humour, seeking to please and oblige customers without servility.

Developing personality and professionalism should involve: attitude, attentiveness,

alertness leading to an ability to anticipate customer’s needs and to be able to cope
with customers and colleagues in varying situations. Waiters should avoid airs and
mannerisms, but should certainly cultivate personality. This is particularly important for
a head waiter. Reading and an interest in current affairs, sport and constructive
recreation can help. The waiter, it is re-emphasized, is in essence a salesman, operating
in a venue generating sector. He is part of ‘the show’. He is always during service
‘on show’. His dexterity and skill controlled by a restrained personality can add to
a guest’s idea of value and also increase his enjoyment. Therefore, a waiter’s
‘showmanship’ is positively useful.
However, in selling, simple skills and speed are an important as elabourate techniques.
Speed is particularly important, for example, when serving hot food.
Some things that efficient service personnel should avoid are enlisted herewith.
Things that efficient service personnel should avoid
• A surely greeting or not greeting a guest at all or ignoring a guest deliberately.
• Letting guests seat themselves, inspite of being present near the table and not
otherwise engaged.
• Refusing to assist a guest or seating a guest at a dirty table.
• Serving from the wrong side, when it is possible to serve from the correct side.
• Note setting tables properly. Placing empty sugar bowls/cruet sets on the table.
• Forgetting to say ‘Pardon me’, or ‘Excuse me, sir/madam’.
• Being too familiar with guests. This could lead to embarrassing situations.
• Gathering in groups in operational areas and talking loudly and showing signs of
irritability with other members of the staff.
• Leaving fingerprints on crockery/glassware or making a noise by clattering the
service equipment.
• Keeping the side station dirty or using torn or stained linen.
• Forgetting a dish that has been ordered, or serving wrong accompaniments.
266
• Overfilling water glasses or leaving them empty or leaving dirty ashtrays on an Food Management: Types
occupied table. of Food Service Systems

• Being inattentive to a guest’s needs, for example, forgetting special instructions

from the guest such as less chilies or no onions in the food.
• Using cold plates for hot food and hot plates for cold food.
• Touching food with one’s hands.
• Not following the rules of quality waiting at table.
• Soliciting the tips or questioning the amount of tips.
We hope you enjoyed reading this section on conduct and appearance of food service
personnel.

12.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learnt that production and service of food being individual processes
is the basis of classification of food service systems. Ensuring quality food at minimal
cost means that the physical, chemical and microbiological changes that occur during
procurement, production and service must be monitored and controlled, effectively.
Then, we saw that there are four major types of food service systems that have been
identified. These included conventional, commissary, ready prepared and assembly /
service. A major distinguishing factor among the four systems is the degree processing
prior to foods, which may vary from little or no processing prior to purchase of foods
to completely prepared foods ready for service.

Next, we got to know about the delivery and service in these food service systems.
Major meal distribution and service systems along with their benefits and constraints
were also highlighted.

12.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Characterized by a separation of production and service of food in time and/or
place, the need for the new systems have been primarily aimed at increasing
productivity, decreasing cost, or strengthening control of operations. Spiraling
labour costs and technological innovation in both food and equipment have also
led to implementation of these new types of systems.
2) The four major types of food service systems include: Conventional Food Service
System, Commissary Food Service System, Ready Prepared Food Service System
and Assembly/Serve.
3) The packaging and storage of prepared menu items present challenges for control
in commissary systems because a variety of packaging materials and approaches
is used in systems, varying from individual pouches or serving dishes, specially
designed for frozen or chilled holding, to disposable or reusable metal pans
adapted to various types of distribution and transportation equipment. Preserving
the microbiological, sensory, and nutritional quality of foods during holding and
thermalization at point of service can present problems.
4) The challenge of using ready prepared systems is in retention of foods’ nutrient
content, microbial safety and sensory quality. The benefits include reduce labour
expenditures and use of labour more effectively. The heating and service of menu
items does not require highly skilled employees and thus, reductions in labour
costs are often possible. Food procurement in volume may decrease food costs
in these systems. 267
Entrepreneurship and Food 5) In the assembly system the availability of food products is sometimes a problem,
Service Management particularly in healthcare institutions. Another common complaint about the assembly/
serve systems is the lack of individuality. Comments are frequently heard about
the “sameness” of the ready prepared foods available in the market place.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) In a healthcare facility, meal assembly, may be centralized or decentralized. In
a facility with centralized meal assembly, the trays are first assembled for service
at a central location in or close to the main production facilities. Hot menu items
are held in food warming cabinets, usually in cafeteria counter pans, where they
remain until placed in hot food serving units during tray assembly; cold items are
held under refrigeration. The assembled trays are then distributed to the patient
units using a variety of types of cars. Some institutions use heated and refrigerated
tray carts, which may be motorized or pushed manually by hospital personnel.
In a decentralized meal assembly, the food products are produced in one location
and transported to various locations for assembly at sites near patients. Equipment
to maintain proper temperatures – food warmers, hot food counters, and/or
refrigerated equipment – are provided at each location.
2) The commissary food service system can take many forms and may, in fact, be
a combination of systems. In school food service operations, for example, a
central kitchen may be a conventional food service for a secondary school but
may also provide food to several satellite service centers for elementary schools
in the district
3) Cold temperature is maintained during distribution system in ready prepared food
service system by using carts. Two types of carts are used predominantly for cold
temperature support. One type is insulated to maintain temperature during distribution
to remote pantry areas where the carts are connected to wall-mounted or floor-
borne refrigeration units. The other is the roll-in-refrigerator cart.

268
 Food Management: Types
UNIT 13 PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT: of Food Service Systems

LEADERSHIP

Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Leadership
13.2.1 Definitions
13.2.2 Components of Leadership
13.2.3 Approaches to Leadership
13.3 Who are Leaders?
13.3.1 Qualities
13.3.2 Attitude and Behaviour
13.3.3 Values
13.3.4 Tasks of Leaders
13.4 Leadership Styles
13.4.1 Effective Leadership
13.4.2 Communication – The Key to Effective Leadership
13.4.3 Applications to Food Service Management
13.5 Let Us Sum Up
13.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the course so far we have learnt about the process of planning and setting up a
food service establishment and also about food management in the food service
operations, namely purchase, receiving, storage, production and service management.
Besides these operations, manpower management is a crucial operation of food service
management.

This is the first unit in the series of units presented herewith (Unit 13-15) dealing with
manpower or staff management and therefore will draw your attention to a number
of questions that usually arise in the mind of a worker in any organizational environment.
Let us try and list down some of these thoughts that arise in the mind of people at
their places of work.
• Why does he only give orders?
• Who does he think he is?
• How can I do the work that no one shows me how to do?
• Whom should I ask?
• Why is he not fair to me?
Similarly there can be a host of questions and perhaps statements praising someone’s
attitudes, work achievements and so on making you admire some people.

This unit deals with trying to make you see why you like some people, follow their
example, respect them and so on, in contrast to others whom you may be bossing
over at work. You would agree that without administrative leadership no organization
could achieve its goals and plans. But what do we mean by the term administrative
leadership?

This unit presents what is leadership, who are the leaders, what qualities they possess
and how they influence the success or failure of an establishment. It also defines
leadership and discusses the different approaches to it, focusing on communication as
269
Entrepreneurship and Food the key to effectiveness. Also, we shall focus on the responsibilities of food service
Service Management managers and dietitians who are the administrative leaders who assume the management
of food service organizations.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• define leadership and leadership styles,
• explain the components of leadership,
• describe the qualities attitudes and values of leaders,
• highlight the principles of effective leadership,
• discuss the role of communication as the key to leadership, and
• enumerate the responsibilities of food service managers.

13.2 LEADERSHIP
We begin our study by first understanding the term leadership. Leadership, you would
realize, has a different meaning for different people. For instance, for some it is being
the first one to inspire bravery on the battlefield or for some it is influencing people
to strive willingly to achieve goals and targets of an organization. So, then, leadership
may be defined as “working with people to get them willingly to produce the results
leader wants or needs to accomplish.”

One often hears the statement that Leaders are born, but time has shown that
although every manager cannot be a J.R.D. Tata or M.S. Oberoi, many successful
managers have emerged and developed under the guidance of great leaders in every
sphere of life, through their own hard work. Yet many professors and renowned
people in this area believe that managers and leaders are very different kinds of
people who differ in motivation, personal history and how they think and act. Hence,
we can say that leadership quality is that element in a manager, which makes
people look up to him or her for advice, feel motivated to work with a feeling of
respect and loyalty, generating love and care in the environment as they work
along together.

Also, leadership has been viewed as a special form of power involving relationships
with people. These relationships develop when leaders successfully fuse both
organizational and personal needs in a way that allows people and organization to reach
levels of mutual achievement and satisfaction. This, however, can be a difficult task
as each employee, has different motivations, ambitions, and interests and must be
treated differently. On the top of it, the work situations vary. So, it becomes an
extremely challenging for the manager to handle such divergent factors. Koontz and
O’Donnell suggest that subordinates will respond to authority alone to do the bare
minimum to maintain their jobs. But in order to raise effort towards total capability,
the manager must induce devoted response on the part of subordinates by exercising
leadership. Managers, researchers, theorists and teachers have defined leadership in
many different ways all trying to focus on the perfect way to define leadership. Let
us see next how we can best define leadership and apply the definition in the context
of food service management.

13.2.1 Definitions
Leadership represents the set of skills and characteristics, which differentiate the
people who make an impact on others, as against those who do not. Scientists and
management professionals in various fields have offered different views and expressed
their thoughts and beliefs about leadership through their definitions, which have been
quoted below.

270
Lord Moran (during World War I): “Leadership is the capacity to frame plans that Personnel Management:
will succeed and the faculty to persuade others to carry them out in the face of Leadership
difficulties”.
Katz and Kahn, 1966: “The influential increment over and above mechanical compliance
with the routine directives of the organization”.
Willingness of people to follow a leader and this happens when people can see the
manager or leader as one who is providing their own wants and needs.
Koontz et al., 1982: “Leadership is the art or process of influencing people so that
they will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the achievement of organizational
goals”.
In the context of food service establishments, administrative leaders are dietitians, food
service managers and those individuals who assume the management of food service
organization and responsibility of making the organization successful. They have the
responsibility of achieving goals and plans of an organization. These are the individuals
who can be a role model, are willing to work longer and harder than his/her team and
also willingness to continuously inspire confidence and trust.

Having looked at the definition of leadership presented above, what are the elements/
components of leadership that you can highlight. List these components and tally them
with the components highlighted in the next sub-section.

13.2.2 Components of Leadership

Leadership consists of three basic components expressed as the ability of leaders to
comprehend, inspire and act as highlighted herewith.

Ability to comprehend that people are motivated by different forces at different times
and in different situations.

Ability to inspire through qualities of charm and appeal, in a charismatic manner.

Show a sense of loyalty and devotion to the organization and to people, which they
can recognize and then emulate.

Ability to act in a manner that will motivate and develop a climate for responding
to those motivations at work and outside it.

While knowing the theories of motivation helps in understanding the elements of

motivation, and every manager is better aware of the nature and strength of his staff,
it is difficult to apply the same to people and situations. It is for this reason that of
all the mangers that can handle people and situations fairly well; only few stand out
as good leaders.
Next, we shall review the approaches to leadership.

13.2.3 Approaches to Leadership

The ancient Greeks and the Romans believed that leaders were born to be great men.
Before 1949 therefore, studies of leadership were based on identifying the traits that
leaders possess. Researchers tried to identify physical, mental and personality traits of
various leaders.

The great men theory was gradually replaced by the behaviourist approach, which
believed, that people are not born with traits other than some physical characteristics
and tendencies toward good health. Thus, six distinct approaches to leadership were
identified, which you may recall reading earlier in Unit 1. Let us review each of these,
next.

271
Entrepreneurship and Food • Traditional
Service Management
• Trait
• Path Goal
• Situational
• Contingency
• Modern
Traditional Approach
It was a traditional practice to start food services or any other enterprises as small
family businesses with the parents dictating the norms for managing it. This approach
therefore, exhibited paternalist tendencies, which reflected obedience, cooperation,
more punishment or coercion, rather than reward because the good work done by
younger members was the expected norm in joint families. While elderly managers or
leaders still exhibit this approach vis à vis their subordinates in other establishments
too, it is gradually getting replaced by professionalism.

Trait Approach
Various researches identified five physical traits related to leadership ability, four to
intelligence and ability, sixteen to personality traits, six being task related and nine
linked to social characteristics. These have been tabulated in Table 13.1, which also
provides some examples of each trait for clearer understanding.
Table 13.1: Traits related to leadership ability
Trait No. Identified Examples
1. Physical 5 Appearance, energy, height …..
2. Intelligence 4 Intelligence, scholarship ….
3. Personality 16 Adaptability, aggressiveness, enthusiasm,
self confidence, honesty, truthfulness..
4. Task-related 6 Achievement drive, persistence, initiative
…..
5. Social 9 Cooperation, interpersonal skills,
administrative ability ….

In general however, studies of traits have not been a fruitful approach to explain
leadership. This is because all leaders do not possess all the traits in fact many non-
leaders may possess them. The approach also does not indicate how much of the trait
a leader should possess although some studies show a significant correlation between
certain traits and leadership effectiveness. The views of some management theorists
and researchers are briefly reproduced.

Ghiselli noted that leadership effectiveness was correlated with intelligence, supervisory
ability, initiative, self-assurance and individuality in the ways of doing work.

Stogdill compared the traits of leaders with those of non-leaders and grouped
intelligence, scholarship, dependability, responsibility, social participation
and socioeconomic status of leaders as being the traits correlating to leadership
ability.

Keith Davis observed that leaders do have high intelligence, broad social interests and
maturity, strong motivation to achieve, respect for and interest in people.

It will be noticed that most of these traits really show patterns of behaviour that one
would expect from leaders placed in management positions in any organization.
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Path Goal Approach Personnel Management:
Leadership
This approach to leadership is of particular interest to managers as it sees the most
effective leaders as those who help subordinates to achieve both establishment goals,
as well as, their own personal goals. It takes care of achievement and reward goals
of all involved in terms of money, promotion, task interests and opportunities for
growth and development. Leaders achieve this by:
• defining position and task roles clearly,
• removing obstacles to performance by assisting group members in goal setting,
• promoting group cohesiveness and team effort,
• increasing opportunities for personal satisfaction in work performance,
• reducing unnecessary stresses and external controls, and
• making reward expectations clear, and designing appropriate situations for
achievement.
This approach is particularly valid for upper level positions and professional tasks
where the behaviour of leaders can influence the development of a positive work
environment. Its application to routine production level jobs is not clear, probably
because not much can be done to make those tasks more satisfying.

Situational Approach
This approach focuses on situations based on the belief that leaders are the product
of given situations. That is, the effectiveness as a leader depends on multiple factors
which include not just only human behaviour and motivation. The situational approach
to management concentrates on the theory that leadership effectiveness is a function
of the individual leader (including traits and personalities – we just learnt above) that
leader’s subordinate and the situational variables involved.

A number of studies show that leadership is strongly affected by the situation. Some
classic examples from history are leaders such as Hitler of Germany, the rise of
Mussolini in Italy, emergence of Roosevelt in the US during the Great Depression of
the 1930’s, the rise of Mao Tse-tung in China after world war II and Mahatma
Gandhi, Nehru, Sardar Patel during independence movement in India. The situational
approach to leadership recognizes that there exists an interaction between the group
and its leader. It supports the theory that people tend to follow those in whom they
see, rightly or wrongly, a means of satisfying their own personal wants or goals. The
leader then, is one who recognizes these wants and undertakes to fulfill them, even
at the cost of tremendous self-sacrifices.

More recently, the two dimensions of leadership effectiveness have been delineated.
These include concern for the task and concern for the people who do the task.
Keeping in view these two dimensions, Blake and Mouton developed the managerial
grid for determining a leader’s behaviour and successful management of people. Here,
in this, grid, leadership style was an ideal one, wherein there was high concern for
people, as well as, production. Though, very soon it was realized that other forms of
leadership styles are equally effective as a consequence of many situational constraints
in leadership styles. However, this approach is important to practicing managers who
must take into account the entire situation along with its challenges, and then design
for performance and achievement.

Contingency Approach
According to the contingency theory, there is no one “best” style of leadership but
that style must be adjusted to fit the situation. How effective a leadership is in a
particular situation, depends on a number of circumstances. Now what that situation(s)
could be? Well, these could be how structured the task involved is, whether or not 273
Entrepreneurship and Food the leader has any power as perceived by subordinates and how well the leader gets
Service Management along with the subordinates.

Often referred to as Fiedler’s Contingency Approach, because Fiedler and his

associates, through their research, implied that people become leaders not only because
of the attributes of their personalities but also because of various situational factors
and the interaction between the leaders and the situation. According to Fiedler, in very
“favourable” or on very “unfavourable” situations for getting a task accomplished by
group effort, the task-oriented management style works best. Further, on the basis
of his studies, Fiedler found three critical dimensions of the leadership situation such
as power of position, task structure and leader member relations. Let us get to know
about each of these.

Power of position: This power arises from organizational authority, since a leader
with position power can obtain better follower-ship than those who do not have the
position.

Task structure: To the extent to which tasks can be clearly defined and people held
responsible for them the quality of performance can be controlled more easily, in
contrast to tasks that are vague and unstructured.

Leader-member relations: This dimension is the most important from the point of view
of the leader since the position power and task structure may be under organizational
control. This aspect is dependent on the extent to which group members like and trust
a leader and are willing to follow him or her.

Modern Approach
The modern approach to leadership is based on the functional effectiveness of leaders
and the belief that leaders can be groomed by training. The training tools focus on
developing managerial skills and interpersonal cooperation. Completely new ways of
building skills within organizations is to use instruments as role plays, management
games, syndicate exercises through audio-visual presentations and overall training of
mind, body and management skills in natural surroundings and a relaxing formal or
informal environment.

Leadership effectiveness thus depends on the various elements of the group environment.
Managers who apply their knowledge to real group situations will recognize that they
are practicing an art. It has been recognized by experienced managers that the nature
and style of the most effective leadership depend upon each situation in which the
above factors all interact to various extents. Therefore, every manager must design
their approaches to suit the situation at hand keeping in mind the people involved. This
is even truer in a food service unit wherein different services – commercial and non-
commercial – are operational.

Take a break here and review your understanding of the topic so far by answering
the questions given in the check your progress exercise 1.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) a) How did Katz and Kahn define leadership?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

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 Personnel Management:
b) Combine the important features expressed in all the definitions stated in Leadership
sub-section 13.2.1 and write down your own definition of leadership that
includes all the important points.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
2) What are the three components of leadership?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Fill in the blanks:

i) The ............................... approach to leadership exhibits .......................

tendencies.

ii) ........................ traits have been linked to ...........................and ability.

iii) The most effective leaders are those who help ............................. to
achieve establishment, as well as, ........................................... goals.

iv) Those who believe that leaders are the product of given ...................
follow the ............................... approach.

In the discussion above we focused on the concept of leadership and the components
and approaches to leadership. Next, let us get to know the qualities, values, and
attributes of a good leader.

13.3 WHO ARE LEADERS?

A leader is everyone who exerts a positive influence on the life of others, whether a
team member or head of a department of an organization. It is a person who can solve
problems creatively and follows his own intuition rather than merely being imitative
of those in position of power. A good leader does not do everything, but only manages
to get things done through other people. Therefore remember, all managers are not
good leaders.

Charisma distinguishes a leader from a manager, but charismatic leaders can be

brusque, arrogant and generally poor team players, although they exhibit a sense of
vision and can give direction by creating an image of an expansive future for the
organization. People see this vision and feel motivated to achieve.

While it is the general belief that charismatic leaders are born, Rob Yeung believes that
they can be developed by good training, which inculcates in people not only leadership
qualities but also innovative ideas that can be developed into creativity by experience
on the job, especially if it offers early responsibility and opportunities. In fact leadership
and creativity together translate into entrepreneurial skills, which are an asset to
organizations small or large. Peter Drucker has so aptly said that:

275
Entrepreneurship and Food Production is not the application of tools to materials but logic to work.
Service Management
A leader who can mobilize the trust and support of staff achieves greater heights than
his contemporaries in the competitive management environment. This is because
people need to share in a vision and want some understanding of the bigger picture
to see how their work contributes to it. A good leader introspects and starts his day
by asking some questions like:
• What has to be done?
• What do I need?
• What do I have to do to make a real contribution?
• What are my organizational goals?
• What qualifies as acceptable performance?
• Do I tolerate poor performance?
• Do I like or dislike an employee?
A leader produces simple plans, speaks plainly, proposes clear-cut targets and stimulates
staff to achieve them speedily, building up a momentum to achieve. They talk less
and set an example for others to follow showing enthusiasm to achieve in their own
behaviour at work.

Leaders are not threatened by others who have strengths that they lack as is clear from
Lord Moran’s definition presented in sub-section 13.2.1. The definition implies
knowledge, realism and ability to implement in the form of capability coupled with
effectiveness. All these, within a framework of selflessness, courage to decide, will
power to achieve, ability to deal with people and make an impact on them by setting
an example.
What then are the qualities of a good leader? Let us find out.

13.3.1 Qualities
Leaders act to help people obtain objectives with the maximum application of their
capabilities. They do not stand behind them to push or prod, but place themselves
before them to help their progress and inspire them to achieve goals.

Have you ever gone to a music recital or seen and heard an orchestra perform? Then,
you must have noticed the behaviour of the lead singer or the leader of the orchestra.
His function is to produce coordination of sound and guide the correct tempo through
the collective effort of the other musicians, each responding to the quality of the
leadership.

Again, some people go enthusiastically to a movie and come back disappointed because
they find the choreography or the dresses or the coordination in dances poor, according
to the theme or title of the movie. Why is that? Simply because of poor direction or
leadership. Let us therefore list the qualities of a good leader. According to De Woot
(1994), good leaders demonstrate the following qualities:
• Natural drive
• Thirst for adventure or challenge
• Courage
• Sense of reality
• Ambition
• Imagination
• Restive temperament
• Genuine interest in people
276
• Respect for people.
Thus, a leader is anyone who exerts a positive influence on the life of others, whether Personnel Management:
a team member, or head of a department, a person who can solve problems creatively Leadership
and follows his own light or intuitions. A leader does not do everything but only
manages to get things done by focusing on strategic issues.

What should be the attitude and behaviour of a leader? Read the next sub-section and
find out.

13.3.2 Attitude and Behaviour

The attitude and behaviour of leaders should be such as to bring about the image of
the organization, as it wishes to be seen and judged by people or its customers. A
leader’s attitude to his staff follows the pull and not the push policy, a command
and not demand attitude or behaviour. The manner with which a leader conducts
himself, will show how he expects others to behave. For example, if a leader
perpetually comes late to office or dresses shabbily he cannot expect discipline from
his workers.

Establishments in which people perform to their optimum capability indicate that

the leadership is motivating. A leader must show by example what he expects others
to do.

13.3.3 Values
Every leader exhibits certain values that are admired by others, such as truthfulness,
honesty and justice in dealing with others, be non-corrupt, loving and caring, disciplined
and highly ethical in the performance of their work. Yet, managers have often been
criticized for their lack of responsiveness to the social attitudes, beliefs and values of
particular individuals in organizations. The reason is, that attitudes and values are
different for workers and employers, rich and poor, as also with people at different
occupational levels.

The variety of values existing makes it difficult for managers to design an environment
conducive to performance goals, as well as, to the satisfaction of all concerned. It has
become even more difficult to respond to everyone’s personal needs in the legal,
economic and political environment of today, which exert external pressures on
organizations to adapt to their demands as well.

A doctoral study conducted in Delhi University on the values of managers of non-

governmental and multinational organizations showed that managers held very different
values depicted in their management styles.
Next, let us review the task of leaders.

13.3.4 Tasks of Leaders

The tasks of leaders are those, which cannot be delegated. Their tasks are mental
and intuitive and attempt to bring about the image of the organization, as it wishes
to be seen and judged by the public. The dictum that good leaders follow in the
performance of their tasks is – never do as others do. Either do nothing … or
do something nobody else does. The tasks that leaders perform may be
summarized as:
• Well being: This is the inner dimension of leadership from which strength and
power emanate.
• Vision: The leader visualizes an image of a desirable future for the organization.
He does this by finding answers to market needs, gives meaning to employee
efforts by explaining why and what for the organization stands.

277
Entrepreneurship and Food • Mission: This is the visualization of the basic rules of behaviour of an organization
Service Management based on values, orientations and norms within the industry.
• Shaping the future: The leader shapes the future of the organization through
strategies, which may be offensive and invents new markets. He may sometimes
use defensive strategies to remain on top of the competitors in the market or use
disinvestments strategies as a tactic for increasing the value of the organization.
• Identifying core competencies: Leaders spend their time and energies to identify
the core talents in terms of skills and behaviour patterns in their organization that
will bring in the maximum results in terms of not only profits, but reputation and
lasting image as well.
• Care of core products and services: Once identified, the core competencies both
intrinsic and extrinsic would be nurtured and developed by leaders for furthering
the goals of the establishment.
• Establishing organizational image: It is the task of a leader to establish and
maintain the image of the establishment in the mind of its customers, and remain
above that of its competitors in the market.
Who then, is a leader? Well, he is a person who guides, conducts, directs and reacts
positively and aggressively, to changes in the internal and external environment of
an organization, well in time to succeed in the market.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) With what are the following management scientists associated?
i) Fiedler .................................................................. .
ii) Yeung .................................................................. .
iii) De Woot ................................................................. .
2) Give one word answers to the following questions.
i) What distinguishes a leader from a manager? .............................
ii) What do leaders do to help people to obtain objectives with the maximum
application of their capabilities? ....................................
iii) What does a leader exhibit to be admired by people?.......................
iv) What policy does a leader’s attitude to his staff follow?.................
3) How many tasks do leaders perform? Name them.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) What are the qualities of a leader?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Now let us review the leadership styles.

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 Personnel Management:
13.4 LEADERSHIP STYLES Leadership

Leadership styles were at first classified on the basis of how leaders used their
authority and therefore three basic styles were documented. One, the autocratic in
which the manager or leader commands and expects compliance, is dogmatic and
positive, and exercises the ability to give or withhold awards and punishment. Two,
the democratic or participative in which the leader consults his subordinates on
proposed actions and decisions, encouraging their participation. This type of leader was
seen as a person who does not take action without the concurrence of his staff, or
one who makes decisions but consults his teammates. Three, the leader uses his or
her power sparingly if at all, giving subordinates a high degree of independence in their
operations. Such leaders depend largely on their staff to set their own
goals and achieve them. Managers in this case see their role as one of helping by
providing information and acting as the contact with the external environment of the
organization.

There are however, variations of these basic styles that are followed by managers
or leaders in each working set up, requiring different kinds of decisions in which
a leader may have to deviate from the basics. Let us next review the styles of
leadership.

Styles of Leadership
Leadership style is used as an effective tool of management in formal, as well as,
informal establishments. It is often seen that even when placed in positions of power
as in formal organizations, managers can exercise authority over people only if they
will accept it. Leadership styles are therefore dependent on the different methods that
managers or leaders use to achieve cooperation from their staff efforts to achieve
goals.

One of the most dramatic approaches to leadership styles is that developed by Robert
Blake and Jane Mouton (1969), known as the management grid, which focused on
how managers are concerned about people or productivity. They described four
extremes of the basic styles as follows:

• Where managers put in minimum exertion and effort to get work done and sustain
organizational morale. This indicated low concern for people and productivity and
was graded (1.1) on the grid.
• Managers showed high degree of concern for people, by believing that thoughtful
attention to needs of people leads to friendly and comfortable work environment
and tempo of work. But this too led to low productivity concern (1.9).
• Adequate performance through a balance between work requirements and
maintaining satisfactory morale being considered usual or average in terms of
concern for people and production (5.5).
• Managers believe that efficiency results from arranging work in such a way that
people have little effect (9.1). This style shows low concern for people but results
in high productivity.
• When committed people who trust and respect each other accomplish work with
interdependence because of a common stake in the organization, the management
is graded at 9.9. This represents concern for both people and productivity.
Lal (1983) researched on different styles that leaders or managers use in performing
their functions and concluded that four styles are commonly used as summarized in
Table 13.2.

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Entrepreneurship and Food Table 13.2: Leadership styles
Service Management
Style Description Usage (%)
Autocratic Manager’s decision without Varies depending on
or with explanation to nature and size of
subordinates establishment
Participative Prior consultation with 35.2
subordinates
Democratic Joint decision by all staff 29.5
Lassez faire Delegating authority 3.5

It will be noted that all the styles are used to different extents by managers, as indicated
by the percentage usage of the particular style. These vary because of the nature of
the decisions made in different situations.
A manager therefore, cannot use a particular style at all times, being autocratic in an
emergency such as an accident or a fire breaking out. In certain situations, he is alone
he may have the answer such as, deciding the number of customers to be catered for,
yet he can communicate it to staff in a pleasant participative way instead of being
autocratic and only ordering people around. In fact, Tannenbaum and Shmidt pointed
out that leadership styles adapt to different situations to form a leadership continuum
of manager and non-manager behaviour (Koontz et.al. 1982).
Ghiselli (1963) and Stogdill (1974) identified various traits related to leadership ability
ranging from physical traits to those of intelligence, ability, personality, social and task
related ones. Experiences of managers have shown however, that the contribution of
leadership ability towards goal achievement is about 40% whereas 60% is attributed
to the need for the job and the authority exercised by superiors.
The leadership style of a manager determines how good his relationships are with
subordinates, and how easily he can communicate with them. Leadership styles
adopted in the management of group work are closely related to the personality of
individual managers and their social skills, although it is debatable as to how far social
skills can be taught. Usually extrovert personalities develop easy relations with other
people in contrast to introvert personalities who find it difficult.
Leadership style is thus a powerful tool of management especially in people oriented
spheres such as food service management. Thus, the styles that managers adopt
indicate the degree of concern they have for people, through which they can create
a comfortable working environment of mutual trust and respect or fear and anxiety
leading to stress.
Every leadership style has its advantages and disadvantages and is therefore used in
a selective manner by managers and leaders according to the demands of a particular
situation. As already stated, in an emergency such as a fire breaking out in the
organization, there is no time to think whom to go to or which style to use. The leader
on the spot who ever it may be acts in an autocratic manner and just orders people
out, and uses the nearest fire extinguishing equipment to try and put out the danger.
Similarly, in the case of directing and guiding the activities of a unit or area there is
need for patience on the part of the leader, who then uses the participative style to
get the staff concerned to identify.

13.4.1 Effective Leadership

When managers understand what motivates their staff and how these motivators
operate, and the more they reflect on how to apply this understanding to managerial
action the greater is the effectiveness of their leadership.
280
According to Likert (1967), effective managers use the participative style and depend Personnel Management:
more on their communication skills, while at the same time they adopt a supportive Leadership
attitude, sharing needs, values, goals and expectations with their staff. He saw an
effective manager as one who was strongly oriented to subordinates. All members of
the group including the manager or leader who adopt a supportive attitude to each
other, appeal to human motivations and work effectively as a unit. Likert identified
four systems of management namely:
• exploitative-authoritative
• benevolent- authoritative
• consultative
• participative.
Let us get to know them.
Exploitative-authoritative: Managers falling within this system are highly autocratic,
have little trust in people, motivate them through fear and punishment with occasional
rewards. They mostly use downward communication at work and limit decision
making to those above them in the organization.

Benevolent-authoritative: These managers have a patronizing confidence and trust in

their subordinates, motivate them through rewards, limiting the use of fear and
punishment to rare occasions when considered necessary. They allow their staff to
communicate upward, take ideas and opinions from them allowing some delegation in
decision making while keeping strict control on set policy.

Consultative: Such leaders have substantial but not complete confidence and trust in
subordinates. They use their ideas and opinions, use rewards for motivating them, use
punishment where considered necessary and encourage both up and downward
communication. They tend to make policy decisions at the top with only specific
decisions at lower levels of the hierarchy and act consultatively in other ways.

Participative: Referred to as participative-group system, which works on complete

mutual trust and confidence in the abilities of each other. Managers use the opinions
and ideas of staff, give economic awards on the basis of group participation and
involvement in setting goals and evaluating them from time to time. All kinds of
communication channels are used in such settings of group work.
Some guidelines for effective leadership are:
• Avoid nagging to get cooperation
• Be direct about what you want people to do
• Don’t blame as this can hinder problem-solving
• Stay focused on current situation, and do not generalize
• Negotiate, don’t demand
• Realign priorities to suit the way staff want to work
• Speak less, listen more
• Be subtle in the way you want work done, avoid ordering
• Recognize the efforts of others and praise them
• Do some self evaluation also
Ideally, people should be encouraged to work willingly and do it with zeal and
confidence. Let us see what these mean? Zeal is ardor, earnestness, and intensity with
which work is carried out, whereas confidence reflects experience and technical ability.
281
Entrepreneurship and Food To lead effectively is to guide, conduct, direct and precede. However, the key to
Service Management effective leadership is, communicating to others in a manner that makes them clearly
understand what is to be done, when, where and how.

Rob Yeung suggests 10 ways of using charisma to advantage for effective goal
achievement. These are:
• Draft a compelling vision
• Communicate passionately
• Get cooperation from others
• Inspire and pull people towards goals
• Provide direction and momentum
• Assert if necessary
• Keep an open mind to learn from others
• Make decisions in line with vision
• Get feedback
• Command and not demand respect and loyalty
The key to effective leadership therefore lies, not only in the knowledge, intelligence,
creativity, innovativeness of leaders but, their ability to communicate their ideas,
thoughts, decisions and visions to those who will implement them to achieve goals.
Next, let us review communication as the key to effective leadership.

13.4.2 Communication – The Key to Effective Leadership

Communication is defined as the transmittal of information from one individual to
another. It is the ability to convey information to people in a manner that they
understand the message in the same light as the sender meant it to be understood.
In other words, the mental wavelength of the sender and the receiver should be the
same. How can this be done? Let us see by an example.

You have all listened to people on the radio some time or another, some people hear
the message and even dial the telephone number given in the message to ask a
question, and receive the reply. What happens when you hear and respond? You
have tuned your radio to the wavelength of the radio channel from which the
programme is being telecast. Similarly two people have to tune in to the same
wavelength in order to speak or deliver the message. Likewise, for a leader to lead,
direction that are being communicated must be followed and for directions to be
followed, they must be well understood by the subordinates and colleagues.
Communication is only complete if a response is received from the receiver depicted
below:

SENDER >>>>>>>>>>> Wavelength <<<<<<<<<< RECEIVER

Let us then understand some terms used in the content of communication.
Wavelength
The wavelength signifies the clarity with which messages are received and interpreted.
You know, that if your radio does not catch the wavelength at which a particular
programme you want to hear is being relayed there is disturbance and you get
frustrated. So, if the response of the receiver of the message is not what the sender
expected or perceived, the communication will be disrupted and the message will not
be interpreted correctly. In such cases communication does not take place and we tend
to either misunderstand responses or get the message misunderstood.
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Interpretation Personnel Management:
Leadership
It has been seen that the best plans fail often if the communication is not comprehended.
Though, it is certain that no message will be transmitted or received with 100%
accuracy. The average employee remembers:
10 - 15% of what he/she hears
15 - 30% of what he/she hears and sees.
30 - 50% of what he/she says
50 - 75% of what he/she does but he/she remembers.
75% of what he/she does with proper instructions.
Proper instruction here refers to the use of all senses such as hearing, seeing, saying
and doing, and then repeating it all over again.

Next, we must understand what influences the understanding or interpretation of the

messages. There are a number of factors that affect the interpretation of messages by
the receiver. These are:
• language used in communicating and message
• differing background of the sender and receiver
• circumstances in which the communication takes place such as environment and
noise
• body language and facial expressions
• emotional state or the state of mind when message was received by the receiver
• personality of the sender and the receiver
• images of people because of position at work, dress, colour, gender and so on.
• Halo Effect that is impressions of superiors about people, which make them think
that, the boss is always unjust to me and just to another staff, or he hates or
loves me, and will never or always take an unfavourable or favourable decision
irrespective of how I behave or work.
H.J. Leavitt studied the effectiveness of various communication channels or
networks and arrived at the conclusion that channels have two indices, namely:
• index of CENTRALITY – This signified that the position of the staff placed in
the center of the action, attracted manager focus and received more attention,
providing good interaction or communication opportunities.
• index of PERIPHALITY – People working away from the center or in the
periphery of the organization, had low interaction and therefore were less well
informed.
Next, let us get to know about the channels of communication.
Channels of Communication
A number of channels of communication are followed in food service or other
organizations depending on whether orders have to be given, reporting done or simple
participative interaction for decision making carried out. The channels are briefly
outlined:

One way channel: One way channels of communication may pass on messages upward
or downward depending on whether the superior is ordering or the staff are reporting
back on actions taken in the organization.

You have experienced a one-way downward communication at home when parents tell
you not to do or do something. Can you think why this is a downward communication
or message? Simply because they do not expect back any answer, as it is meant to 283
Entrepreneurship and Food be an order, given by virtue of their position in the family. Can you now think of an
Service Management example of an upward communication at home, when you would have conveyed your
programme to the parents.

Two way channel: When a manager informs the coffee shop that he needs two cups
of coffee for a visitor at 11 a.m. in her office and receives a response Yes Madam,
a two way message has been communicated in which the sender of the message and
its receiver have both interacted.

Similarly when you take permission from someone to use his computer and he says
Yes, the communication is two way.

Multi channel: Multi-channel networks are those in which a number of people placed
at different points in or outside the establishments interact with each other on a regular
basis. The type of channels followed varies with the size of the organization, number
of staff performing interrelated activities, and goals of the units or subunits of the
organization.

Does your mother go out of the home to work? If so, she probably needs to convey
something to your father about what to buy from the market on the way home from
office, so she can organize the dinner on return from work. In response your father
may say all right don’t worry, but has got caught up in a meeting, where he will be
delayed. So he tells you to buy what he was to do, and further asks you to convey
his message of being late to your mother in her office. Now, this is a multi-channel
communication network because more than two people are involved.

Similarly a leader of an organization or food service department may convey messages

to heads of departments to be carried out during the day. Then these key persons
interact with others in their own or other departments to get the work done by the
end of the day. So, there can be any number of messages exchanged between people
in organizations in many different ways both formally and informally. The organization
charts of organizations indicate the formal and sometimes even the informal lines of
communication followed.

In a food service establishment the catering manager communicates with both the
kitchen and dining room supervisors who in turn interact with each other to serve food
to the customer. While there may not be any formal interaction of waiters with the
chef, he necessarily has to communicate with kitchen staff to serve the customer. In
this case he follows informal channels to pass customer messages and receive the food
as ordered for service.

Methods of Communication
The lines of communications within an organization should be clearly established.
Different managers and leaders, depending on the size of the organization, location and
the state of modern technology adopted for networking, have used a number of
methods. These have been enumerated below:
• Verbal: or through talking or word of mouth as it is generally called.
• Written: in the form of order, letter, memo in black and white which may be hand
written or typed. Examples include bulletin board notices, memos etc.
• Audio-visual: In this method part of what is being said is explained with the help
of visual aids like a screen as on television or computer, by the use of posters,
booklets, leaflets, blackboards and chalk, or as exhibits.
• Interactive: These methods are followed with groups of people all of whom
express their opinions on the subject of discussion, as in brainstorming sessions
for acceptance of a new idea. Interactive methods are also used in formal settings
284 as by an interview board for selection of staff.
Apart from the above-mentioned methods, another informal means of communication Personnel Management:
found in every organization is the grapevine. While at the administrative level, Leadership
communication is achieved through tools such as Operations Research (OR),
Performance Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT), and Management by
Objectives (MBO). You may recall studying about MBO earlier in Unit 1 in this
course.

For any purposeful communication to take place the sender must believe that it is
essential, then express it clearly and finally pass it on through people who will listen
carefully and understand it fully in order to implement it.

Having discussed briefly the methods that can be used for effective communication,
it is important to understand the reasons why people often misunderstand messages,
be they oral or verbal, written or interactive. Factors, which cause blockages in
communication channels, are many and are generally referred to as barriers of
communication. These are classified as shown in Figure 13.1.

BARRIERS


   
Physical Physiological Psychological Environmental
(Mental/
emotional)
   
• Poor listening • Poor language • Assumptions • Faulty equipment
Language • Bad memory • Bias • Noise
• Unplanned • Nature and • Distorted statement • Soft voice
message behaviour • Lack of interest • Culture
• Inedible • Ear defects • Insecurity • Other disturbance
• Speech defects • Emotional state —
• Illness • Poor Human —
relations
• Poor concentration

Figure 13.1: Barriers to communication

Do you recall any such occasion when you rang up a friend and asked her to come
and meet you for lunch at 12.30 as usual? While you were waiting for her at the usual
cafeteria, she arrived home assuming that since you did not specify the place so it must
be at home. There was clearly a misunderstanding. Why? Let’s see.
• The location was not mentioned in the message …… faulty message
• The receiver made an assumption …… perhaps overexcited to meet
• Did not meet …… angry and humiliated
Result: Sender and receiver of the message both unhappy and disappointed. Perhaps
did not talk to each other for days. However, instead of keeping quiet and sulking for
many days it is good practice to do a self-analysis, call back and say sorry for the
misunderstanding and make up for it.

So, whenever a message is not clear it is important to call back to remove any doubts.
Once the barriers have been identified, they may be removed for better communication.

Eshbach has given ten suggestions for the improvement in the process of communication
especially for the food service industry. These are:

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Entrepreneurship and Food 1) Know what you want to say and be sure of what it means to you. If you are
Service Management not sure of what you mean, you cannot expect other people to know what you
want to know or do.
2) Know as much as you can about your audience, their educational level, their
interests, attitudes, skills, and abilities. Such information will help you make what
you want to say more readily understood by receivers.
3) Try to put yourself in the place of the person with whom you are communicating
and consider what you have to say as you think he or she would.
4) Give attention to the people who are communicating with you.
5) Make communication a 2-way street and not two one-way streets. If people have
an opportunity to ask questions and check to see if what they heard is what is
meant, communication will be much more effective.
6) Recognize the limitations of the various communication methods.
7) Many factors affect understanding by other people of what you say and write.
8) Do not try to impress people with big complicated words and make correct choice
of words keeping them shorter and simpler.
9) People’s opinions are not always based on reason on logic. Often logical statements
of fact do not result in correcting views and agreeing. Instead, they continue to
hold their view and find new reasons to support them.
10) Recognize your need to improve communications, be eager to improve your
communication and work hard at it.
You have now learnt that communication cannot be taught it has to be learnt by
vibrating correctly with different people and this comes only by familiarity, experience
and understanding of each other. When a number of people need to communicate
using all types of methods as in an organization, you can imagine how much more
difficult it becomes to understand what is said, heard and to be done. A good leader
can also be misunderstood if a message is passed on hurriedly on the assumption that
the receiver understands it well. Communication however is better in a harmonious
working environment where people easily talk and consult each other and work happily
together.

With a detail review on communication and how it can be a key to effective leadership
let us next review the few points of what leaders do to succeed in food service
establishment.

13.4.3 Applications to Food Service Management

The different leadership styles that are used in the catering field can be easily classified.
Some distinctly make people work by order, force or coercion while others encourage
staff to join the group and initiate activity. There are some managers who use
persuasion, and others generate the enthusiasm for work among people by their
endearing manner and achieve goals in the best possible manner.

While a number of applications of leadership have been talked about throughout this
lesson, a few points of what leaders do to succeed in food service establishments will
be enumerated giving specific examples. What managers should remember however
is that people believe in the extent to which they participate. The vital factor in
success is therefore the application of the American philosophy of thinking of employees
as colleagues and not subordinates.

It has been observed that when employees are sincerely allowed to participate in
managing affairs within the range of their competency, any doubts and misgivings
about the management’s fairness and sincerity disappear. People then begin to believe
286
in management when they understand the management’s problems well Personnel Management:
(Kumar, 1998). Leadership

Worker’s participation in decision-making in any food service demonstrates the

management’s interest in people, and stimulates positive reactions from them. This
leads to greater achievement because they look at organizational goals and problems
as their own, and attempt to tackle them together.

In the context of food service establishments, the administrative leaders are dietitians,
food service managers and those individuals who assume the management of food
service organization and responsibility of making the organization successful. Let us
now try to list the functional responsibilities and skills required by dietitians and food
service managers.

Responsibilities of a Dietitian
The dietitian is the manager of the dietetic department of a hospital or nursing home
who is mainly responsible for the functioning of the main kitchen where meals are
prepared and served for patients.

In large hospitals there are separate canteens and dining facilities for hospital staff and
visitors. These may be independent production and service units or may be supplied
with main items from the hospital kitchen and supplemented with snacks and cold
drinks from the canteen kitchen.

In western countries, the dietitian’s responsibility is only to plan for patient meals, and
pass on their requirements through a food service manager, who is in-charge of all the
kitchen activities such as purchasing, storage, receiving and issue of ingredients and
equipment, food preparation and delivery, maintenance of hygiene, staff uniforms and
so on.

In India however, the chief dietitian who has a team of dietitians to assist her with
patient care does all this. Her responsibilities therefore include:
• Patient care.
• Counseling for disease recurrence or prevention.
• Menu planning for staff, patients and visitors.
• Monitoring through being part of the medical team.
• Management department through all administrative work like budgeting, purchasing,
etc, which would normally be done by a food service or institutional manager.
• Make department financially self-sustaining.
• Teaching nutrition and dietetics to medical and nursing students.
• On the job training of internees from various institutions.
• Organizing seminars for updating staff.
• Research in dietetics.

With so many responsibilities to carry out the number of dietitians in our hospitals need
to be increased, and kitchen administration and management be given to experienced
food service or institutional managers who then operate under the guidance of the
dietitian, for patient food preparation planning and implementation.

Private hospitals have stepped in this direction by appointing food production staff
from the hotel industry or contract-catering sector. While they are good at food
production and presentation they too need to be instructed to cook according to the
287
Entrepreneurship and Food individual or group requirements of patients and their specific disease and nutritional
Service Management requirements.

Next, let us review the responsibility and skill required for food managers.

Responsibilities and Skills Required for Food Managers

You have learnt about so many different types of food service establishments in
Unit 1, you can therefore imagine the types of responsibilities that food managers carry
on their shoulders. They are responsible for:
• All management activities you have learnt, such as establishment of goals, objectives
and standards.
• Personnel selection, education and welding an effective staff.
• Handle emergency situations.
• Be well informed about new equipment, processes and food products and purchase
of these according to specifications.
• Supervision of all technical operations: production, deliver and service of food,
sanitation, safety and security
• Financial planning and control.
• They need to sense the pulse of the market to estimate demand for foods.
• Plan spaces, menus, cooking methods, and presentation and so on relating to food
production and service.
• Cater to so many different demands of well customers.
• Ensure profitability for the organization.
• Keep staff happy so that they can keep customers satisfied.
• Train and retrain staff, motivate them to stay.
• Select staff carefully with retention in mind.
• Work hard and be a leader.
You would have realized by now, that effective administrative leadership is a professional
responsibility. Some of the key characteristics of successful and responsible leaders are
given herewith:
• Sense of responsibility
• Technical and professional competence
• Enthusiasm
• Communication skills
• High ethical standards
• Flexibility
• Vision
A few specific suggestions have been made for improving professionalism of
administrative dietitian or food service manager. Let us have a look at them:
• Increase confidence in use of management skills such as communication, planning,
evaluation of services.
• Memorize facts important to the fiscal accountability of the operation.
• Select some interesting and challenging continuing education activities.
• Establish a daily study period.
288
• If speaking up for yourself and your department is difficult or very comfortable, Personnel Management:
take an assertiveness training course. Leadership

• Keep a daily log of starting time and nature of the tasks. Periodically, review
activities and estimate relative amount of time spent on each can be spent on
difficult or demanding tasks.
• Set specific professional objectives for a particular time frame. Establish work
plan to achieve them.
• Keep a log of trails, successes, problems and insights as goal are achieved, set
new ones.
• Publicize your successes.
• Organize seminars and workshops for groups within and beyond your
institution.
All managers need to be leaders by example, so that others follow willingly in the
right direction, to achieve organizational, as well as, personal goals. Irrespective of
which type of organization, unit or department one is leading the crux lies in the
leadership qualities one has or acquires over time to ensure the success of the
enterprise and its members, making them proud of being where they are and being
happy to be led.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) a) List the four styles of leadership used in a food service establishment.
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
b) Comment on how and in which situation managers can use them to
advantage.
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
2) Fill in the blanks:
i) Leadership styles adapt to different ……………. to form a
………………. of manager and non-manager behaviour.
ii) The styles that managers ………. Indicate their ……… for people.
iii) The earnestness, ………… and intensity with which work is performed
is called ……… .
iv) Confidence reflects ……………. and technical ………….. .
3) a) Define communication. What are the methods used to communicate with
staff in a food service establishment.
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

289
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management b) List five barriers to smooth communication. Give an example for each
to explain why you think they are barriers.
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
4) a) If you were a patient in a hospital what would you expect from your
dietitian in terms of her responsibilities?
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
b) Would you like to be a leader among your group of friends? If so, what
skills would you like to possess so that they look up to you for advice
and guidance in their working lives.
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

13.5 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we learnt what is leadership, what makes a leader and why he is different
from a manager, even though a manager like every leader also leads his group of
workers or associates. We have also learnt what special qualities a leader possesses.
We further got to know about a number of approaches to leadership that have been
suggested from time to time. We saw, that the qualities of a leader can thus be summed
up as selflessness, courage, determination to achieve, ability to deal with people and
situations deftly and make an impact through setting an example. Next, we saw that
managers have used four different styles of leadership. Whatever be the qualities of
particular leaders their effectiveness at work depends on one key factor, that is
communication. Without proper communication nothing can be achieved. The functions
of dietitians and food service managers have been briefly touched upon in this unit,
along with their responsibilities towards patients and customers, whose satisfaction
reflects success or effectiveness of managers, staff and the organization.

13.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) a) Katz and Kahn defined leadership as the influential increment over and above
mechanical compliance with the routine directives of the organization.
b) For the student to create.
2) The three components of leadership include: Ability to comprehend, Ability to
inspire and Ability to Act.
3) i) traditional, paternalistic
ii) Four, intelligence
iii) subordinates, personal
iv) situations, situational

290
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Personnel Management:
Leadership
1) Fiedler — contingency approach
Yeung — training of leaders
De Woot — qualities of leaders
2) i) Charisma ii) Act iii) Values iv) Pull/command
3) Leader perform seven tasks namely well-being; vision; mission; shaping the
future; identifying core competencies; care of core products and services and
establishing organizational image.
4) Qualities of a good leader include: Drive; thirst for challenge/adventure; sense of
reality; ambition; imagination; restive temperament; interest in people and respect
for them.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) a) The four styles of leadership used in food service establishment are autocratic;
participative; democratic, lasses faire.
b) Answer based on your own understanding of the topic.
2) i) situations, continuum
ii) adopt, concern
iii) ardour, zeal
iv) experience, ability
3) a) Communication is defined as the transmittal of information from one
individual to another. The methods used to communicate with staff in a
food service establishment may include verbal, written, audio-visual and
interactive .
b) The five barriers to communication include: Physical, Physiological,
Psychological and Environmental.
For examples look at Figure 13.1 and write on your own.
4) a) Refer to sub-section 13.4.3 and answer on your own.
b) Refer to sub-section 13.4.3 and answer on your own.

291
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management UNIT 14 PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT: STAFF
PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Staff Planning and Management
14.2.1 Approaches to Staff Management
14.2.2 Issues in Planning and Management
14.2.3 Steps in Planning
14.2.4 Staff Scheduling
14.3 Employment Process
14.3.1 Determining Staff Requirements
14.3.2 Establishing Policies for Recruitment
14.3.3 Outlining Procedures
14.4 Staff Recruitment and Selection
14.4.1 Recruitment
14.4.2 Selection
14.5 Staff Placement
14.5.1 Documenting Contract
14.5.2 Induction
14.6 Staff Training
14.6.1 Need for Training
14.6.2 Areas of Training
14.6.3 Training Process
14.6.4 Evaluation and Appraisal
14.7 Laws Governing Staff Planning and Management
14.7.1 Employee Laws
14.7.2 Trade Union Contracts and Negotiations
14.8 Let Us Sum Up
14.9 Glossary
14.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

14.1 INTRODUCTION
If you look at any establishment as a spectator, you will see many types of people
doing different things. How does a hotel or restaurant for instance, seem to run
smoothly in spite of a large number of people with different educational backgrounds,
skills, work behaviours and attitudes, seemingly perform tasks in harmony? In Unit
13 we learnt about leadership and about the leaders, what qualities they possess and
how they influence the success or failure of an establishment. We learnt that leadership
deals with working with people to get them willingly to produce the results leader
wants or needs to accomplish. In a food service organization, the food service
managers and dietitians are the administrative leaders who assume the management of
the organization.

Now in the present unit we focus on the area of planning and managing staff in an
organization. We will learn how staff requirements are determined and how people
perform different jobs smoothly. Further the need for training, procedures and laws
specific to the welfare of the workers will be discussed.

292
Objectives Personnel Management:
Staff Planning and
After studying this unit, you will be able to: Management
• describe the need for staff planning,
• list the steps involved in staff planning,
• explain how people perform different jobs smoothly,
• highlight when, why and how staff requirements are determined,
• describe recruitment, selection and placement procedures,
• discuss the need for training, procedures and processes,
• enumerate the laws important for staff at work,
• elabourate on how the laws operate in practice, and
• define what are trade unions and how they function in the interest of staff.

14.2 STAFF PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

Let us begin our discussion with an understanding of staff planning and management.

Till the 20th century, managers used to give orders to staff or employees and expected
them to be carried out. The only focus of planning was setting goals for achieving
profits. Today, catering has acquired the status of an industry consisting of food
services of different types and sizes requiring special skills, as you may recall studying
in Unit 11 and Unit 12 earlier in this course, and any activity if not performed well,
can result in losses and even closure of establishments.

Managers have therefore begun to realize that the people who carry out the jobs are
more important, because it is they who can make or break the organization. This
realization has shifted management focus on staff planning rather than profit planning
alone. Thus, more resources are spent on staff at all levels rather than on accounting
processes, because managers know that if their employees perform, the profits will
follow. The changes in the outlook of managers have resulted in a clear shift from
the usual autocratic approach to staff towards bureaucratic, democratic, and
participative to scientific and technologic approaches to staff management. We will
learn about these approaches in a little while from now. But first let us see what issues
arise as the thinking of managers shifted from processes, product lines and profits, to
people at work (staff) and those in the environment (customers). The central issue
faced by managers related to the new thinking about staff, was a mental change from
the ‘they and us’ (employer and employee) to an ‘us and we’ approach. This meant
thinking of the organization as a single interdisciplinary unit and all the staff performing
as a team, irrespective of the nature of job performed or the position in the hierarchical
structure of the organization.

Now let us get to know the approaches in staff management.

14.2.1 Approaches to Staff Management

The approaches adopted by superiors or managers affect relationships between people
at work, thereby creating harmony or lack of it in an establishment. A number of
approaches have been used singly or in combination by managers in different situations
and establishments to steer staff towards organizational goals, depending on their size
and management structure. These are listed and briefly outlined herewith in the context
of food service institutions.

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Entrepreneurship and Food • Autocratic
Service Management
• Bureaucratic
• Democratic
• Participative
• Scientific
• Technological
Let us discuss each of these now. We shall begin with autocratic first.
• Autocratic
The autocratic approach was based on McGregor’s ‘X’ theory which assumed that
people basically dislike work and responsibility and will avoid it if they can.
Therefore managers pressurized and coerced staff to achieve goals, and communication
was largely downwards in the form of orders which the staff, called workers, were
forced to or expected to carry out. In this they and us approach, employees work long
hours and the focus is purely on productivity or profits in which staff is the means
of achievement but has no say in the management of their work. This approach is
seen even today in small self or family owned establishments like dhabas, which
employ cheap untrained or job hunting workers who follow orders willingly.

If a manager is autocratic in approach and orders or stands over-seeing people’s work

all the time she/he is not likely to get the best from staff even if they are good in
their work. This is because the communication channels are only downwards and all
decisions are made by the managers only without the involvement of the staff. This
situation de-motivates them and their performance drops.
• Bureaucratic
McGregor also offered theory ‘Y’ which stated that work is as natural as play or
rest and people are not inherently lazy. They become lazy if they are not committed,
but given the right work environment, they can be creative and imaginative at work.
This approach encouraged managers to work with the people and discuss problems
and solutions with them, before giving orders that passed along the different levels of
the organization. Example of this approach is in a hotel or restaurant.
• Democratic
In the 1980’s William Quchi proposed an integrated model through prescriptions for
the behaviour of managers that needed to be woven into the work environment. This
was called Theory ‘Z’, and believed to foster close, cooperative and trusting relationships
between managers and members of work groups whose ideas were appreciated and
often used in decision making. A good example is the college hostel in which students
form part of mess committees to offer suggestions for menus, stocks, timings of
service and so on, and the staff carry out the work to the satisfaction of both
management and students.
• Participative
In this approach, managers encourage staff at all levels to participate in decision
making for the establishment. This is achieved through regular face to face contact
in meetings held at regular intervals every week or month. This encourages staff to
voice their opinions about what they feel at their jobs and contribute ideas through
brainstorming sessions to help solutions to problems raised by anyone at the meeting.
This also encourages people to do some serious thinking about the work environment,
job content or grievances, and jot down points to be sorted out at the meeting. The
process also encourages a certain degree of introspection and preparedness for
discussion saving a lot of time and energy of all concerned without undue absence
from work.
294
Participation of staff in the planning and problem solving processes encourages their Personnel Management:
involvement in management while also increasing their motivation, creating harmony, Staff Planning and
Management
team spirit and cooperation at work, both outside and within their own working groups.
If such approaches are adopted, there is less likelihood of staff uniting and going on
strike, affecting smooth operation of services.
• Scientific
This approach introduced by Fredrick Taylor, streamlined work into inter-connected,
interdependent units in which the focus was on higher productivity and team work.
Using this approach work, methods and resource use could be optimized in smaller
units of larger organizations in a scientific manner with the output of one unit being
used by another unit till the final product emerged. The disadvantage was
however, that specialized units worked to achieve their own goals only but had little
or no idea of how their work fitted into the end product that produced the profits.
This was more so in a large organization which was spread out or far removed into
satellite units.

This approach was productivity focused and not staff focused and therefore staff
conflicts or frustrations went unnoticed till they flared up and affected output of staff.
These were then addressed only through laid down standard grievance procedures.
Conflict prevention was not addressed and team spirit though seen within units was
not visible within the organization. Athreya (2002) has stressed the vital link between
productivity and teamwork, the role play by each person being the most crucial and
relatively critical missing link on which success or failure of organizations depends.
This is extremely relevant to food service institutions, which are basically people
oriented and highly dependent on harmony between people at work and in their
environment.
• Technological
Since the industrial revolution, advances in technology have led to vast increases in
productivity, which was accelerated primarily due to intense competition in the world
market. Today, the focus is not so much on technology per se, as on promoting the
development of people who can boost innovation, entrepreneurship and creativity for
the survival of organizations in the competitive environment. Basically, newer technologies
have to be implemented through the staff irrespective of what organizational plans and
policies are. People need to be encouraged to unlock their latent productive talents and
utilize resources optimally to increase productivity, profits and their own incomes and
quality of life.

With this brief review of the various approaches to staff management, we shall next
focus on the issues in staff planning and management.

14.2.2 Issues in Planning and Management

Planning is a mental exercise, the results of which are written down for reference as
the activities proceed. It is a continuous process taking place at all levels of management
leading to goal setting in a constantly changing job market.

Staff management gives an impression that people can be used to achieve goals
through the power of position in an organization. This is not totally true. Issues in
staff planning and management, need to be based on three basic objectives namely
– effective human resource utilization, healthy working relationships and staff
development. Good managers do not use their status only, but focus on the issues
involved in optimizing output without resorting to manipulation of people or causing
hurt or insult. The important issues in staff planning are:

295
Entrepreneurship and Food • Management approaches
Service Management
• Job requirements
• Staff talents
• Relationships
• Staff development
Let us deal with each of these next.
A) Management Approaches
Several approaches have been used by managers in different situations to control staff
and direct their performance towards establishment goals. We have already learnt
about these approaches in sub-section 14.2.1 earlier, and we notice that these have
varied from autocratic, bureaucratic, democratic and participative approaches, each
reflecting the management philosophy of those in charge of group performance and
their particular management styles.

Can you relate each approach to the different management styles that you see around
you when you go out to eat, or are in the environment of your work or study? Well,
let us try and do this together. Study the approach and management style given for
different situations herewith.

Approach Management style Situation

Autocratic authoritative Master-subject as in a Dhaba
Bureaucratic authoritative by position Line of command as in hotel
Democratic consultative with staff In catering units
Participative staff involved in decision Kitchen staff and catering
- making managers for planning

What do you notice? Yes in the above examples, the autocratic and bureaucratic
manager creates an ‘I’ and ‘you’ situation which causes a psychological divide
between staff and managers. The staff begins to view managers as ‘they’ and ‘us’
leading to situations of distance, fear and other emotions producing conflict at work.
The democratic approach is more people friendly, although the decisions made are
primarily those of the managers, even though the concerned staffs are consulted. This
approach bridges the gap between managers and staff, who then feel free to approach
them for guidance, thereby tensions are reduced and the environment made more
congenial for work. The participative approach actually considers the viewpoint of
staff in any unit before a decision is arrived at. This, therefore, motivates them to work
better in harmony.

A good example is that of installing new equipment in a restaurant kitchen. If the staff
are consulted and convinced about the need of the machine in question, they will use
it optimally. On the other hand, if it is installed without their knowledge and the staff
asked to use it, they will interpret it as interference in their routine work, for a number
of reasons varying from ignorance of its utility, to feeling insecure about their jobs.

Ask your mother how often she has asked the cook to use a peeler for peeling fruits
and vegetables and still finds the cook won’t, because he is comfortable with the knife,
even though the advantages of the peeler have been explained to him in terms of safety
and sanitary value of the food cooked.

What is needed is to practice the right mix of the different approaches in different areas
of work in the fast changing situations, in order to achieve goals.

We have just learnt the merits and demerits of the various management approaches.
If you were to start your own restaurant, what approach would you adopt for
296 interacting with your staff and why?
Next, let us review the second issue i.e. job requirement. Personnel Management:
Staff Planning and
B) Job Requirements Management

Before any planning for staff can be done, it is important to know precisely what
every job requires in terms of the activities that need to be performed by people.
Therefore, if the work to be done for each job is listed and detailed clearly for staff
to follow, the job gets done better and in less time. A well defined job provides greater
certainty of what is expected from staff in terms of performance, and when actual
results match those expected the morale, efficiency and staff satisfaction rises.
However, a job should not be too narrowly defined as it leaves no space for staff to
show their own creativity. On the other hand, too vague a description of the job
makes it difficult to understand and handle leading to wastage of time, energy and
resulting in frustration and loss of control by the staff. A sample job description is
presented in Figure 14.1, based on the activities required to be performed by a head
chef.
Job Requirement/Description of a Head Chef in a Restaurant Kitchen
— Planning menus with catering supervisor
— Requisitioning ingredients from stores
— Checking deliveries with requisition slips
— Checking quality of food received from stores
— Allotting work to team members in the kitchen
— Guiding staff in preparation and cooking techniques
— Preparing main dishes
— Finishing dishes on menu
— Tasting for quality
— Dishing out, holding food at right temperatures till required for service
— Getting next day’s menus checked, ingredients requests made to stores for issue
— Getting pre-preparations done like peeling, cutting, readying dishes to bake as
required and refrigerating till required
— Getting kitchen cleaned and sanitized for use next day
— Locking up or handing over work to next person on duty.

Figure 14.1: A sample job description

Job requirements also provide a tool for supervisory staff to judge performance of
operative and other staff objectively, thus maintaining good relations at work. In
addition, job descriptions for each staff position clarifies the roles and responsibilities
of those at work, as well as, assists managers to work out the staff requirements more
accurately, in terms of skills required for each job. This leads to placement of the right
people for the right jobs necessary for smooth work performance.

It is evident then that a number of staff with different capabilities and talents is
required to carry out the tasks in any set up. The next issue focuses on this aspect.
C) Staff Talents
Food institutions are providers of a very wide range of products and services, and
therefore require a number of staff with different capabilities and talents. It is also
imperative to be able to substitute one staff by another member who can carry out
the work efficiently in case of absence, transfer or emergency leave. It is, therefore,
important to know and record the talents of various people in the organization to be
able to do this, without affecting the quality of food or service provided to the
customer. 297
Entrepreneurship and Food Identifying talents required for efficient performance of a job also helps in staff
Service Management selection and the ability to place the right man at the right job. Further, with
changing needs of the environment, customers and technology, institutions need to
update the skills of the staff, and selecting them for training would depend on who
has the potential for physical, mental or social and group skills that require to be
upgraded.

Once the right kind of staff has been placed it is imperative that these staff members
work in a cordial manner within the set-up. In other words a cordial relationship among
different staff is an important issue in staff planning and management as highlighted
next.
D) Relationships
Harmony at work is extremely important especially in food service institutions where
heterogeneous groups work together in each unit. They not only speak different
languages depending on where they come from but have different educational and
social backgrounds. An effort to encourage pleasantness and harmony is therefore
paramount to any successful operation. Some very simple measures can help in
creating conditions where people look forward to their workplace. Some of these are
comfort, love, justice, praise for good work, benefits they can’t afford at home,
companionship, social order and friends. In short, a workplace that provides vibrations,
self development and trust is crucial for its success.

Finally, let us review the last issues dealing with staff development.
E) Staff Development
Development of individuals brings about a gain in knowledge and the motivation to
practice it at work in their area of activity. Development is a slow process and generally
requires advice to make it progressive. But, once started it becomes a continuous
process. The principles involved in the process of development are:
a) Need
b) Small groups
c) Learning
d) Leadership
e) Choice
f) Participation
Let us understand these principles next.
a) Need: First and foremost, the need to develop staff at a particular location must
be felt not only by management but by the staff themselves. This can be assessed
by the manner in which they operate, in terms of the routineness of their jobs,
leaving them idle and bored, disinterested or not performing optimally, indicating
that there is scope for improvement.
b) Small groups: In order to develop staff, they need to be brought together in small
cohesive groups involving people with similar levels of education, language skills
and a willingness to improve their life in ways other than performing routine jobs.
For this, leaders who can identify areas where improvement is needed in the
organization is crucial and they need to form part of the group . Conflicts are
bound to occur within groups but can be resolved by a shared appreciation of the
situation and a conviction by the majority that changes are needed.
c) Learning: Managers are generally inclined to believe that experience is the only
contributor to any successful operation. This is because a lot of capital costs are
incurred especially in kitchens, service areas and food storages depriving staff
from being released from their jobs for training and development. Today, however,
298 training and development of staff in every area and at every level of the
 organization, has become the only way to improve utilization of fast dwindling Personnel Management:
resources. Staff Planning and
Management
A number of skills are learnt in the process of training and development such as
communication methods, group behaviour, craft skills and so on leading to the
development of confidence and motivation to practice what is learnt. This brings
about improvements at work when people return to their job positions.
Training and development thus, go hand in hand both being important for the
survival of the organization, because through it, the cost of people’s mistakes can
be reduced, training being the means of development.
With training and development, staff can provide more effective job performance,
become more reliable and loyal to the organization while becoming more
conscientious at work. Although sending staff for training and development is
costly for the establishment, the investment is worth the long term benefits it
receives through more committed employees who also promise continuity. It also
helps to increase cohesion, and reduce conflict at work increasing harmony and
preventing losses through regular job migrations.
d) Leadership: Staff development creates fresh ideas, prepares staff for internal
promotions and helps to develop leadership qualities in some members of the
group who can then steer the others to achieve at higher levels of productivity.
The process helps to identify leaders among groups who can then generate fresh
ideas.
The leader of any group can help to build up its members into a well knit team
sharing visions, goals and strategies. Team behaviour can be encouraged through
good leadership that recognizes and rewards good work and discourages the team
from breaking behaviours using disincentives.
Leadership skills can be developed by schemes or well designed programmes for
imparting knowledge, developing correct attitudes and skills and following disciplined
work habits. These have been detailed in Unit 13 on leadership earlier.
The necessary competencies learnt or acquired can then be adopted or adapted
for application to actual work situations at different levels of the establishment.
Good leaders produce progressively better team performance and the competition
between different teams in the organizations keeps them improving to stay in the
reward zone.
Team work has always been the strength of the family, community and society
in India and, therefore, comes naturally to people in any work environment.
Organizations therefore need to harness, develop and maintain this inherent unity
in their work group culture to maximize gains that also reflect individual contributions
that people make towards team goals.
e) Choice: Staff can only be trained or developed by choice and not when forced
by their superiors. There may be many in a work group, who would want to
develop further in their careers and others who are quite happy and satisfied with
their routine jobs. Staff will only benefit from development and training courses
or programmes, if they want to.
f) Participation: When staff participation is by choice, participation in the process
is high. All training programmes which are well planned according to predetermined
needs, will as a consequence bring about an inner change, called development, in
the participants. This cannot be evaluated by any objective methods or
instrumentation, except through a noticeable level of self confidence and a change
in personality resulting in positive thinking. These changes in outlook, broaden
vision along with skill training on or off the job, and produce dramatic results in
organizations. A right balance between attitudes, skills, knowledge and habits for
any job therefore, needs to be encouraged.
299
Entrepreneurship and Food In today’s constantly changing environment, trained staff is constantly in demand
Service Management and, therefore, staff is easily picked up by competitors. Hiring staff is thus, a
challenge for every establishment especially with unemployment on the increase
and fake certificate rackets abounding too. In the present competitive
labour market with hiring costs increasing, it is much better for establishments to
collabourate with training and development institutions to build and develop
existing staff and equip them with the right tools and environment to perform
better.

The turn of the century has seen changes in staff management concepts with a
shift of focus from salaries and monetary benefits to providing opportunities for
learning and development to retain staff. Today, the forces that attract staff are
individual development and extraordinary achievements through a mutually
supportive environment created by friendly teammates. Work is now expected to
satisfy the needs of power, achievement and social affiliation, and people expect
life satisfaction from their jobs and not financial incentives alone.

Strategies for staff management therefore, would need to provide a clear vision,
harmonious work environment with good industrial and public relations in addition
to organizational capabilities, specificity in job designing and reduction of
hierarchical structures in organizations. Individuals want to expand as much as
organizations do and opportunities need to be provided if staff with commitment,
vision and ambition is to be maintained and retained. Organizations of the future
will need to develop images with which managers and other staff would like to
affiliate.

In our discussion so far we have reviewed how management approaches, job

requirements, staff talents, relationships and staff development are important issues in
staff planning and management. Next, we shall learn about the steps involved in staff
planning.

14.2.3 Steps in Planning

You have already learnt about some important issues involved in staff planning. While
planning staff requirements, it is essential to consider the goals of the establishments,
its size in terms of number of departments and the jobs required to be performed to
reach the goals.

Let us now see what steps are followed in the process of equipping the organization
with the most suitable people who can ensure success. All planning involves three main
steps. These include:
1) Gathering information
2) Developing staff structure
3) Setting goals and targets
Let us understand these steps now.
Gathering information
All kinds of information is needed for chalking out broad policies regarding staff needs
with respect to building standards, finances, services to offer, laws affecting staff
employment such as Minimum Wages Act, compensation and leave rules etc., as well
as, customer expectations.

Developing staff structures

Staff structures need to be drawn with respect to space arrangements and activity
details based on the requirements of each job and the time for which the establishment
is expected to be kept open. In the case of night clubs the staff duty timings will differ
300
from those of hospital catering staff, or a restaurant. Certain jobs too require staff on Personnel Management:
call, as when there is a sudden rush of customers and more waiters need to be Staff Planning and
Management
deployed to meet the situation. It is for this reason that in food services there is a
need for a mix of staff ranging from permanent to temporary, daily wage and adhoc
too, to enable managers to adjust to changing staff requirements.

Setting goals and targets

Goals and targets need to be set to be achieved in a predetermined time frame. The
goals must be related to a fairly accurate forecast of future events since they cannot
be based on absolute certainty. It is important to look at existing staff composition and
estimate the requirements of each department according to the skills required to meet
future needs for expansion or change. In food services it is useful to look at multiple
skills in staff so that they can easily be rotated in various jobs as required. In short,
goals set for each department and the areas of work therein must fit into the broader
establishment goals.

Once staff planning is done it is time for scheduling the staff to various departments
or activities. The concept of staff scheduling is explained next.

14.2.4 Staff Scheduling

Staff scheduling involves the charting out of the work and time of each staff member
of a department so that every one concerned knows when and where a person will
be and the job that he is performing. In other words this represents an outline of the
work to be done by an employee and also referred to as work schedule. Refer to
Figure 14.2(a) which illustrates a sample work schedule for a self-service canteen. In
some small establishments, a work schedule may be called a time and activity plan.
For proper scheduling, it is important to analyze the tasks to be performed on any
day. In catering, the production day can be divided into low and high production
periods, an understanding of which is essential for staff scheduling. Staff and work
schedules can be prepared for a meal, event or whole day’s activities.

Now let us try and make a staff time schedule for a hospital kitchen, a sample of which
is placed in Figure 14.2(b).

Figure 14.2(b): Staff time schedule for a hospital kitchen

301
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management

302
As a rule, tasks requiring minimum effort, time and attention should be scheduled for Personnel Management:
performance during periods of low production, as these normally follow periods of Staff Planning and
Management
peak hour production and service. Such scheduling provides relaxation, as well as, a
sense of achievement, and motivates staff to cope with the pressures of peak hour
production and service.

The best time to schedule complicated tasks is early in the morning when the staff
is fresh at work, and alert. Further, people who have worked more than eight hours
or have been on night duty and continue in the morning should be allotted simple jobs
which do not require a lot of care and attention.

Furthermore, jobs which are considered disagreeable to some people should be scheduled
during peak hours, when their attention is not focused on them and they get done in
their stride.

If all jobs are considered in the light of their physical, psychological, social and
environmental effects on the staff, work has a number of advantages. These can be
listed as:
• More work can be done in a day
• It results in a sense of achievement
• Resources are better utilized making work more productive
• A busy schedule leaves little idle time, gives greater satisfaction
• Raises staff morale
• Involvement is greater and staff perform to their best potential
Do you agree with the above advantages?

Sit down and think about the amount of work you get done just when the schedule
for exams is announced, and see how many of the above statements apply to you.
Think of other examples which excite you and how you react with speed and achieve.
There is no time to say I’m bored.

Before we proceed on to our next section let us take a break here and review what
we have learnt so far.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) a) Name the six approaches to staff management.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
b) Which approaches would you use if you were the manager of a food
service establishment. Explain why?
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
2) Match the names in column ‘A’ with those in column ‘B’ to correspond with
each author.
A B
a) McGregor i) Theory Z
b) Taylor ii) Theory X
c) Quchi iii) Scientific approach
303
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 3) Fill in the blanks:
a) Athreya has stressed the ................................................ link between
productivity and .............................. .
b) ..................... is a mental exercise the results of which are ...................
down for reference.
c) The steps followed in planning are gathering ............................, developing
a ................... structure and setting ............ and targets.
d) In small establishments, a staff schedule may be called a ………………..
and ……… plan.
e) An inner change as a consequence of training programmes of referred to
as ………..
4) What are the issues in planning and development? Briefly discuss any one
of them.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
5) List the six principles involved in the process of staff management.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

In our discussion so far we have reviewed the staff planning and management
approaches, issues and the process involved. Once the planning step is over, the
management begins the process of employment and recruitment. This important aspect
is reviewed next.

14.3 EMPLOYMENT PROCESS

The employment process begins when there is a need for fresh or new staff in any
department of the organization. The reasons for this can be one of the many such
as, vacancies created by retirement, long leave, transfer, promotion or leaving for
better job prospects elsewhere. Sometimes, a need may arise because of expansion
of the organization or change in its goals. Long periods of absence due to sickness,
maternity, training and so on can create the need for short term appointments for
particular skills.

Every organization must therefore, have a well defined process of employment in

place, along with a procedure for determining staff requirements, an employment
policy and set procedures for inviting fresh people in an effort to get suitable staff to
match needs. Let us learn about these prerequisites in the employment process one
by one.

14.3.1 Determining Staff Requirements

To determine staff requirements in an establishment, managers of each department
need to write out their staff needs along with the job requirements required to be
fulfilled by a prospective employee. When all these requests reach the personnel
304 manager(s) he puts them together to assess the total needs of the establishment for
new employees. The salary structures of various job positions are then examined and Personnel Management:
the total salary expenditure determined, keeping in mind the employment policies and Staff Planning and
Management
wage structures operating at the time. The personnel manager then re-assesses the staff
needs through a number of meetings with unit heads, and tries to reduce expenses on
staff by categorizing them into five categories namely, permanent, temporary, under
training, daily wagers and adhoc according to department needs.

This is common in food service organizations which are characterized by peaks and
troughs of activity especially at operative levels. An example is the peak of activity
in the kitchen demanding all staff to be present at meal preparation and service time
after which there is a drop in activity till the next meal. To regulate the number of
staff therefore where customer numbers and demands are variable and often
unpredictable, permanent staff are trained and utilized for job rotation and incentives
such as overtime payments offered to staff when required, instead of increasing their
numbers.

Once the number and type of staff required are determined, policies for recruitment
are laid down. Let us get to know about these next.

14.3.2 Establishing Policies for Recruitment

Policies cover planning staff for the future of organizations in terms of the number
of employees and types of skills required to man that job positions and that may be
immediately required to be filled or projected in the future. There are a number of
factors that affect staff policies of an establishment such as:
• Plans to expand the existing services
• Future plans to install Labour Saving Devices
• Changes in service style
• Opening satellite units
• Introduce mobile catering services, pick up facilities and so on in existing operations
The impact of all the above on staff policies is briefly discussed with suitable examples.

Expanding services
Expanding services is accomplished in a number of ways, the aim being to increase
the customer base of the establishment. Some examples are:
i) A hotel which receives few customers between 10.30 and 12.00 in the morning
decides to offer services for kitty parties at that time offering special discounts.
Groups who would rather not hold them at home will use the facility, thereby
increasing clients and revenue for the hotel, which effectively utilizes the idle time
of staff.
ii) Another establishment may offer conference facilities to organizations which then,
also provide orders for beverage and food services to their participants and
delegates ensuring an increase in customers.
iii) A hostel can set up canteen services on the premises located so as to open it to
day scholars and visitors during college hours to utilize staff and resources for
greater productivity and revenue. This also provides choice to students to eat what
they like and pay for it accordingly, instead of having to eat only what the hostel
kitchen provides day after day.
Many examples can be cited. Can you think of any and share them with your friends
and family or pass them on to those who wish to use your ideas for expansion of
their organizations.

305
Entrepreneurship and Food Installing Labour Saving Devices (LSD’s)
Service Management
An establishment may plan to change its production methods by installing LSD’s.
Policies to introduce such devises may be taken to:
• Increase production capacity
• Make production more hygienic in the interest of food safety
• Provide a cleaner work environment
• Inculcate customer health concerns
Changing service styles
Changing existing styles of production and service in an establishment involves developing
operative staff by modifying their present skills. This may become necessary when:
— customer numbers fall,
— demand for menu changes arise,
— revenue enhancement is required, and
— spaces require redesigning.
You may have often seen food services closed down for redesigning to cope with all
these changes in policies that become necessary from time to time to enable
establishments to compete with newer ideas generated through customer feedback or
by others in the competitive market. Let us take up each of these changes separately.
• Customer numbers
Customer numbers tend to fall when there are better options in the market, menu
fatigue sets in, prices are too high and portion sizes of items or meals are not satisfying,
the surroundings are not clean and attractive and so on. If managers are sensitive they
will try to find out how many of his regular customers have dropped and why. Keeping
records of repeat customers helps to analyze their requirements. The findings then
need to be acted upon quickly enough to stay in business.
• Menu changes
Menus need to be revised from time to time in order to avoid menu fatigue. This can
be done by simply adding a new dish as the special of the day or the total menu
screened for those dishes that are not ordered regularly and therefore indicate a need
for exclusion and replacement. It is also possible that the menu offers too many
choices and the customer only reads a few items from the top of the menu, or gets
confused with the menu card.
• Revenue enhancement
If the establishment is not making the desired profits methods to improve and enhance,
revenue needs to be devised. For this, a number of areas have to be looked at that
may have become barriers to profit making, since a number of factors can be involved.
Some areas of focus include:
— Scrutiny of menus to remove non profitable items and replace by customer
favourites.
— Looking at prices of items offered and adjusts them to suit customer purchasing
power.
— Observing behaviour of staff in different departments and identifying training
needs for customer orientation.
— Taking stock of resource use to identify areas where wastage occurs and taking
preventing action.

306
— Redesign spaces for better utilization. Personnel Management:
Staff Planning and
— Train staff to increase productivity and reduce over time and daily wage payments. Management

Once the above are acted upon, revenue enhancement is certain to occur and profitability
increase. Redesigning spaces to help managers in the activities listed is discussed below
area wise.
• Space redesigning
Since spaces cannot be expanded easily being the most expensive resource for any
establishment, they need to be redesigned for better resource use. Redesigning enables
organizations to cope with changes in policy that become necessary from time to time,
helping to compete with newer ideas generated by others in the market. Spaces need
to be redesigned periodically also to meet the changing needs of customers.

You may have seen many establishments trying to change from the restaurant
arrangements to fast food and beverage set ups. This has become necessary in the
light of the always in a hurry customer, the low spending high value customer.
Majority of people do not find time to sit down and enjoy eating leisurely.

Similarly, an establishment can change its breakfast waiter service to buffet breakfasts
where the customers can help themselves to what they like on a particular day. This
policy is beneficial to both organization and customer. The staff numbers can be
reduced appreciably, and customers can have breakfast when they like since the timing
of the buffet is not too restricted and people can help themselves any time from 8
am to 10.30 am, being flexible for those who wake up late.

Another establishment may create a separate counter for take away orders for customers
who are constantly on the run, or those who have come to work without breakfast
and wish to replenish their energies midmorning.

Do you know of any establishments that resorted to redesigning their food production
and service areas? What changes did you notice? Can you find out why they were
redesigned? Try and list the reasons and see how redesigning helped the establishments
to utilize their staff resources more efficiently than before.

Opening satellite units

Many traditional hotel services have opened smaller units in different places while
keeping the quality of their menus and services the same because of strict quality
control. One such organization is Nirulas, which started by opening self service units
in Delhi, but has expanded to quite a few other states in India. When close supervision
is not possible, linkage and communication networks play an important role. When the
control is done centrally the units are called satellite units. Can you name other
establishments in the food and service sector who have set up satellite units?

Introducing new services

New services can also be set up in the form of home delivery services, takeaway and
drive in services. These help to cut down on space and staff requirements of the
establishment, while satisfying the customer’s need for speed of service while maintaining
the quality of the food.

Thus we have seen that there are a number of factors that affect staff policies of an
establishment. Further, before the staff is recruited there are a number of procedures
that need to be considered. These are highlighted next.

14.3.3 Outlining Procedures

There are a number of procedures that need to be put in place before staff is hired.
These include: 307
Entrepreneurship and Food • Terms and conditions of employment
Service Management
• Administrative procedures
Let us see what these procedures are.
Terms and conditions
It is important to outline the terms and conditions of employment which would be
mutually acceptable to the organization (employer) and the prospective employee. This
is because it is necessary for both sides to sign a contract which presents the terms
and conditions of the employment.
The law requires every organization to outline the name of the parties involved in
signing the contract; date of start of employment; service conditions such as nature
of the employment – whether permanent, temporary or other; job title; pay structure;
mode and time of payment that is, weekly, monthly by cash or check and so on.
Contracts need not always be signed as in the case of daily or weekly wage agreements.
In this case, verbal agreements are made and are considered legally valid and
contractual. A sample contractual agreement indicating terms and conditions is placed
in Figure 14.3.
STAFF EMPLOYEMENT
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
Dear Sir,
With reference to your application and subsequent interview we have pleasure in offering you an
appointment as a catering management trainee on the following terms and conditions:
1) Appointment: This appointment will be effective from 1 Jan. 2019. You will be on training for
one year, followed by one year on probation before being confirmed. The training and probationary
periods may be curtailed or extended at the sole discretion of the management.
2) Duties and responsibilities: During the training you will be places in all the departments of the
catering establishment for both operative and managerial experience. At the end of each
placement, you will be expected to submit a report of your work which will be evaluated by
your supervisor to assess your abilites.
3) Remuneration: A consolidated salary of Rs. 6,000 per month will be paid while under training,
increased to Rs. 10,000 during the period of probation. On confirmation, a regular salary scale
will be followed suited to position. Coveyance and house rent allowance will also be paid as
per the rules of the establishment.
4) Employee Benefits: Provident fund, medical expenses, leave facilities, retirement benefits, etc.
would be provided as set out for other employees.
5) Termination of Service: During the period of training or probation, the appointment may be
terminated by either party, on a notice of one week or on payment in lieu thereof. This may
be done without giving any reason. After confirmation, services can be terminated only if one
month's notice for every completed year of service is given, subject to a maximum of three
months or payments in lieu thereof.
6) Verification: This appointment is based on the information supplied by you in the application
form and will become null and void if an error is discovered at any time.
Please sign and return the duplicate copy if the appointment offer is accepted by you on above terms
and conditions, so that this contract can be treated as concluded.
Your faithfully,
Manager
(Personnel)
Ref:
Dated:
Encl: As above
I fully understand the terms and conditions of my service and accepts the same without reservation.
Signature of employee

Figure 14.3: A formal staff employment contract

308
It can be noticed from Figure 14.3 that both the employer and employee sign the Personnel Management:
contract to confirm that the terms are mutually agreed upon. Staff Planning and
Management
Next, let us review the administrative procedures.

Administrative procedures
These cover maintenance of personnel or staff records, personal data of each employee
such as date of joining, age, date of retirement, promotions, awards and achievements,
relationships with others at work, manpower research, staff training and development,
nature of job and so on.

All the above procedures are important for the employment process since the
information about specific job positions will be required when vacancies arise, and
need to be filled.

Answer the questions given here in check your progress exercise 2 and assess your
understanding of the topic reviewed so far. Next, we move on to section 14.4.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) a) Name the five factors that affect staff policies of an establishment.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
b) Which areas will a manager focus on if he wants to enhance the revenue
of his department.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
2) Explain the following briefly:
i) labour saving devices: ……………………………………………........
..........................................................................................................
ii) satellite units: ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
3) What procedures are necessary before staff can be hired by any establishment?.
Describe them briefly.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

In this unit so far we have discussed the staff planning and management approach,
issues and process and also described the processes involved in the employment
process. Next, we shall find out how staff is recruited and selected.

14.4 STAFF RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION

Food service establishments being basically service oriented are totally dependent on
the skills and motivation levels of their staff, and their willingness to make the
establishment succeed. Staff need therefore, to be treated as the most important
resource if they have to become an asset for the organization.
309
Entrepreneurship and Food No amount of mechanization can give that personal touch to food which the production
Service Management staff can do, or give the smile and courtesy so necessary to lure customers to the
establishment.

The unique feature of catering staff is that they are all at different levels of literacy,
and possess little to highly specialized skills according to the needs of various job
positions. Getting the most out of people at work, making their individual tasks and
goals fit well into the larger goals of the establishment, as well as, fulfilling the varying
needs of customers, is a difficult and challenging job for every manager. This is
because people as a resource cannot be equated with material resources which can
be manipulated or changed at will. People behave and react to situations and pressures
in different often unpredictable ways.

Employing staff therefore, requires expertise, skills and complex procedures all of
which are time consuming and costly. It is therefore good policy to develop existing
staff and retain them as far as possible, although it becomes necessary to recruit and
select new hands as in the case of retirement, accidents, death, policy and environmental
changes and so on. The recruitment process is described next.

14.4.1 Recruitment
Managers usually believe that recruitment and selection are synonymous and the terms
have often been used interchangeably. While recruitment precedes selection, it is not
the same. Recruitment is the process of attracting qualified candidates for the
purpose of filling vacant job positions in an establishment.
Effective recruitment requires:
• A clear idea of job requirements.
• General information about the applicant’s age, qualifications, experience, skills,
objectives, interests, health status and background.
• Projection of a fairly realistic but favourable image of the establishment, in order
to attract the right people.
On the basis of the above, a suitable advertisement is prepared with the purpose of
inviting applications for the job. This is then placed in the print media for people to
respond to. A typical advertisement is placed at Figure 14.4.

The sample advertisement presented shows that the personnel or staff manager is clear
about the job requirements for the position to be filled and desires the age, qualifications
and other information of the applicants who would respond within the stipulated time
frame.

The advertisement also gives some impression of the establishment in a manner that
will attract applicants. It illustrates what is required and how an establishment projects
itself to invite people to apply. It will be noticed that all the above mentioned points
are covered in the advertisement in a manner that people with the right qualifications
will apply, and those that fit the job position from the point of view of the employer
will be screened and then interviewed or further tested.

Like advertisement there are other different sources of recruitment. These are listed
herewith.

Sources of recruitment
There are a number of sources of recruitment such as:
• Media
• Colleges and institutes
• Recommendations
310
• Employment exchanges Personnel Management:
Staff Planning and
• Professional associations Management
Let us have a look at each of these, next.

ABC GROUPS OF HOTELS

REQUIRES
KITCHEN STAFF FOOD & BEVERAGE STAFF
1. CHEF de PARTIE (CODE 01/HSP) 1. CHEF de RANGS (CODE 02/HSP)
Candidates with a Diploma in Hotel Management, Candidates should be Matriculate or Higher
with 2-3 years experience in a Luxury hotel/ Secondary with a Certificate in restaurant & Counter
Restaurant in a similar capacity; or higher Secondary Service or 3 year Diploma in Hotel Management
with a Certificate Course in Cooking and Banking from a recognized Craft Institute. Must speak English
with 6-8 years trade experience & at least 1-2 years fluently and have a pleasing personality.
in a similar capacity. All candidates must have Experience : 1-2 years in a similar capacity in a
command over the English language. leading hotel.
Age : Around 30 years. Age : Around 25-30 years.
2. COMMIS-I (CODE 02/HSP) 2. COMMIS de RANGS (CODE 03/HSP)
Candidates must be Matriculates or Higher Candidates must be Matriculate or Higher
Secondary and/or have passed a Craft Course in Secondary with a pleasing personality and good
Cooking and Banking from a Food Craft Institute, command of spoken English. Experience in a similar
with a command over English language. capacity is desirable.
Age : Below 35 years. Age : Around 20-25 years.
3. COMMIS-II (CODE 03/HSP) 3. TRAINEE ASSISTANT COMMIS DE RANGS
Candidate must be Matriculate having experience (CODE 07/HSP)
of 3-4 years with at least 1-2 years in a first class Candidates must be Matriculate or Higher
hotel/restaurant. Secondary with a pleasing personality and good
Age : Below 35 years. command of spoken English with aptitude to work
4. COMMIS (CODE 04/HSP) in hotel industry.
Candidates who have completed their 4. ROOM SERVICE ORDER TAKERS (CODE 05/
apprenticeship training under the Apprenticeship Act/ HSP) FEMALE)
or having 3 years experience with at least 1 year Candidates should be Higher Secondary or Diploma
in a first class hotel/restaurant may apply. holders in Hotel Crafts with a good command of
Age : Around 25 years. English. Knowledge of a foreign language is
5. KITCHEN STEWARDS (CODE 06/HSP) desirable. Experience of work in a Luxury hotel in
Candidates should be a graduate with a minimum a similar capacity preferred.
2-3 years experience in the Kitchen Stewarding Age : Below 28 years.
department of a first class hotel. Diploma in Hotel 5. RESTAURANT HOSTESS (CODE 06/HSP)
Management from a recognised institute will be an Candidates should have presentable personality,
added qualification. Must speak English fluently and graduates/Diploma holders in Hotel Management
have a pleasing personality. with fluency in English. Knowledge of foreign
All posts carry attractive emoluments plus other language is desirable.
benefits as per Company’s rules. Please apply within Age : Below 26 years.
ten days with full particulars and a recent passport Relaxation in age & qualification may be considered
size photographs to : in exceptionally good candidates.
The Personnel Manager
ABC Group of Hotels,
New Delhi – 110057
All envelopes and applications must bear the code
Number of the post applied, with the name and post.
Figure 14.4: A sample advertisement issued by a food service
• Media
Besides placing advertisements in the print media as mentioned above, other media
that can be exploited are television, radio, billboards, notice boards, voice mails, SMS
messaging, handouts, postal, telephone and internet services.

Thus, there are a number of media options available today, therefore, some thought
is required to choose the most suitable one. Food institutions have generally chosen
the print media but this is done by large establishments like hotels, tourist resorts,
satellite services and so on. Budget is an important consideration in the choice of the
media to use.
• Colleges and Institutes
Catering colleges and professional management institutes can be contacted for meritorious
students looking for jobs, or a vacancy notice may be placed on their notice boards
for attention. Campus interviews are another very useful way of judging potential, need
ability and so on. 311
Entrepreneurship and Food • Recommendations
Service Management
Existing staff of the establishment may be asked to recommend people they know in
their trade, who can then be interviewed and tested for required skills. Friends and
other catering establishments may be contacted for recommendations from their list
of interviewed candidates, whom they found good but could not employ.
• Employment exchanges
Employment exchanges or bureaus, maintain a list of unemployed members who may
be recommended according to the job skills required.
• Professional associations
These bodies such as the catering and restaurant associations, management associations,
hotel and catering consultants etc. maintain a list of their members along with their
CV’s. These associations may be contacted for recommendations, or an advertisement
placed in professional journals especially for senior management positions.

Today, the methods being used to advantage are campus interviews, recommendations,
telephone and internet particularly be medium sized and small establishments.

From the sources of recruitment we move on to the recruitment procedure as such.

Recruitment procedure
All recruitment procedures require that candidates send their applications for the vacant
position by a specified date. Some establishments provide a designed form to be
completed by applicants, others may specify that the applicants submit their bio-data
or CV for consideration and apply in their own handwriting.

Application forms are expected to help the organization to obtain data regarding age,
qualifications, experience, and health status and so on of the applicants.

Once the application date is over, the forms are collated and presented in a manner
that will help to screen the applicants who appear to fit the job requirements. The rest
are filed for further use, as and when required. The process of making the lists in order
of priority is known as recruitment, and those on that list are called recruits, to be
considered for further selection.

Let us review the selection process next.

14.4.2 Selection
Selection is a process of identifying and picking up people whose probability of success
in the job is maximum, and who are likely to stay long enough with the organization
to add to its development.

Irrespective of the nature of the job, a very large number of applications are normally
received. The reasons for this are high levels of unemployment, people wanted to
improve their opportunities or perhaps a very vague advertisement for the vacant
position. Systematic procedures for selection are therefore essential. Let us get to know
about the selection process in this sub-section.

The Selection Process

The selection process is based on exchange of information between the organization
and the prospective candidate. The former provides a fairly realistic description of the
organization while the latter shows his capabilities as indicated in Figure 14.5.

312
 Personnel Management:
Information
Staff Planning and
Management

Organization Candidate

• Level of pay • Knowledge

• Opportunities for promotion • Skills
and development • Aptitudes
• Fringe benefits • Motivation
• Degree of job security • Experience and past
• Limitations of the job performances

Figure 14.5: Information exchanged between organization and candidate

While exchanging information, objectivity should be maintained and the image of the
organization should not be projected in an unduly favourable manner. This will raise
the expectations of the applicant and if selected will later result in low job satisfaction
and absenteeism due to frustration. Such a situation proves very costly to the
establishment. From the candidate only, information pertaining to the job requirement
should be requested.
The criteria for selection should be limited to:
• Social skills indicating ability to work with other people
• Outlook whether optimistic or not
• Health status specially important at operative levels
• Special interests to judge overall development and personality traits
• Self confidence, presence of mind and initiative
• Ethical values
Let us look at the selection process next. The steps involved are enumerated herewith.
Steps in Selection
There are seven steps in the selection process such as:
Step 1 Preparation of job requirements
Step 2 Screening applications
Step 3 Identifying skills through specific tests
Step 4 Evaluation of tests
Step 5 Holding interviews for personality and other traits such as confidence, poise
etc.
Step 6 Assessment by two referees
Step 7 Medical examination
The steps listed above you would agree are self explanatory. Completing all these steps
is very time consuming and expensive. Therefore, in food establishments, where
vacancies are most frequent at operative levels, short cut methods may be used such
as verbal references and decisions taken to employ staff on ad-hoc basis while testing
and evaluating the candidate on the job before confirming the appointment. Most
important is that the greatest turnover is at operational levels because jobs tend to
become routine with little or no promotional avenues for staff to look forward to. It
is, therefore, important to try and retain staff after selection, in the long run. How
can this be done? Let us find out.

313
Entrepreneurship and Food Staff Retention
Service Management
Staff retention is the ability of an organization to keep employees satisfied and happy,
so that they do not leave the organization.

It is as important to retain staff as it is to select the right people for a job. This is
especially so with food service institutions which are normally plagued with staff
absenteeism and turnover problems for various reasons. These result in higher ultimate
costs to the organization as a viscous circle of inefficiency leading to low profits gets
established, as represented in Figure 14.6.

Inefficiency
new environment

Ab
not happy Resentment

sen
tee
ism
No contracts es
nus
or commitment bo
No
Low Low
Temporary

morale morale
Lower
profits

ave
e
Le
le av
Untrained low ff
Sta
productivity Daily
no loyalty wagers
Vacancy Higher Costs
Other staff fill in
Overtime
daily wages
leave
Staff

Insecurity

Over-work Low
morale
Time lost

Low
morale
fatigue Sickness
absenteeism
Inefficiency
Pressure
Lower
profits

Figure 14.6: Effect of unplanned recruitment and selection

Source: Reprinted with permission from “Institutional Food Management”. Sethi, New Age International
Publishers, 2004.

Most leave, absenteeism at work and turnover results from boredom with routine
work, overwork, fatigue and frustration. Studies have established a relationship between
recruitment and staff turnover, as they rise and fall together. As turnover increases so
does recruitment and vice versa. Therefore, an effort to understand the needs of
recruits is essential. The needs have been listed as salary, training, interesting work,
happy environment, responsibility, job security, cohesive groups, convenient location,
additional benefits, promotion prospects, sociable working hours and travel
opportunities. Among these requirements, the expectations are highest for financial
benefits the rest decreasing in descending order. If managers are flexible and understand
314
the motivations of staff, they can retain them to develop loyal teams for a long time Personnel Management:
making institutions flourish. Staff Planning and
Management
Once the recruitment has taken place the next step is staff placement. This aspect is
described next.

14.5 STAFF PLACEMENT

Staff selection is followed by a process of placement in the department where the
vacancy needed to be filled. Placement requires the personnel manager of the organization
to prepare a suitable contract of employment which is agreeable to both the organization
and the candidate selected.

The different levels of activities involved in the staff placement are reviewed herewith.

14.5.1 Documenting Contract

For drawing up a document called the contract of employment, the manager must be
well versed with the laws enacted in the country which regulate and affect policies
and procedures for employment of staff. These will be discussed in section 14.7 as
they affect employment documentation. Contracts of employment are basically of
two types, oral or verbal and written contracts. These have been briefly outlined
below.

Oral contracts: An oral contract is a word of mouth or verbal offer of a job at a stated
salary along with permissible benefits to the employee and is based on mutual trust.
It is binding by law and just as valid as a written and signed contract. The contract
is deemed to have been accepted when an employee starts work. The terms of a verbal
contract cannot be changed unilaterally by the employer unless the employee accepts
those changes. In practice however all oral contracts should be followed by a written
statement confirming the terms offered and the date of start of the appointment. This
ensures that oral agreements are not misinterpreted and subject to recollection or
memory lapses.
Written contracts: A written contract details the terms under which an employee
agrees to be legally bound in the case of employment. It is signed by both, the
employer and prospective employee, to indicate the obligations they are both expected
to fulfill towards each other and the organization. Figure 14.3, given earlier indicates
a sample of a written contract of employment and the terms stated by the employing
organization.

As in the case of oral contracts, the written ones too, cannot be changed or amended
without the agreement of the employee, or without due notice from either party.

Now that we have a good idea about the contracts let us get to learn how to interpret
the contract.

Interpretation of Contracts
Contracts not only express the terms spelt out but also some implied terms as well,
which may be read into the contract by a court in case of a dispute. Some such terms
are those which:
• reflect established normal practice at work which are general, reasonable and
definite referred to as custom and practice.
• refer to the primary rights and duties with the employment relationship such as
mutual trust and confidence.
• are necessary for operating the contract, filling any gaps in the contract which
were apparently intended. 315
Entrepreneurship and Food If preferred, the employee may be informed that specific details about required
Service Management information on pensions, deductions, taxes, leave and so on are contained in a
reference manual with the employer.

Now then what are the advantages of writing an contract? Let us find out next.

Advantages of Contracts
While contracts have many advantages for employees, they also help employers in
many ways. For the employer they:
• provide flexibility in operation,
• ensure confidentiality and a right to protect the ideas and information of the
establishment,
• prohibit staff from leaving without notice,
• prevent leaving staff from taking away the best staff or customers with them, and
• provide the right to deduct money owing to the establishment from an employees
salary.
These advantages for employers help to set the right conditions for meeting the
challenges of the constantly changing business environment.
Once the employee has signed the contract and is part of the organization, he/she
needs to be inducted. Let us see how.

14.5.2 Induction
We have just learnt that the recruitment and selection process completes the formalities
of bringing a new employee into an establishment. Every newcomer needs to be
introduced to people with whom he will work and the environment in which (s)he is
expected to work and perform their best.
The process of introduction to the work and its environment is called induction. If
a new staff is allowed to find his own way even the best person for the job may get
frustrated and feel lost. Induction is also called orientation in some establishments.
Induction is thus, the guided adjustment of a new employee to the establishment, his
work environment and the job. It is the process by which employees are integrated
into the organization and its expectations. The process communicates to the employee
the basic philosophy of the organization, its policies, rules and procedures.
Let us next review the process of induction.

Methods of Induction
There are basically two methods adopted by establishments, formal and informal. The
formal methods are planned and structured through sessions conducted at a fixed time
and place. This usually is in large organizations and heads of departments concerned
give talks on the various functions of each department and thereby introduce the
organization. Formal slide presentation or CD’s, demonstrations and get together may
be organized to enable the new employee to interact with people and
groups socially. Different methods are thus used to provide an overview of the
establishment.

Informal approaches are used by smaller establishments and are often unstructured in
content. The employee is taken around the various departments and facilities of the
organization and informally introduced to staff at their places of work. Informal get
together are organized and the new employee can meet and identify his superiors, ask
questions, sort out any doubts and gradually learn about their jobs, all over an informal
cup of tea in the department or canteen.

316
Induction or orientations however, only provides basic information about the organization Personnel Management:
such as working conditions, rules and regulations, pay and benefits, and the general Staff Planning and
Management
structure of the establishment. Training in job performance and the responsibilities that
go with it are learnt from superiors and colleagues while on the job in the relevant
department. It is for the new employee to show his skill through his job in due course.

Remember, induction only marks the beginning of a process of socializing and

development of work attitudes through which the employee is indoctrinated to the
norms, values and procedures and culture of the organization. Training is crucial,
which is described next in section 14.6. Before we move on to staff training let us
try to answer the questions given in check your progress exercise 3 and recapitulate
what we have learnt regarding staff recruitment.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Fill in the blanks:
a) No amount of .................... can give the personal ................... to food.
b) The unique ............................. of catering staff is that they are at
different levels of ................................. .
c) Recruitment is the ............................ of attracting .........................
candidates for the purpose of filling ..................... job positions.
d) Contracts of employment are ………….. and …….............…..
e) Applicants on priority list for selection are referred to as………….
2) a) List the five sources of recruitment.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
b) Explain the difference between recruitment and selection.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
3) Explain the following very briefly:
i) Staff retention: ………………….......................……………..
ii) Steps in selection: ………………………………………………
iii) Verbal contract of employment: ………………………………….
4) Define induction. What are the two different methods of induction? Explain
any one of them.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Now let us get to know about staff training.

317
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 14.6 STAFF TRAINING
Food management staff is generally inclined to believe that experience alone is all that
is required to keep an organization progressing. This may have applied to operations
a few decades ago when tastes of customers were very traditional and eating away
from home was not the norm as it is today. Do you think that a food service can
survive in today’s competitive environment on experience alone? Let us list what these
forces are that are making new demands on food services and their staff. These forces
include:
• Fast changing environment
• Lifestyle changes
• Increasing demands of customers
• Inflation
• Shrinking labour markets
All the above factors have their influence on the success of organizations, and offer
newer challenges that can only be met by upgrading the skills of staff through training
in fields to which they have not been exposed before.

A brief discussion of the factors will indicate why staff training has become important
for every food service establishment. An understanding of these will help to identify
the newer skills needed to cope with the changes and design training programmes to
suit particular goals of establishments. So let us get to know them.
• Changing environment
Globalization has opened the opportunity for the service of specialty menus which our
chefs or cooks cannot cope with unless trained in the cooking of say, South Indian,
Chinese, Italian or Mexican and other foods demanded in a restaurant. Further,
competition has increased from specialty restaurants, which only serve the variety of
food of a particular region or country. Training needs in other areas besides craft skills
can also be identified as in the case of space, time energy management, resource
acquisition and use and so on.
• Lifestyle changes
People now demand a great variety of menus as families eat out more often than
before. The reasons for eating out are often for foods not generally prepared at home,
or entertaining guests who require greater choices. The latter has been necessitated by
shrinking size of homes, domestic staff and time and energy constraints to entertain
at home.
• Customer demand
The demands of customers range widely according to physical, physiological, social
and psychological needs that affect mood, purchasing power, eating alone or in
company and so on. They may demand any thing from a coffee, tea and snack to
a complete meal or event.
• Inflation
Inflation has increased costs and prices drastically for the food services and customers.
This has increased the demand for different types of services such as fast food
restaurants where establishments depend on arrangements that will increase their
revenue through faster customer turnover with less space and time investments. On
the other hand, the hurried customer demands home delivery or take-away services
from the establishments. In general, the customer’s focus has shifted on food quality
providing value for money rather than paying for leisurely eating or service in a
restaurant.
318
• Labour market Personnel Management:
Staff Planning and
As more and more people are without jobs, training has become important both to Management
job seekers, as well as, food institutions. The latter want to retain their staff by
developing their skills while the former want to equip themselves with skills to beat
the dwindling job market, by opening avenues for entrepreneurial activities in catering
sectors. An increase in the number of institutions offering food, nutrition and catering
education are proof of this fact and so is, the increase in entrepreneurial activity. In
every area of any state, one can find even housewives using their best talents to
provide services such as home cooked lunches, desserts for parties, bakery products,
home-made pickles, jams, preserves and so on.
We have reviewed the forces which are making new demands on food services and
their staff. Keeping these forces in mind the need for training and the types of training
required must be specified as elabourated in the next sub-section(s).

14.6.1 Need for Training

It is important for managers to establish the need for training before starting to chalk
out plans for conducting it. The first step is to establish a process by which the needs
of every department of the organization can be accurately determined in a manner that
will meet the short, medium and long term goals of the establishment. This can be
achieved through an appraisal for ear-marking areas of staff inefficiency or deficiency
in performance.
The second step would be to identify areas which require training and list them in order
of priority. This will lead to the type of training needed in each area.
The third step is to plan programmes for training and set time tables for their
achievement.
The needs for training thus, need to be identified in every area of an organization to
ensure that the organization progresses to meet the challenges offered by its dynamic
internal and external environment.
Next, let us review the areas of training.

14.6.2 Areas of Training

Let us try and identify some of the areas of training needed by staff at various levels
i.e. at operational, supervisory, managerial etc. in a food service establishment through
some examples.

At operative level
One commonly observes that once a head chef puts on his cap, he is viewed by the
kitchen staff as the knower of all things related to food preparation and presentation.
It is seldom realized that the chef can only put together the ingredients given to him
in the few ways learnt through his limited experience. Very often catering managers
too, depend so heavily on chefs to plan the menus, get them prepared and so on, that
they fail to sense the need for their further skill training and development.

Supervisory level
Those in-charge of kitchen or food service supervision, are often not aware of the need
to coordinate closely with catering managers, accounts and stores staff. Work at
operative levels proceeds routinely from one day to another unless customers voice
their grievances and sound an alert. In such cases also one often finds that the
supervisors or managers are not available on the spot to satisfy the customer. There
is therefore a need to train all staff in networking constantly, with related departments
to ensure quality food and service.

319
Entrepreneurship and Food For instance, a dish is not sold on a particular day to the extent expected. An analysis
Service Management of the quality of raw ingredients supplied, method of cooking used, the staff who
prepared it, the manner in which it was presented to the customer, behaviour of service
staff can all reveal areas of training. Some of these can be networking with suppliers,
ordering methods, assessing quality at receiving end, training service staff in service
and behavioural skills and so on.

Management level
The need for training and development of staff in food services is a matter of
management concepts and the vision they have for the future of the organization.
Managers have plenty to keep abreast with, such as new equipment on the market,
forms of goods available, types and prices of seasonal foods, tastes of customers,
inflation management accounting, newer techniques of assessment and appraisal, control
and much more.

Managers constantly need to identify needs in the light of the future progress of their
departments, in terms of equipping staff with those skills that will impact sales revenue,
through quality service. Customers too get menu and environment fatigue, and managers
need to help staff to introduce newer food preparation techniques, service methods,
space arrangements and so on to motivate both staff and customers. This would only
be possible if managers are trained in the use of technology to be able to analyze the
results of their efforts faster, to know the pulse of the customers in terms of changes
in tastes, eating habits, reasons for repeat visits by customers, be open to suggestions
and act fast enough to please their customers.

Such analyses will help to identify the needs for training in every department which
when listed can be structured to fit into existing courses at institutes of catering or
designed specifically for the staff.

Most importantly, managers also need to involve staff in their decisions to improve
infrastructure, menus, introduce technology and so on. Once they are involved in
identification of their needs and the decision process, their cooperation in implementation
of newer concepts and devices can be ensured.

Now that the need and the type of training has been spelled out, the next level in the
staff training activity is the training process itself. Let us get to know this
process next.

14.6.3 Training Process

The process of training involves steps taken to update knowledge and skills of staff,
and should be an ongoing one. The training should enable staff to keep abreast with
and be able to cope with changes in the internal and external environments of the
organization. Thus, training is a means of bringing about change in people and the
organization. Katz and Kahn (1975) pointed out eight ways of bringing this about, as
enumerated herewith:
• Providing information
• Counseling staff
• Managing stress
• Group influence
• Sensitivity training
• Group dynamics
• Feedback
• Structural change
Let us take up each of these and get to know them.
320
• Providing information Personnel Management:
Staff Planning and
This can be done through letters, pamphlets, magazines, journals or other media. This Management
method is only useful in updating staff, if they are motivated enough to be affected
by the new information. Without the motivation they are unlikely to bring any change
in their thinking or actions to benefit the organization.
• Counseling staff
This involves constant interaction to create in people the desire to change their attitudes
towards problems and together look at profitable solutions. The idea is to bring about
changes in behaviour and through them a change in the organization. Once attitudes
become favourable to change, they can be directed towards desired goals. Counseling
may be done on individual basis or in groups. An important aspect of counseling is
to assist employees in the art of managing problems or stress arising at work and
affecting their lives.
• Managing stress
Stress is a syndrome which seeps into people’s lives for various reasons affecting them
at the physical, physiological, mental and emotional levels irrespective of their literacy
levels, gender or economic status.

At work, stress may be due to heavy work load, inadequacy at the job, decreased
leisure, sickness and so on. Stress related to work in general is common, more so in
technologically advanced environments and among highly qualified professionals. This
unfortunately affects the work environment too, as is seen in the emergence of the
hurried man or woman of our times.

The possible techniques to use in stress management would be related to the cause
of the stress which needs first to be determined in individuals or groups. Some
examples are cited for guidance.
1) If the stress is due to overwork the actions that can help in relieving it are:
i) Redesign or redistribute the work to provide intervals of relaxation or rest.
ii) Readjust the way we look at work to increase our capacity to bear heavier
loads.
2) If a feeling of weakness is the cause the remedy would be:
i) Build up physical and emotional strength to cope
3) If the mind is not clear because of many thoughts then
i) Control thoughts to work methodically, doing one job at a time
ii) Eat while eating
iii) Work while at work
iv) Do not take work home or bring thoughts of home to work.
4) If worry or anxiety affects performance at work then:
i) Learn to relax, remove negative emotions from the mind
ii) Act but do not think too much
iii) Concentrate mind at work
iv) Erase anger, fear, jealousy and hatred
v) Smile as often as possible while working
vi) Share and help
vii) Build inner strength through self surrender by acting as an instrument, and
do not think about results
viii) Work with dedication.
321
Entrepreneurship and Food • Group influence
Service Management
Friends or group leaders exert a strong influence on the behaviour of an individual.
This is an effective way to reinforce ideas and harness group energy to introduce
change or inject positive attitudes at work.
• Sensitivity training
This method of training utilizes the fact that people are more sensitive to their own
strengths and weaknesses than to those of others. Training that can make people aware
of their strengths can help to bring about changes by offering an environment in which
the individual’s strength is challenged.
• Group dynamics
Group dynamics deals with training all the employees in a group who are then involved
in bringing about the change. They are made to participate in discussions say, when
new equipment is to be introduced in their area of work, or computerization is to be
introduced to speed up work and decrease wasteful time on record keeping and so
on. The group is then, given time to think and the final agreement or disagreement
comes from the group. If their doubts can be cleared by the trainer or management
then the staff is ready to implement the changes.
• Feedback
Getting feedback through surveys, questionnaires and opinionaires, helps to produce
a strong impact on staff for bringing about change. Such methods are often used to
assess the need for redesigning jobs. The findings of research and opinions of groups
in discussions with management through every level of the establishment, helps to
involve staff in the thinking and suggesting process. Since all groups are involved, any
decision arrived at is bound to have agreement of all staff and thereby their willing
participation in efforts to achieve new goals.
• Structural change
The structural approach is the basis for redesigning jobs. Singer (1977) has aptly
said:

Training is no longer viewed as a process of doing things to people but rather as

a structuring of situations in which the learning processes are optimized.

When the learning process lasts for more than a few days, we say that training is
taking place. While there is plenty of published material to help in training for all kinds
of jobs, the best training takes place in the work situation where relationships with
other people exercise their influences constantly at work. This is referred to as on-
the-job training, and has the advantage of the learning process becoming immediately
implemented at work, without losing any time of work. It also helps to create a
climate at work in which people learn, experience and gradually use their own
creativity to develop their skills, while seeing the results of applying their learning
almost immediately. Demonstrations at work can be an effective way of training staff
in new methods.

Having gone through the discussion above it must be evident that the process of
training involves steps taken to update knowledge and skills of staff, and should be
an ongoing one. Once the employee is on the job, appraisal and evaluation of work
performance is crucial. Let us get to know of this process next.

14.6.4 Evaluation and Appraisal

Evaluation is a process of determining how well people perform their jobs, by
ascertaining and comparing actual results with expected ones over a period of time.
It is a way of judging the productivity and efficiency of staff, and provides a measure
322 of how far set goals have been achieved.
If evaluation is done periodically by self or superiors and corrective actions taken the Personnel Management:
results will ensure success. But, when carried out at the end of a period of completed Staff Planning and
Management
activity it only has theoretical value, since correction of procedures, functions and
deviations from norms cannot be set right. It is therefore vital to remember that time
once lost cannot be regained, and therefore appraisals made in process are more
productive than after the production is over.

While appraisal is the process, evaluation indicates the result on which management
decisions regarding needs for training can be based. However, these terms have often
been interchangeably understood and used by managers because one cannot be used
without the other to obtain information for achieving or setting future goals.

Let us then understand the self appraisal and the evaluation in greater details.

Staff Appraisal
The performance of staff needs to be appraised from time to time in order to
determine how efficiently their potential is being tapped. Appraisal or monitoring brings
to light work that has been carelessly done, but also assists in identifying staff training
needs or the need for guidance that staff may require in the performance of a job.

Judgment regarding efficiency of staff can be made on the basis of recorded appraisal
information on proformas, checklists, analysis sheets, production, sales and profit
statements. Staff may also be appraised with the help of rating scales designed to judge
the following attributes of a person’s:
• knowledge and understanding of his work,
• quality of performance as being unsatisfactory or outstanding,
• compatibility and dependability,
• awareness regarding safety and cleanliness,
• integrity and loyalty in terms of cooperation with co-workers to help achieve
organizational goals, and
• health status.
Very often, appraisal of the work conditions and procedures can point to areas that
need rearrangement or designing to boost work efficiency and job performance of
staff.

Next, let us review the evaluation component.

Evaluation
Evaluation of staff may reveal a high rate of absenteeism or staff turnover or sickness
indicating a lapse on the part of management, who has not been able to provide enough
motivation to the staff for efficient performance and interest in their work. Those who
are regularly absent from duty may be sick often in which case managers should focus
on their health improvement. A reason could also be overwork in which case a
redistribution of jobs or investment on labour saving devices would be in order.

We have so far in our discussion looked at the need and types of training and studied
the training process itself and highlighted the role of self appraisal and evaluation in
judging the productivity and efficiency of staff, and also provide a measure of how
far set goals have been achieved.

Our study on staff planning and management would not be complete without a review
of the laws governing this important component. The next section focuses on this
aspect.

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 14.7 LAWS GOVERNING STAFF PLANNING AND
MANAGEMENT
Every country legislates through instruments called Acts that provides guidelines for
the industry for managing their employees within the Constitution. In India too, many
laws have been passed through the parliament and are binding on all organizations
employing more than 20 people to work for them. Those concerned with employers
and employees are outlined in sub-section 14.7.1.

14.7.1 Employee Laws

In considering the legal implications for any food service establishment, it is important
for every manager to be aware of the fact that laws keep changing or get amended
by courts or through Acts of Parliament from time to time, to make them applicable
to the changing needs of society. Those laws affecting people at work in any
organization are called Labour Laws. This term was used commonly because workmen
in industries were all classed as labour in the days of early industrialization when
only heavy work was entrusted to people. Today, the term employee is used in
practice but the law has yet to change the term written generally to signify all
employees in any industry.
Personnel managers need to know the legal implications concerning hiring of staff, their
welfare and retention measures to take in order to avoid problems with employees,
individually and through their unions.
Today legislation has come of age in India, and every year so many new laws are
enacted for the benefit of employees and employers. These are briefly discussed
herewith.
Laws Concerning Employment
There are over 120 laws concerning people at work, and more are either added to
the list every year or old laws amended to suit the need of the changing environment
and times. Every Act passed is named and followed by the year in which it was
passed in Parliament. Once an Act is passed and details released in the official
gazette, people have to follow it from the specified effective date. Laws are never
discarded but changes called amendments are usually added on to bring the rules up
to date with the requirements of the times. Let us get to know these laws next as
enlisted herewith.
LAW Essential Features
Apprentices Act, 1850 Creates an obligation for employers to train
(Amended 5 times till 2014) employees in skills that would safeguard their
job security.
Fatal Accident Act, 1855 Passed to compensate families, in case of fatal
accident at work; within two years of death.
Breach of Contract Act, 1859 Ensured job security within the limits of the
contractual agreement.
Employees and Workmen Enabled settlement of grievances
(Disputes) Act, 1860 arising at work within guidelines provided.
The Indian Contract Act, 1872 Defined the nature of contracts and obligations
of employers to abide by them.
Workmen’s Compensation Act Provided rules and guidelines for payment of
1923. (Last Amended in 2016). compensation to employees or family in case of
disability or death at work.
Trade Unions Act, 1926. Defines the responsibilities of
(Amended >5 times till 2019; employers and rights of employees.
last amended in January, 2019).
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Payment of Wages Act, 1936. Enacted to regulate the payment of wages to Personnel Management:
Staff Planning and
(Amended > 4 times till 2017). employees. Applies to all employees whose wage is
Management
less than Rs.6500, considered for amendment.
Insurance Act, 1938. Ensures that employees are insured by
(Last amended in 2015). employers for theft, injury, death and disability.
Weekly Holiday’s Act, 1942. Laid down the guidelines for weekly holidays to be
provided to all employees.
Industrial Disputes Act,1947. Made provision for harmonious working
(Amended many times, relationships and free communication between
last amended in 2018). people at work.
Factories Act, 1948. Covers obligations of employer for providing
comfort, health, safety and welfare activities at work.
Forbids employment of children below 14 years of
age.
Minimum Wages Act, 1948. Fixes the minimum wage for employees relevant
(Amended periodically). to job requirements, nature of work and experience
of employee.
Employees State Insurance Provides for full medical care in kind and cash
(ESI) Act, 1948. benefits in sickness, maternity and injury.
Employees Provident Fund Provides guidelines for retirement benefits in the
and Miscellaneous Provision form of Provident Fund (PF), family pension and
(MP) Act, 1952. deposit linked insurance.
Shops and Establishments Covers conditions of work of employees to be
Act, 1954. fulfilled by employer.
Payment of Bonus Act, 1956. Ensures that employers pay a minimum bonus of
(last amended in 2015). 8.33% of minimum wage i.e. Rs.7000/- which was
Rs.3500/- earlier, to each employee, in establishments
where 20 or more people are employed, irrespective
of whether profits are made.
Competition Act, 2002 This act restricts on prevent those activities which
are unfavaourable for the competitions among the
employees. It also promotes and sustain competition.
Equal Remuneration Act, 1976. Provides for the payment of equal remuneration
(last amended in 2017) to men and women, preventing discrimination.
Child Labour Act, 1986. Prohibits employment of children below 14 years
(last amended in 2016) in any industry and bans any hazardous occupation
for children below 14-18 years of age..
Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972. Provides security to employees after Retirement
(last amended in 2017) (or if the employee has completed five years of
continuous service at the time of termination) and to
family after death.
Air Prevention and Control of Provides guidelines for prevention, control and
Pollution Act, 1981. removal of pollution from the air we breathe. Insists
on proper waste management techniques for
establishments.
Information and Technology Facilitates the growth of e-commerce and electronic
Act, 2000. communication and also prevents cybercrime.
National Green Tribunal Facilitates speedy disposal of issues related to
Act, 2010. envrionment and conserves forests and other
natural resources
Gas Cylinder Rules, 1981. Formulated to ensure safety at work and prevent
(Amended Periodically) exploitation of employees and customers.
Water (Prevention and Control Meant to enhance water(cess) rules for
of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977. augmenting the resources. 325
Entrepreneurship and Food Goverment usually passes acts from time to time, that applied directly or indirectly
Service Management to employees, employers and institutions, such as The Trade Marks Act, Trade Union
(Amendment) Act, Protection of Human Rights (Amendment) Act and so on. That was
an exhaustive list. You would have noticed that laws cover all possible aspects of
health, welfare and safety of people at work.

Other than the laws enlisted above, there are trade union contracts and negotiations
which are reviewed next.

14.7.2 Trade Union Contracts and Negotiations

You have already learnt in the previous section about the Trade Union Act which was
enacted way back in 1926 and then amended from time to time according to the
changing needs of different industries. Now, let us define trade unions.

What are trade unions?

Trade unions are basically associations of workers formed for the regulation of
relations between people at work, whether among employees, employers or both.
These unions are expected to function in a manner that enables people to act together
and strengthen their bargaining power to negotiate with employers on progressive or
controversial matters that may arise at work.

You would realize that the trade unions get into contracts with their management. Let
us see how.

Trade Union Contracts

Trade union contracts are official agreements between workers of a particular trade
say catering, with their respective managements. In the case of grievances of employees
as a group, elected union representatives communicate with managements on behalf
of the employees of a particular trade to arrive at a mutually satisfying solution.

What is the role of government in this context? This is highlighted next.

Role of Government
The government has considered a comprehensive law on Industrial Relations (IR’s)
with a view to promote peace and harmony at work through good employer –
employee relations. The law basically provides for registration of trade unions. Any
seven or more workers may, by subscribing their names to the rules of a trade union,
complying with the provisions of the Act, apply for registration under the Act. The
Act also defines the responsibilities of employers and the rights of employees.
Next, let us see how the trade union work through negotiations.
Negotiation
Negotiation is the bargaining power of a union with the trade’s management to get
for example, better working conditions, incentives or wages for the members of the
union. On the other hand, the management of the trade tries to put across their view
point and arrive at a mutually agreeable solution to employee demands.

Sometimes however, both sides can not solve the problems or grievances and union
representatives decide to go on strike, or a go slow at work affecting productivity and
profits of the industry. In such cases, the government is requested to appoint an
arbitrator ( could be a lawyer or a senior officer of the law ministry) who is seen as
fair to both sides, and tries to bring about a fair settlement of issues to prevent industry
or units from closing down. A closure usually is detrimental not only to the country,
but to the employers and employees who may become unemployed over long periods
of time.
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Trade union representatives usually negotiate in the interest of employees, where as Personnel Management:
managements try to balance productivity and profits with payouts to employees in the Staff Planning and
Management
form of financial or non-financial benefits.

With this we end our study on staff planning and management. We hope you now
have a comprehensive insight into this important activity in a food service organization
i.e. personnel management. Before we move on to the next topic we would like you
to answer the questions given in check your progress exercise 4 and recapitulate
what you have learnt under the section on laws governing the staff planning and
management.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1) Why is there a need for training staff in a food service organization? Explain
briefly.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Fill in the blanks.
a) Management ........................ are generally inclined to believe that
.............. alone is all that is required for organizations to progress.
b) As families eat out more often ..................................... demand a great
.......................... of menus.
c) Inflation has increased ........................ and .................. drastically.
d) Customer demand is affected by .............................................., purchasing
..................... and eating in company.
e) Laws affecting people at work in any organization are referred to as…..
3) What are the different levels in a food service establishment at which training
can be imparted.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) List four important ways through which training can be imparted to food
service employees.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5. Define the following terms:
a) An Act: ………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………
b) Appraisal ………………………………………………………
c) Trade Union: …………………………………………….
d) Negotiation: …………………………………………………
e) Trade Union Contracts: ………………… ……………………
……………………………………………………………………………..
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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 14.8 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we learnt about the various approaches to staff planning and management,
where we dealt with issues and steps related to planning. Next, we moved on to the
employment process and policies for recruitment.

Further, we got to know about the recruitment and selection process i.e., what do these
processes entail? How these two terms differ from each other? Then, we studied
about induction process and how it is carried out and what are its benefits. Next, we
dealt with the training process. Here, we discussed the relevance of training process,
different areas of training and the actual training process. We also learnt about
evaluation and appraisal of staff.

Finally, we briefly touched upon the various laws governing staff planning and
management. In this section, we looked at the labour laws and trade union contracts
and negotiations.

14.9 GLOSSARY
Ad hoc : a temporary worker employed for a specific purpose only.

Dhaba : in our country highways are dotted with local restaurants

popularly known as Dhabas (singular: Dhaba). They
generally serve local cuisine, and also serve as truck stops.

Opinionaires : a type of questionnaires seeking opinion of people.

14.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) a) Autocratic, bureaucratic, Democratic, participative, scientific and
technological.
b) I would use all the approaches as required in different situations, because
some require an authoritative approach others a more democratic or participative
approach.
2) 1) b ; 2) a; 3) c
3) a) vital, teamwork.
b) Planning, written.
c) information, staff, goals.
d) Time, activity
e) development
4) Issues in planning are management approaches, job requirements, staff talents,
relationships, staff development. Refer to sub-section 14.2.2 and describe any one
on your own.
5) The six principles are: Need, small groups, learning, leadership, choice, participation.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) a) The five factors that affect staff policies of an establishment are: Plans to
expand the existing services , Future plans to install Labour Saving Devices,
Changes in service style, Opening satellite units and Introduce mobile catering
services, Pick up facilities and so on in existing operations.
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 b) A manager will focus on the following: Replace non-profitable menus; adjust Personnel Management:
prices to purchasing power of customers; prevent wastage; redesign spaces Staff Planning and
Management
for better resource utilization; prevent or control wastage.
2) i) Labour saving devices are those equipment which when used reduce time and
energy of staff and give an even, consistent product quality each time.
ii) Extension units of a food service establishment are called satellite units. Their
management though independent for taking spot decisions accountability is
centrally controlled.
3) Administrative procedures and terms and conditions of employment are the
procedures necessary before staff can be hired by any establishment. Refer to
sub-section 14.3.3 and describe them in your own words.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) a) mechanization, touch.
b) feature, literacy.
c) process, qualified, vacant.
d) formal, informal
e) recruits
2) a) The five sources of recruitment are media, colleges and institutes,
recommendations, employment exchanges and professional associations.
b) The difference between recruitment and selection is that recruitment is the
listing of probable candidates for a job, whereas selection is the suitability
for appointment to the job.
3) i) Staff retention is the ability of an organization to keep employees satisfied
and happy so that they do not leave the organization.
ii) There are seven steps followed in selection of staff. Refer to sub-section
14.4.2 and write the steps on your own.
iii) A verbal contract is a word of mouth offer of a job at a stated salary and
benefits based on mutual trust. This is also legally binding as in the case of
a written contract. A verbal contract becomes operative when the employee
starts work.
4) The process of introduction of a new employee to his workplace and job is called
induction.The methods of induction are formal or informal. The formal methods
are talks, demonstrations, slide of other presentations. Informal are not structured
and may be a guided tour of the establishment and introduction to the staff in
the department.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) There is a need for training staff because the internal and external environment
is constantly changing and organizations have to respond to the changes by
upgrading their staff skills. Further, with lifestyles changing the demands of
customers for variety in terms of non-traditional meals is increasing and therefore
staff require training for meeting those demands. Because of inflation and increase
in costs, attention needs to be focused on better resource use and cost reduction
policies of establishments. The most important is shrinking labour markets and
therefore, managers need to retain their staff through training and retraining.
2) a) staff, experience.
b) people, variety.
c) costs, prices.
d) mood, power.
e) Labour laws

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Entrepreneurship and Food 3) The different levels are: Operative, supervisory and management levels.
Service Management
4) Training can be imparted through providing information, managing stress, exercising
group influence and bringing about structural changes in the establishment.
5) a) A law passed by government for implementation.
b) A process involved in evaluation of staff, production, service, profits or in
any area of the establishment.
c) Association of workers for regulation of relations between people at work
in a particular trade.
f) It is the bargaining power of a union with the management of an organization
for better working conditions, pay or incentives for employees.
e) These are official agreements between workers of a particular trade.

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 Personnel Management:
UNIT 15 PERSONNEL FUNCTION — WORK Staff Planning and
Management
PRODUCTIVITY

Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Meaning and Definition of Productivity
15.3 Understanding Formal Relationships and Duties
15.3.1 Vertical Division of Labour
15.3.2 Horizontal Division of Labour
15.3.3 Line and Staff Division of Labour
15.3.4 Departmentalization
15.3.5 Organization Chart
15.3.6 Coordination
15.4 Design of Jobs
15.4.1 Job Analysis
15.4.2 Job Descriptions
15.4.3 Job Titles
15.4.4 Job Enrichment
15.5 Work Design
15.6 Work Measurement in Food Service Operations
15.7 Productivity Improvement
15.7.1 Productivity Measures
15.7.2 Quality Circles
15.8 Let Us Sum Up
15.9 Glossary
15.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

15.1 INTRODUCTION
In our previous unit on staff planning and management, we learnt about recruitment
and selection process and also about staff training as a crucial process. In continuation
with that, in this unit, we shall be focusing on work productivity of personnel. What
is meant by productivity and how can we go about improving it?

Productivity improvement is a term widely used in all types of institutions / organizations.

A major concern in many organizations is the decline of productivity. How best can
we effectively use the labour force is a major challenge facing managers in all types
of food service operations. It is an extremely challenging task to keep the labour force
content and motivated, on one hand is and on the other hand, getting the best out
of the workers in term of efficiency and effectiveness. Therefore, it becomes imperative
for managers to design their organization to facilitate goal accomplishment. Using
managerial tools like the organization chart, job analysis and work schedules, the
manager is expected to develop jobs to fit the structure, identify tasks, who will
perform them and how they will be performed. Administrative problems specifically
in terms of employee morale, absenteeism, etc. make it mandatory to study or redesign
the job design. Many factors affect the performance of workers; a manager could use
different techniques to analyze labour productivity. Establishing a quality circle would
be considered as an effective technique to solve problems of productivity and lead to
some level of work improvement. What do you understand by all these terms?
How are these techniques performed effectively in an organization? Let us read and
find out.
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Entrepreneurship and Food Objectives
Service Management
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the different managerial tools used in designing the organization,
• recognize and use work simplification techniques,
• describe appropriate techniques used to analyze productivity, and
• conceptualize the impact of a quality circle to improve work productivity in an
organization.

15.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PRODUCTIVITY

Productivity has been defined as a term descriptive of the level of the output of a
manufacturing operation. In this discussion, work productivity is used to describe the
performance of jobs by the personnel, working in an organization.

Productivity is also referred to the ratio of inputs to output in a systems organization.

Productivity can be increased, by reducing input by increasing output or by doing both
at the same time. Productivity in the food service organization tends to be low, as
effective utilization of labour in the food service industry is especially difficult because
of its unique characteristics. Some of these are:
• Many work on seven day week almost on 24 hour basis.
• Operational schedules may be early morning or late night.
• Peaks and valleys that create an intense demand at certain times of the day / year.
• Seasonal variation of patronage.
• Highly perishable nature of the products.
• The labour intensive nature of most of the production and service operations.
• Large number of skilled/unskilled personnel employed in the industry.
• Labour inefficiency could be the outcome of many factors such as :
— poor product design (e.g. poorly planned menu)
— manufacturing methods (e.g. equipment poorly maintained)
— management concerns
— worker concerns
These may result in material waste, improper tools or methods, inadequate maintenance,
poor production schedules, absenteeism without a cause and carelessness from
employees.

Therefore, it becomes very important that managers know the organization well, design
its organizational set up and control effectively all its functions. So let us get to know
about organization structure in the next section.

15.3 UNDERSTANDING FORMAL RELATIONSHIPS AND

DUTIES
The organization structure is designed based on the objectives that manager has
established and on the plans and programmes developed to achieve these objectives.
The formal structure is frequently defined in terms of:
• Organization chart and job descriptions or position guides. The pattern of
formal relationships and duties.
• Differentiating or departmentalization. The way in which the various activities
or tasks are assigned to different units or people of the organization.
332
• Integration. The way in which these separate activities or tasks are coordinated. Personnel Function —
Work Productivity
• Delegation of authority. The power, status, and hierarchical relationships within
the organization.
• Administrative systems. The planned and formalized policies, procedures, and
controls that guide the activities and relationships of people in the organization.
One of the primary reasons for organizing is to establish lines of authority which
create order within the organization. Without delineation of authority, the chaos of
everyone telling everyone else what to do may result, in confusion.

Organizing also improves the efficiency and quality of work, as the coordinated efforts
of people working together begin to produce a synergistic effect. Synergism can result
from division of labour and from increased coordination, both of which are products
of organization.

Improved communications can also be a product of organization and its structurally

defined channels of communication among members of the organization. Organizing
is basically a process of division of labour, which can be divided either vertically or
horizontally. Another way that labour is divided is, line and staff. Let us see what we
mean by these types of division of labour.

15.3.1 Vertical Division of Labour

Vertical division of labour is based on the establishment of lines of authority. In
addition to establishing authority at various levels of the organization, vertical division
of labour facilitates communication flow.

The scalar principle, which is related to the vertical growth of the organization
states that authority flows through the organization from highest to lowest rank
and establishes the chain of command. This principle is based on the need for
communication and the unity of command concept, which state that an employee
should have only one immediate supervisor. In theory, this concept is a basis for
organization design; however, employees frequently receive directions from more
than one person.

Authority, is the right of a manager to direct others and to take action delegated down
the hierarchy of the organization. The tapered concept of authority is depicted in
Figure 15.1. In Figure 15.1 you can see that the breadth and scope of authority
become more limited at the lower levels of an organization.

SCOPE OF Director
AUTHORITY
Top Management

Middle Management

Lower Management
(Supervisor)

Employee

Figure 15.1: Tapered concept of authority

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Entrepreneurship and Food Through the process of delegation, the authority and responsibility of organization
Service Management members are established. Delegation is defined as the process of assigned job activities
and authority to a specific individual within the organization.
While ‘authority’ is the right to direct, ‘responsibility’ is the obligation to perform an
assigned activity. Since responsibility is an obligation a person accepts, it cannot be
delegated or passed to a subordinate. Managers can delegate responsibilities to
subordinates in the sense of making subordinates responsible to them; however, this
delegation does not make managers any less responsible to their superiors. Delegation
of responsibility does not mean abdication by the delegating manager. Ramesh, the
head cook, for example, cannot say to the production supervisor “it’s his entire fault,”
regarding a product failure of one of the assistants cooks, and not bear responsibility
himself.
Authority once delegated, however, is given up by the person who delegated it.
According to a principle of organization called the parity principle, ‘authority’ and
‘responsibility’ must coincide i.e., management must delegate sufficient authority so
that subordinates can do their jobs. At the same time, subordinates can be expected
to accept responsibility only for those areas within their authority.
One of the major considerations affecting delegation of authority is decentralization.
The key question is: How much of what authority should be granted to whom and
for what purpose? The degree to which an organization is centralized or decentralized
is basic to this question. What is meant by these two terms in context with an
organization? Let us see next.
In a centralized organization, most decisions are made at the top, and lower level
managers have limited discretion in decision making. The degree of centralization /
decentralization is related to the number of decisions made at lower levels of the
organization, the importance of those decisions, and the amount of checking required
for decision making by lower level managers.
Highly centralized authority is common in small organizations in which the top manager
is in close contact with all aspects of the operation. For example, in a small nursing
home or restaurant, the food service supervisor or manager may be responsible for
most decisions about the operations.
The degree of decentralization varies widely in large organizations. In some organizations,
a high degree of decentralization may exist in major functions, but the auxiliary
functions of purchasing, accounting, or personnel may be centralized. In a large
hospital, for example, the director or head of the dietetic department may have
authority over production and service functions but limited authority for purchasing,
since a purchasing department has procurement responsibility for the entire hospital.
We hope the discussion above must have helped you in understanding the vertical
division of labour. Next, let us move on to the horizontal division of labour.

15.3.2 Horizontal Division of Labour

Horizontal division of labour is based on specialization of work. Its underlying premise
is that, by making workers’ tasks specialized, more can be produced with the same
effort and with greater efficiency and improved quality.

The advantages of horizontal division of labour are highlighted herewith. These

include:
• Each worker is required to have fewer skills.
• Skills can be specified more easily for purpose of selection and training.
• Repetition or practice of the same job develops proficiency.
• Concurrent operations are possible.
• More conformity results if the product is always produced by the same person.
334
Job boredom is a potential hazard with horizontal division of labour; therefore, the Personnel Function —
scope and depth of jobs must be considered. Job scope refers to the number of Work Productivity
activities or operations that make up a job. If narrow, it may result in repetitive jobs
that may be boring to many workers. Job depth refers to the freedom of workers to
plan and organize their jobs. A job is made up of three components: planning, doing
and controlling. Jobs that focus primarily on the “doing” component may lead to
worker dissatisfaction.
Next, let us review the line and staff process of division of labour.

15.3.3 Line and Staff Division of Labour

Another way that labour is divided is, line and staff. When the importance, scope,
or sheer volume of managerial tasks becomes so great that an individual manager has
difficulty handling them, a logical step is to divide the work into specialized components.

Line personnel are responsible for production of goods and services in the organization,
whereas staff personnel may function in assisting or advising roles. Staff work
revolves around the performance of staff activities, the utilization of technical knowledge,
and the creation and distribution of technical information to line managers. In
contemporary organization, the number of people involved in staff activities and the
type of staff work has increased.

Let us then understand the type of staff and the line and staff authority existing in
a food service set up.
A) Line and Staff Authority
Line authority is derived from the chain of command and shows positional authorities.
Staff authority, however, is based on expertise in specialized activities. Generally, staff
personnel provide expert advice and counsel to line managers but lack the right to
command them, with two exceptions. First, staff managers exercise authority over
workers in their own departments; second, staff may have functional authority over
the line in restricted areas of activity. This functional authority is delegated to an
activity and gives members performing the activity the right to command. Authority
granted in this manner, however, is confined to the specialized area to which it was
delegated.

The quality control manager, for example, may have functional authorities over the
work of supervisors in other departments. If inspectors find a product quality problem,
they may require the supervisor to suspend production unit till the problem is corrected.
This example applies directly to a commissary food service system. The microbiologist
on the quality control staff may identify a problem with microbial count in a product
being produced in a food factory and require that production be curtailed until the
source of contamination is identified.
Next, let us review the type of staff.
B) Types of Staff
Staff work may be differentiated into five functions; service, advice, control and
innovation. In addition, service staff renders some specialized functions, such as
maintenance.

A staff group, such as market research staff, may supply information and suggestions.
For example, the market research staff in a large food service chain may provide data
on prospective locations for new units.

Staff may assist the line in implementing a control function, such as the quality control
functions, as discussed above. Some staff assists in setting actions in motion and in
initiating activities, as a planning staff does.
335
Entrepreneurship and Food Finally, some staff may create new ideas, such as a research and development
Service Management group. Large food service departments often have a recipe development staff, for
example.

Other staff positions may fall into an “assistant to” or liaison category. The
assistant too has no line authority but assists a manager by gathering information,
performing special duties, resenting the manager, and generally relieving the manager
of details.

Liaison staff acts as representatives for their organization in dealing with other
organizations. A regional dietitian in the hospital division of a food contract company
might function both in a liaison and functional staff capacity, acting as a liaison
between the hospital and company while also providing staff expertise to personnel in
the contract company’s dietetics department.

Having looked at the type of staff and their functions, we also need to understand
that line and staff problems do exist in the line and staff division of labour. Let us
get to know them.
C) Line and Staff Problems
Line-staff relationships involve both structural and human aspects, which are related
to levels of staff participation in the organization and to human interaction problems.
Staff group may provide organization-wide service or service within a division or
department. Personnel or purchasing departments in a university or hospital are
examples of the first; the qualify control staff in the food factory is an example of
the latter.

Although relationships between line and staff may be specified clearly, conflict is not
uncommon. Frequently, of course, line and staff work together as a team, approaching
problem solving with a spirit of cooperativeness. The overlapping nature of line and
staff jobs, however, provides a potential source of conflict.

Line managers may see staff as usurping their authority or providing unrealistic advice.
They may also view staff specialists as working in a vacuum, concentrating on a
narrow range of activities, rather than understanding problems from the perspective
of the overall organization. Line managers often feel they get the blame for failures,
while staff receives the credit for successes.

On the other side of the coin, staff may see line managers as resistant to new ideas
and unwilling to try progressive approaches. Another common complaint is that line
managers do not make use of available data. Some line managers seem to think that
asking staff for advice is admitting ignorance. Staff may also complain that line
managers merely go through the motions of asking for advice with no insertions of
utilizing their recommendations. Staff personnel often believe they have a greater
degree of functional authority than has been delegated to them.

The line and staff concept if often not clear-cut in organizations. For example,
managers may have both line and staff responsibilities. The nature of line and staff
relationships varies widely among organizations and must be designed to meet the
specific needs of a particular organization.

In the discussion so far we have seen that the primary reason for organizing is to
establish lines of authority and in this context we learnt about the vertical and
horizontal division of labour and the line and staff division of labour. Next, we shall
study about the method commonly used in a food service set-up to implement division
of labour.

336
One of the first things that happen when people create an organization is that they Personnel Function —
divide up their work to allow specialization. As the organization grows and tasks Work Productivity
become more numerous and varied, this division of labour is formalized into jobs and
departments. Let us understand the concept of departmentalization next.

15.3.4 Departmentalization
Departmentalization, which involves grouping activities into related work units, is the
most frequently used method for implementing division of labour. Although these work
units can be structured in a number of ways, they all divide the work and thus establish
a pattern of task and authority relationships. The pattern becomes the organizational
structure.

In a small restaurant, for example, a husband and wife may informally share the tasks
of preparing sandwiches, salads, and drinks, serving customers, collecting money,
wiping tables, washing dishes and utensils, and performing other maintenance duties.
They will probably find that each of them will take on principal responsibility for
certain tasks; however, as the business grows, they may need to hire part-time workers
to assist at peak periods. These workers will probably be assigned specific duties rather
than being responsible for the wide range of duties performed by the husband wife
team. Thus, jobs are created around specialized tasks.

This small business could eventually be the basis for development of a large multiunit
national chain of restaurants throughout the country. Additional levels of management
would be needed; highly specialized jobs created, and formalized relationships required.
At the corporate level, departments focusing on specific functions, such as marketing,
procurement, and finance, would be created.

Departments are commonly organized by function, product, and territory, type of

customer, process, equipment, or time. As indicated earlier, the type and size of the
organization are key factors influencing the form an organization structure will take.
Different types of departmentalization can occur. These are reviewed herewith.

Functional Departmentalization: Functional departmentalization occurs when organization

units are defined by the nature of the work. All organizations create some product or
service, make these products or services, and finance their adventures. Therefore,
most organizations have three basic functions: production, sale, and finance. In the
non-profit food service operation, the sales function may be one of clientele service
and creation of goodwill, and the finance function may be considered business affairs.
Even in these organizations, however, the need to apply marketing concepts is becoming
widely recognized.

Each of these basic organizational functions may be further subdivided as necessary.

For example, the production department may be divided into the main dish and
vegetable, salad and bakery units.

The primary advantage of this type of departmentalization is that all specializations are
within function and provides for efficient use of equipment and other resources. It
provides a logical way of arranging activities, because functions are grouped that
naturally seem to belong together. Each department and its manager are concerned
with one type of work.

Product Departmentalization: Under departmentalization by a product or a service, all

the activities necessary to produce and market a product or service are usually under
the direction of a single manager. Product departmentalization allows workers to
identify with the particular product. The emphasis on products encourages expansion,
improvement, and diversification. Duplication of functions may be a problem, since
each division or department may be involved in marketing, production, and so forth.
337
Entrepreneurship and Food This pattern of departmentalization is not common in the food service industry, except
Service Management perhaps in large conglomerate corporations.

Geographic Departmentalization: Departmentalization by territory is most likely to

occur in organizations that maintain physically dispersed and autonomous operations
or offices. Geographic departmentalization permits the use of local personnel and may
help customer goodwill and responsiveness to local customs.

National restaurant chains are often divided into regional areas, with regional manager
and staff responsible for all the operations in a particular region. For example, several
of the contract food service companies are divided into several geographic regions,
such as East, Midwest, Northeast, Northwest, and South.

Another example of geographic departmentalization could be drawn from school food

services. In large metropolitan areas, the school district may be subdivided into several
geographic regions, each with a supervisor responsible for overseeing the food service
of the school in a region.

Customer Departmentalization: Another type of departmentalization is based on division

by type of customers served. A contract food service company, for example, that has
divisions for school, colleges, and healthcare is departmentalized by type of customer.
Or a wholesaler who distributes products to grocery stores and to hotels, restaurants,
and institutions may be subdivided into two corresponding divisions. This approach
to departmentalization permits the wholesaler to serve the specialized needs of both
the grocer and the food service operator.

Other Types of Departmentalization: Equipment, processes, and time are bases for
departmentalization. Process and equipment are closely related to functional
departmentalization. In large food service operations, a deep fat frying section within
the production unit would be an example of process/equipment departmentalization.
A food factory, such as that in a commissary food service system, might be divided
into units based on process or equipment because of the specialization needed for the
large volume produced in the operation.

Time or shift is also common way of departmentalization in some organizations.

Organizations such as hospital that function around the clock often organize activities
on this basis. Usually, activities grouped this way are first departmentalized on some
other basis, perhaps by product or function. Then within that category, they are
organized into shifts. For example, a hospital is departmentalized by functions, such
as dietetic services and nursing services; the various departments may then have shifts
with a supervisor in charge of each, such as the late shift or early shift.

Departmentalization is practiced as a means not only of implementing division of

labour but also of improving control and communications. Typically, as the organization
grows, it adds levels and departments. Coordination is another key objective in
departmentalization. The type of departmentalization that is best depends on the
specific needs of the organization.

Most complex organizations may be departmentalized according to several of the

methods discussed in the foregoing paragraphs. For example, in a large multiunit chain
organization, the company may be departmentalized by function at the top level and
by territory or type of customer at the next level. At the individual unit level, process,
equipment, and/or time may be the method used. Referring again to the contract food
service company for example, it may be divided into several regions which may, in
turn, be further divided by type of customers (school, healthcare, etc.).

Having gone through the discussion presented in sub-section 15.2.3 above, certainly
now you are in a better position to appreciate how departmentalization is practiced as
338
a means not only of implementing division of labour but also of improving control and Personnel Function —
communications. Work Productivity

Next, it is also important for us to learn about the basic relationships of positions and
functions while specifying the formal authority and communication network of the
organization. This is possible through the construction of an organization chart. The
next sub-section focuses on this aspect.

15.3.5 Organization Chart

The organization chart graphically portrays the organization structure. It depicts the
basic relationships of positions and functions while specifying the formal authority
and communication network of the organization. The title of a position on the chart
broadly identifies its activities; distance from the top indicates the position’s relative
status. The lines between positions are used to indicate the prescribed formal interaction.
Refer to Figure 15.2 which illustrates an organization chart of a restaurant.
Owner

Restaurant Manager

Executive Chef Assistant Manager

Assistant Executive Chef

Head Bartender Dining Room Captains
Line Cooks

Prep Persons Cocktail Servers Bartenders Cashiers Wait Staff

Dishwashers Bus Persons

Figure 15.2(a): A sample organization chart of a restaurant

Chief Dietitian

Dietitian (I)

Assistant
Dietitian (3)

Office Superintendent
(I)

Steward (2)

Upper Division Clerk

(1)
Head Cook (4) Head Bearers (6)

Cooks (25)
Grade 1 Sweepers (3) Masalchi cum Bearers (45)
Grade 2 Grade 1
Grade 2

Figure 15.2(b): A sample organization chart of a dietetic department

339
Entrepreneurship and Food CANTEEN MANAGERE
Service Management
Supervisor Cashier
Cook Steward

Waiters
Assistant Cooks
Helpers
(Clearing)

Utility Workers

Figure 15.2(c): A sample organization chart of a canteen

As you may have noticed in Figure 15.2, the organization chart is a simplified or
abstract model of the structure. It is not an exact representation of reality and
therefore, has limitations. The organization chart shows few of the relationships even
in the formal organization and none of those in the informal organization. For example,
the degree of authority a superior has over a subordinate is not indicated. The chart
does, however, assist members of the organization in understanding and visualizing the
structure. Charts should be revised periodically, because organizations are dynamic and
undergo many changes over a period of time.

Responsibility and authority for the preparation, review, and final approval of the
organization chart generally lie with top management, although approval may be the
responsibility of the board of directors. At the department level, the chart may be
the responsibility of the department head, although approval may be required from the
next level up in the organization.

Vertical organization charts are the most conventional type. Although, occasionally a
horizontal or a circular chart may be used. In the vertical chart, the levels of the
organization are depicted in a pyramid form, with lines showing the chart of command
as you may have noticed in Figure 15.2. Special relationship may be indicated by the
positioning of functions and lines on the chart. Dotted lines are often used to indicate
communication links in an organization as illustrated in Figure 15.2 (c). Staff functions
may be depicted by horizontal placement from a line position.

Thus the horizontal and diagonal relationship depicted in an organization chart is the
coordination function, which is elabourated next.

15.3.6 Coordination
While reviewing the chart(s) (a and b) given in Figure 15.2, you may have noticed
that not shown on the organization chart are the horizontal and diagonal relationships.
The necessary coordination in complex organizations is impossible to achieve through
the vertical hierarchy.

In a large medical center, for example, horizontal interaction is required among

departments. Nursing service and dietetic service staff often communicate directly
rather than through the vertical organization. A staff dietitian may talk directly to the
head nurse about a patient problem rather than channel the communication through
the head clinical dietitian. Such lateral relationships facilitate communication in an
organization.

In a small organization, coordination occurs informally. The large the organization, the
greater the need for formalized coordination mechanism.

340
To illustrate these concepts, in a small residence hall food service, in which the Personnel Function —
manager can see the operation from the office and workers are in close proximity to Work Productivity
each other, coordination of production and service can occur through informal
communication. By contrast, a large facility on the same campus, with preparation on
one floor and production and service on another, is a more complex operation to
coordinate.

Managers establish policies, procedures, and rules to ensure consistency in operations.

For example, the large commercial fast food operations usually have specific standards
regarding production and service of products. One doughnut chain, for instance,
requires that all products not sold within four hours after frying must be discarded.
Specific formulations and frying procedures must also be followed.

The establishment of standards and procedures is an important method of coordination.

Managers may also establish schedules and other plans to coordinate action. Events
are often unpredictable, however, and must be coordinated by managers using their
judgments. Over reliance on rules and regulations can create problems in organizations.

Another way in which managers act to coordinate activities in organization is in a

“linking role”. In other words, manager is responsible for communicating or “linking”
with managers at higher levels in the organization and with other managers at their
own level.

Appointment of committees and task forces is a mechanism used in organizations for

coordination. These groups serve an important role when problem solving must involve
several departments. Problems involving half a dozen departments, for example, can
be dealt with efficiently by such group; otherwise, problems have to be referred
upward through the chain of command.

Committees are usually organized formally, with a designated chairperson, specified

members and regularly scheduled meetings. They are generally appointed to deal with
ongoing concerns in the organization, whereas task forces are formed to deal with
special problems. The organizational units or departments appoint the task force
members, who may not necessarily be managers. Once a solution is reached, the task
force is disbanded.

Committees and task force are common in all types of institutions. For example, most
college and university food services must have a menu planning committee and a
student advisory committee, as well as, task forces to plan various special events.
Healthcare institutions typically have many committees to facilitate interdepartmental
coordination.

With this we end our study of coordination and we hope you now have a deep insight
and understanding about how the organization structure is designed and how the formal
relationships and duties are established within the food service set-up.

Let us try to recapitulate what we have learnt so far by answering the questions given
in check your progress exercise 1.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Define the term productivity.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

341
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 2) Briefly discuss the need of organizing a food service institution.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Highlight the salient features of vertical and horizontal division of labour.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) Explain giving an example, what is meant by the term departmentalization.
List the various parameters, based on which different departments have been
organized.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
5) What is an organization chart? Discuss its shortcoming.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

In our discussion so far we have focused on understanding the pattern of formal

relationships and duties and the way the various activities or tasks in a food service
establishment are assigned to different units or people of the organization which we
defined as departmentalization. Also the concept of integration i.e. the way in which
these separate activities or tasks are coordinated and the policies, procedures and
controls that guide the activities and relationships of people in the organization was
described. Next, in our study on personnel function we shall cover the concept of work
design i.e. the function of specifying the work activities of an individual or group.

15.4 DESIGN OF JOBS

Work design is defined as the function of specifying the work activities of an
individual or group for developing assignments that meet the requirements of the
organization and the technology, and that satisfy the personal and individual
requirements of the job holder. Work design is a complex function because of the
variety of factors determining the ultimate job structure. Several decisions must be
made: Who is to perform the job? What tasks are to be performed? How are these
tasks to be performed?
Translating the organizational structure into jobs is a process referred to as job design.
A job is the set of tasks that must be performed by a given worker. Tasks are the
individual activities that comprise a job. Peeling vegetables and measuring or
weighing ingredients, for example, are two tasks that are part of an ingredient room
worker’s job. Thus job design involves analysis, job description, and job enrichment
as described in the following sub-section(s).

342
15.4.1 Job Analysis Personnel Function —
Work Productivity
Job analysis is the process of determining, through observation and study, the
pertinent information relating to the nature of a specific job. In job analysis, the
purpose and nature of job tasks and the skills needed to perform those tasks are
identified. In addition, the mental and physical effort required, equipment use, time
needed, and working conditions are evaluated. The manager asks the who, what,
why, where, when and how questions for each job. Job analysis provided the basis
for staffing decisions, job descriptions, performance standards, performance
evaluations.
What is job description? Let us find out next.

15.4.2 Job Descriptions

The end products of a job analysis are a job description and a job specification.
A job description is a written statement identifying the tasks, duties, activities, and
expected performance results in a particular job. A job specification identifies
the ability, skills, or traits necessary for successful performance of a job. In
other words, a job description identifies the work to be performed in a job, while
a job specification identifies the qualifications of an individual who could perform
the job.

Written job descriptions should be available for all jobs in the organization. Each
description should include the following information.
• Job title and classification
• Summary of major responsibilities
• Listing of duties and responsibilities of the job, usually in order of importance.
• Job relationships; i.e., supervision received and employees supervised.
Job descriptions should be updated periodically to reflect changes in job content. An
example of a job description is shown in Figure 15.3.

JOB DESCRIPTION

Job Title: Cook Department: Dietary Date: August, 2019

Job Title of Person to whom Reporting: Production Manager Job Code: 116
Job Pay: .................................. Revised: .............................
No. of persons supervised: N/A Education Requirements: High School or
equivalent, Education in Food Service or Cooking
desired.
Prior Experience Requirements: One year experience or equivalent in institutional
cooking, preferably in a health care setting.
Other Comments: Exposed to heat, humidity, steam, cooking odours, refrigerator
temperatures and wet floors. Possible job related injuries include
serious cuts from knives or power equipment, burns from cooking
equipment and strains, sprains, or falls work is performed while standing
or walking. Occasionally exerts considerably physical efforts in moving
or lifting of supplies and/or hot food items.
Job Summary: Works as a team member with one or more cooks in the daily
production requirements for patient and/or employee food services.
Prepares meats, fish, fowl, vegetables, gravies, sauces, soups, salad
ingredients and baked goods according to standardized recipes. Assures
freshness, proper serving temperatures, and the minimization of food
waste.

343
Entrepreneurship and Food Responsibilities Performance Standards
Service Management
1. Prepares all meats, fish, fowl, vegetables, A) All foods will be prepared according to standardized recipes.
gravies, soups, sauces, salad ingredients, Exceptions to the standardized recipe may be specified by the
breads and desserts in accordance with Production Manager, with appropriate recipe substitution, for
the standardized recipes for patient and special events.
employee feeding. Assist in the B) All preparation shall be done in sufficient quantities to meet
preparation of hot and/or cold foods for the par levels as specified on the production sheets.
special functions and catering activity
as required.
2. Provides back-up services and short
order support to the patient tray line and A) All foods to be served in the hot state will be prepared as held
the cafeteria throughout the meal period. at an established serving temperature for not longer than a
specified time period. Communicates closely with the designated
3. Maintains standards of quality as supervisors or serving staff to establish and maintain appropriate
specified by the Department of Dietetics product timing.
and all basic food handling guidelines as A) All foods are to be stored at proper temperatures. Cold foods
specified by local, state and federal at or below 45°F, hot foods at 140°F or above. Holding and
health agencies. Assists in the processing temperatures between these rang should not exceed
development and testing of standardized 4 hours.
recipes for therapeutic diets and
B) All foods are to be covered, labeled and dated when store.
employees feeding as required.
C) All foods are to be rotated on a first in first out basis in
accordance with the department’s standards for holding an
storing foods.
D) All foods are to be presented in a wholesome and eye appealing
manner. Appropriate garnishes are to be utilized where
4. Maintains a cost awareness in the specified.
preparation and storage of all products E) All foods are to be served at the appropriate serving temperature
with an emphasis on minimizing waste. as specified on the steam-table layout diagrams.
A) Records data utilized in the forecasting of production
levels (and adjusts accordingly) in order to maintain a
5. Maintains standards of safety and
predetermined par.
sanitation as established by the
Department of Dietetics and/or local, B) With the Production manager or Lead Cook he/she determines
state and federal health agencies. the use of leftovers or their proper dating, labeling and storage.
A) Maintains standards of cleanliness in personal appearance,
personal hygiene, food handling and food storage.
B) Maintains equipment and work area in a sanitary condition in
accordance with established procedures and department
standards.
C) Reports unsafe working conditions or equipment to the lead
cook or appropriate manager.

Figure 15.3: An example of a job description for a cook

The job specification, popularly referred to as the “job spec”, includes a statement of
the job conditions relating to the health, safety, and comfort of the employee, including
equipment used and any potential job hazard in addition to the personal qualifications
needed. Frequently, the written job descriptions in a particular organization may
include both the job description and the job specification.

Traditionally, job descriptions and job specifications have relied heavily on personal
judgment, which at times has been somewhat arbitrary. In many jobs, for example,
a high school education is set forth as a requirement for performing them successfully,
yet nothing employees do on those jobs may require this level of education.

Court decisions and equal opportunity legislation now require employers to demonstrate
that the criteria upon which employees for each job are selected have proven validity.
Employers must also be able to show that these criteria do not serve to discriminate
against applicants on the basis of race, sex, age, religion, or national origin.

Next, component in job design is assigning a title to the job. This component is
344 reviewed next.
15.4.3 Job Titles Personnel Function —
Work Productivity
The tiles assigned to jobs are primarily designed to distinguish among various jobs.
The job title, however, may serve to indicate level in the organization. For example,
the title “head cook” indicates that the job is higher in the organization than “cook”
or “assistant cook”.

The title may be used to indicate, to a limited extent, the degree of authority, the job
possesses. The title “sanitation supervisor” indicates the job involves more authority
than “sanitation worker”.

Until recently, the titles of some jobs indicated that the job was for a male or female
employee. Recently, however, the trend has been to “desex” the job title by eliminating
the suffixes “man” or “men” in occupational titles; e.g. flight attendant is now
commonly used instead of steward and stewardess.

Finally let us get to know about job enrichment which you will learn in the subsequent
subsection is an attempt to increase the task dimensions of a job to give greater
autonomy, feedback, and so forth.

15.4.4 Job Enrichment

Critics of traditional job analysis methods have contended that workers’ reactions to
jobs have been given limited attention. Concern over “blue collar blues” and its effect
on productivity, morale, absenteeism, and turnover has led many organizations to look
again at the design of jobs. Several researchers have developed approaches for
redesigning jobs with the intent of increasing employee motivation and satisfaction.

Some of the classical work has been done by Hackman and his colleagues (cited in
SPEARS 1989). His work (HACKMAN,1977) resulted in the definition of five job
dimensions or task characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback. If these are present to a high degree, Hackman observed
that experienced meaningfulness of the work, responsibility for work outcomes, and
knowledge of work results contribute to work performance and job satisfaction. The
model concluded that the greater the extent of all five task characteristics in a job the
more likely it is that the job holder will be highly motivated and experience job
satisfaction.

Job enlargement and job rotation are both approaches that have been used to
restructure jobs. Job enlargement means giving workers several different
operations at the same skill level. For example, the dish room worker might be
assigned responsibility for vegetable peeling and chopping, as well as, for washing
dishes.
Job rotation is a system in which workers move from one job to another on some
type of scheduled basis. Going back to the example above, a food service worker
might be assigned to the dish room one week and vegetable preparation the next.
Job enrichment, however, is an attempt to increase the task dimensions of a job
to give greater autonomy, feedback, and so forth. An example of job enrichment
might be the involvement of a cook in production forecasting and scheduling or, in
other words, planning of the work rather than only being responsible for food
preparation.
Whatever possibilities are tried, managers in all types of food service operations should
be concerned about the design of jobs from the standpoint of workers’ reactions. The
potential positive impact on job performance, morale, absenteeism, and turnover offers
a substantive payoff to the food service organization.

345
Entrepreneurship and Food Thus in this section we have seen how translating the organizational structure into jobs
Service Management is a process referred to as job design which includes, job analysis, job description and
job enrichment. From job design we move on to work design which impacts on work
productivity.

15.5 WORK DESIGN

Work design as we have seen in previous section(s) refers to a programme of
continuing effort to increase the effectiveness of work systems. Industrial engineers,
for example, have applied work analysis and design techniques in the manufacturing
industries for many years. More recently, these principles have been applied to the
service industries. The principles include:
1) Minimize all material movements and storages.
2) Use the shortest and straightest routes for the movements of materials across the
workplace.
3) Store materials as close to the point of first use as possible.
4) Minimize handling of materials by workers unless absolutely necessary.
5) Preposition all materials at the workplace as much as possible to reduce handling
effort.
6) Handle materials in bulk if at all possible.
7) Provisions should be made to remove scrap, trash and other wastes at the point
of creation.
8) Take advantage of gravity to move materials when feasible.
9) Use mechanical aids to lift heavy materials that are frequently used at workplaces.
10) Built-in leveling devices can be used to keep materials at a convenient working
height.
11) Use mechanized conveyors to move materials that follow a fixed route across the
workplace if they do not interfere with the work.
12) Use well-designed containers and pans that are easy to pick up or move.
13) Consider the use of interlocking containers for moving greater loads with ease and
safety.
14) Consider changing the design of the products involved to improve their materials
handling characteristics.
Materials handling refers to the movement and storage of materials and products as
they proceed through the food service system. Good design of materials movement
will lead to increased efficiency and decrease activities that do not add appreciable
value to the end product. The amount of materials handling is often dependent on the
location and arrangement of storage areas, pre-preparation and production areas and
equipment.

The principles of motion economy, relate to the design of work methods, of the
workplace, and of tools and equipment. These principles specify that movement should
be simultaneous, symmetrical, natural, rhythmic, and habitual.

The principles of motion economy that pertain to the human body are aimed specifically
at reducing the effort and energy required to do a job; for example, the use of both
hands, coordination of hands and eyes, and continuous motion as highlighted in Figure
15.4 (a). The principles related to the design of the workplace and of tools and
equipment identify situations that lead to easy body motions; for example, locating
tools within easy reach and placing objects in fixed positions as illustrated in Figure
15.4 (b). The points in Box 15.1, and Figure 15.4 which have been adapted from
employee training materials on work simplification, illustrate several of the key principles.
346
 Personnel Function —
Work Productivity

Figure 15.4(a): Principles of motion economy armed at reducing effort

347
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management

Figure 15.4(b): Work design principles in food service operations

Source: Konz and Maxwell (1980); Cited in Spears and Vaden (1989)
348
 Personnel Function —
Box 15.1 Principles of Work Simplification Work Productivity
A) Use of the Human Body
1) The number of motions required to complete a task should be minimized.
2) The length of necessary motions should be minimized.
3) Both hands should be used for work and should begin and end their activities
simultaneously.
4) Motions of hands and arms should be in symmetrical and opposite directions.
5) Both hands should not be idle at the same time except for rest.
6) Motions should be confined to the lowest possible classifications needed to
perform the task satisfactorily.
7) Smooth curved motions should be developed in preference to straight-line or
angular motions.
8) Motion patterns should be developed for rhythmic and habitual performance.
9) The motions should be arranged to take advantage of momentum.
10) The number of eye fixations required for the task should be minimized.
11) Intermittent use of the different classifications of movements should be
provided to combat fatigue.
B) Design and Layout of the Workplace
1) Materials, tools and controls should be located within the normal working area.
2) Materials and tools should have a fixed location.
3) Work requiring the use of eyes should be done within the normal field of vision.
4) Tools and materials should be pre-positioned to facilitate picking up.
5) Gravity feed bins or containers should be used to deliver incoming materials
close to the point of use.
6) Gravity should be used to deliver outgoing materials as also illustrated in
Figure 15.4 (a).
7) The height of the working surface should be designed to allow either a
standing or sitting position.
8) The environment of the workplace should be conducive to productive motions.
C) Design of Tools and Equipment
1) Tools, hand equipment and controls should be designed for easy grasp.
2) Two or more tools should be combined, if possible.
3) Jigs, fixtures or food operated devices should be used to relieve the work of
the hands.
4) Equipment should be designed so the inherent capabilities of the body members
are fully utilized.
5) Levers and controls should be designed to make maximum contact with the
body member.

Take a break here and try to assess your knowledge, understanding of the topic
discussed in the last section above, by answering the questions given in check your
progress exercise 2.

349
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Define the following terms:
a) Work design: ..........................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
b) Job analysis: ...........................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
c) Job titles: ................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
d) Job enrichment: ......................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
e) Materials handling: .................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
2) Differentiate between job description and job specification.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Briefly discuss the approaches that have been used to restructure jobs.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) What do you understand by the principles of motion economy? Discuss the
principles of motion economy in context of design and layout of workplace.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Now let us get to know about work measurement in food service operation which you
will learn focuses on effective use of human resources.

15.6 WORK MEASUREMENT IN FOOD SERVICE

OPERATIONS
Work measurement is a method of establishing an equitable relationship between the
amount of work performed and the human input used to do that work. In any
production operation, work measurement is necessary for effective use of human
resources.

350
Data from work measurement studies can aid evaluating alternative production/service Personnel Function —
systems, determining and controlling cost, staffing, scheduling work, deciding whether Work Productivity
to make or buy, planning facilities and layout, identifying needs for changes in
employee assignments, and timing or sequencing of tasks. David (1978) (cited in
Spears 89) indicates that work measurement data are also needed for developing useful
managerial aids, such as production time standards. Activity analysis, activity or
occurrence sampling, elemental standard data, and predetermined motion time are the
primary techniques of work measurement used for analysis in food service operations.
Let us review these techniques.
A) Activity Analysis
Activity analysis involves continuous observation for a chronological record of the
nature of activities performed by individual workers, work performed at one work
station, work units produced, or the amount of time for which equipment is used and
for what purpose. The data are used to establish standards for short cycle work or
long cycle work by persons moving about and to develop elemental standard data. A
simplified technique has been developed that involves employee recording of activities
at periodic intervals, usually between 5 and 15 minutes. This technique has been
referred to as an employee time log reporting system. Employees are asked to enter
data on the form every ten minutes during each day of a time study, according to the
function and project from the code sheet. Analysis of the data permits an analysis
of time devoted to various operations within the unit.
B) Activity of Occurrence Sampling
Activity of occurrence sampling are terms used in the literature to describe a method
for measuring working time and non-working time of people employed in direct and
indirect activities, and to measure operating time and down time of equipment.

Activity or occurrence sampling has been worked in food service operations. Much
of the classic work has been done at the University of Wisconsin, where a manual
was developed describing methods for conducting activity sampling studies in food
service operations (University of Wisconsin, 1967). Work functions and classifications
include direct work, indirect work, and delays. Let us have a look at each of these,
next.
a) Direct work functions: Any essential activity contributing directly to the production
of the end product (end product is total of meals served per day). The activities
include:
• Processing: Act of changing the appearance of a foodstuff by physical or
chemical means.
• Pre-preparation or preliminary processing: Preliminary act or process of
making ready for preparation distributions, or service.
• Preparation or cooking: Final act or process of making ready for distribution
or service.
• Service: Act of preparing facilities for distribution and of portioning and
assembling prepared food for distribution to patients and to cafeteria customers
(to coffee shop if dietary is responsible for operation of coffee shop).
• Transportation of food: Act of transporting food, supplies, or equipment form
a location in one functional area to a designated location in another area within
the department or to patients’ wards.
• Transportation of equipment, supplies and other: Act of moving equipments,
supplies and other items from a location in one functional area to a designed
location in another area within the department.

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Entrepreneurship and Food • Delivery of trays to patients: (if this function is performed by dietary services)
Service Management Act of removing patients’ tray from food trucks, dumbwaiter or trayveyor, and
carrying to patients’ bedside.
• Return of trays from patients (if this function is performed by dietary services)
Act of removing trays from patients’ bedside to food trucks; dumbwaiter on
the ward.
• Transportation empty: Act of moving without carrying guiding anything from
a location in one functional area to a designated location in another area within
the department.
• Clerical (routine): Act of receiving, compiling, distributing, and storing of
routine records of data and information necessary for operation of the
department.
• Cleaning: Act of removing soil or dirt to provide sanitary conditions for the
use of equipment, facilities, and supplies.
• Pot and pan washing: Act of scraping, washing, or rinsing quantity food
containers and cooking utensil.
• Dishwashing: Act of preparing for or removal of soil or dirt to provide
sanitary conditions for use of tableware (china, silverware, glassware, and
trays).
• Housekeeping: Act of removing soil or dirt to provide sanitary conditions for
the use of installed and mobile equipment and facilities.
• Receiving: Act of acquiring, inspecting, and storing food and/or supplies from
an area outside the department.
b) Indirect work functions: Any catalytic activity which contributes to production of
the end product. Under this head the activities include:
• Instruction of teaching: Act of directing or receiving direction by oral or
written communication in a training or classroom situation or on the job.
• Appraisal: Act of judging or estimating the value or amount of work in order
to make decisions for future planning.
• Conference: Act of oral communication with one or more persons in the form
of a scheduled meeting.
• Clerical: Act of compiling and formulating management control records of
data and information necessary for the operation of the department.
c) Delay: All time when an employee is scheduled to be working and is not engaged
in either a direct or an indirect work function, is called a delay. These include:
• Forced delay: The time an employee is not working due to an interruption
beyond his control in the performance of a direct or an indirect work function.
• Personal and idle delays: The time an employee is not working due to
personal delays or avoidable delays.
— Personal delays: The time an employee is not working due to time permitted
away from the work area.
— Idle time: Any avoidable delay (other than forced or personal delay) that
occurs for which the employee is responsible.
The number of observations required in occurrence sampling depends on the type of
study, the type of operations, and the number of personnel. Data from an occurrence
sampling study are used to calculate labour minutes per meal equivalent or labour
minutes for some other specific activity. One advantage of occurrence sampling is that
several workers in a specific area can be studied simultaneously by a single observer.
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C) Elemental Standard Data Personnel Function —
Work Productivity
Elemental standard data are time values that have been determined for many elements
and motions common to a wide variety of work. From these values, total times for
specific tasks can be synthesized. David (1978) states the job variables significantly
affecting normal time for a given type of operation must first be hypothesized, then
data on times be collected on the number and variety of jobs of that type. The data
are used to determine the relationship between normal time and each of the variables
believed to affect normal time significantly.

Predetermined motion time includes techniques in which tasks are broken down into
basic motions for which normal time values have been determined (David 1978). The
purpose of this system is to establish cycle time for a specify operation without actually
performing the task. Instead, the predetermined time for the basic motions that make
up the cycle are synthesized. One technique, Methods Time Measurement (MTM),
is widely used in industry but it is time consuming, and David (1978) concludes that
MTM is usually not applicable to long cycle work or work with limited repetition, such
as that in food service operations. An alternative technique has been developed, called
Master Standard Data (MSD), in which seven basic elements of work are combined
into larger, more condensed elements.

Montag et al. (1964) (cited in Spears 89) were among the first to apply MSD to food
service operations. They concluded that the method was applicable for developing
coded standard elements with universal application in food service operations. Several
studies have used MSD for examining production times in food service facilities.
Ridley et al., 1984 used Master Standard Data to develop labour times for the
assembling and microwave heating of menu items in a hospital galley. They also found
that the technique could be used effectively for developing standard labour times, since
data from their study indicated that total labour time under actual conditions in a
hospital galley was similar to MSD predicted time.

David (1978) concludes that progress is being made in food service system toward
developing standards for labour time using techniques of work measurement. She
asserts, however, that application of the more complex measures requires a combination
of the expertise of the food service operator and the systems analyst. Each food
service operation should establish its own standards of productivity because of unique
differences among operations.

Finally having reviewed the work measurements techniques, we move on to

productivity improvement which you would agree is important for any food service
set-up.

15.7 PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT

Here, in this section, we shall get to know about different methods which can be used
to improve productivity especially in food service institutions. We shall discuss about
it under two sub-headings — productivity measures and quality circles. What are these
and how these help to improve productivity? Let us get to know, next. We shall
start off with productivity measures, first.

15.7.1 Productivity Measures

A number of methods are used to measure labour productivity in food service
operations. These measures can be classified as operating ratios. Because of their
relevance to labour control, however, several of the frequently used measures of labour
productivity along with the formula for computing each of these measures are delineated
here.
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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management • Meals Served per Labour Hour
total meals served/day
Meals/labour hour = —————————————
labour hours/day
• Labour Minutes per Meal Served
labour minutes/day
Minutes/meal = ————————————
total meals served/day
• Payroll Cost per Day
Payroll cost/day = Σ of hourly rate of each employee × hours worked for
all employees
• Payroll Cost per Meal Served
total daily payroll cost
Payroll cost/meal served = ————————————
meals served/day
• Labour Cost per Day
Labour cost/day = total payroll cost/day + total of all other direct labour costs
(fringe benefits, and so on)/day
• Labour Cost per Meal Served
total labour cost/day
Labour cost/meal served = ————————————
meals served/day

Source: Spears and Vaden 1989.

Record keeping systems should be established to record data on a systematic basis to

determine the productivity measures that the management of the food service organization
has selected for analysis. These measures can be used to examine trends over time
within a particular operation, to compare various operations within an organization, or
to compare the results from a specific food service operation with available industry
data.
Next, let us get to know about quality circles.

15.7.2 Quality Circles

Quality circle is a concept which leads to increased productivity. Small groups of
employees, can identify problems, analyze them and then promote better control
activities. A quality circle is described as a small group of employees, ranging from
3 to 25 members. Since part of the concept is to get everyone to participate, a limit
of about 10 members, all volunteers, seems to work best. Meetings are typically held
once a month, but may be held as often as once a week, with the usual length being
one hour. Normally these meetings are within working hours, but may be held outside
working hours, with employees being paid extra. Projects are generally nominated by
the workers and focus on quality improvement.
Four basic steps are involved in a QC team’s approach to a problem. These steps are:
• Step 1. Select the project
• Step 2. Analyze present conditions
• Step 3. Establish goals
• Step 4. Promote control activities.
Training of team members is considered critical to the success of quality circles. It
must focus not only on the quality control concept but also on brainstorming and on
the various data analysis techniques used in the QC concept ( such as fish diagrams,
histograms, and check lists and other data recording devices). Managerial support is
a prerequisite to success of quality circles in an organization.

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In summarizing the literature on quality circles, Treadwell and Klein (1984) cite the Personnel Function —
following as among the benefits from quality circles: improved productivity, product Work Productivity
quality, and employee satisfaction and morale; reduced tardiness, absenteeism, and
work disruption; and development of the managerial ability of circle leaders. In
describing the experience with implementing quality circles in a large hospital dietetics
department, they indicate that the first challenge was to define objectives and a code
of conduct. Look at Table 15.1 which, presents the patient tray assembly quality circle
objectives and code of conduct. Once these were agreed upon, the group was
prepared to being in the problem solving process.
Table 15.1: Patient tray assembly quality circle objectives and code of conduct

Objectives Code of Conduct

To build better relationships among Problem solving is the focus, not personality
employees probing
To give employees an interest in their Criticize ideas, not people
work through contributing ideas
To respect each other as individuals All questions and suggestions are accepted –
and work together in harmony the only stupid question is the one not asked.
To improve quality of work life Everyone enters with an open mind and is open
to ideas of others
To participate as a team member, no Everyone arrives at the meeting on time.
matter how small the input
To participate collectively in the All projects and problems are work related.
presentation to management Salaries, wages, and benefits are not discussed

Their initial team was established in the patient tray assembly area, and during the first
18 months, fourteen projects were completed, six concerned with workers day-to-day
frustrations, four with quality, and four with cost reduction and productivity improvement.
Treadwell and Klein report that a savings of $10,000 was documented in this first one
and a half years and that the quality of food served to patients improved, as well as,
the work environment for employees.
Three reasons behind the success of quality circles have been enumerated. These are:
• Use of basic statistics
• Group dynamics
• Job satisfaction.
When problems are attacked in quality circles, the solutions or suggestions are not
based on opinions or imagination but on data collected for analyzing a problem logically
and systematically. Working together in a group helps people make better decisions and
builds a cooperative spirit. Generally, communication improves, labour problems are
minimized, waste is reduced and self-inspection becomes routine. Job satisfaction
increases as well because people feel that they are part of a company, they are listened
to, and they are permitted to enjoy a greater degree of freedom and autonomy in the
workplace.

So here in this section we have learnt about the measures of labour productivity and
about the concept of quality circles and how employees organized in small groups can
work towards improving work productivity, and employee satisfaction. Let us check
our understanding on this topic by answering the questions included in the check your
progress exercise 3.

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Fill in the blanks:
a) A method of establishing an equitable relationship between the amount
of work performed and the human input used to that work is
………………..............................................
b) A technique involving employee recording of activities at periodic intervals
is employee time ….......…….. reporting system.
c) A term that describes the method for measuring working and non-
working time of people employed in direct and indirect activities is
activity of ………..
d) The time an employee is not working due to an interruption beyond his
control is referred to as……………..
e) Time values that have been determined for many elements and motions
common to a wide variety of work is……………..
2) What do you understand by direct and indirect functions. List the various
direct and indirect functions.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) What is a quality circle? Enumerate the basic steps involved in it.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

15.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learnt about the concept of productivity and the techniques used to
analyze productivity. We learnt that based on the organizational objectives, it is
important that the manager designs an organizational structure and then develop jobs
to fit this structure. Departmentalization according to function, product, location, type
of clientele, can be different ways of structuring the organization. Line and staff
relationships are significant in terms of production of goods and services and giving
of counsel and advice needed.

Organization charts, we learnt, graphically describe the structure of the organization.

A job analysis is required to design jobs in an organization; job descriptions and job
specification are results of this job analysis process. Further, job design is effective
when productivity and employee morale is high and there is a low rate of absenteeism
among employees.

Food service industry poses a difficult challenge because of its style of operation and
being labour intensive. Productivity improvement, in food service unit, therefore, is to
bring out the best in the employee. Work design is a programme to increase the
effectiveness of the worker. Principles of work simplification and motion economy if
utilized will result in increased productivity. The unit also emphasized that work
measurement studies need to be carried out, and data from these studies can be used
to develop standard for the organization. Quality circle as a concept which leads to
356
increased productivity was also described. Small groups of employees, can identify Personnel Function —
problems, analyze them and then promote better control over activities was emphasized. Work Productivity
The effectiveness of this technique lies in that solutions are based on data, and
decisions evolve from a group process.

15.9 GLOSSARY
Fish diagram : the fish diagram also known as the cause and effect
diagram shows the causes of a certain event. It was first
used by Kaoru Ishikawa in the 1960’s and is considered
one of the seven basic tools o quality management including
the histogram.
Histogram : a histogram is the graphical version of a table which
shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several
or many specified categories. The categories are usually
specified as non-overlapping intervals of some variable.

Method Time : it is a system frequently used to set labour rates in industry

Measurement (MTM) by quantifying the amount of time required to perform specific
tasks.

15.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Productivity has been defined as a term descriptive of the level of the output of
a manufacturing operation. In the context of food service establishments, work
productivity is used to describe the performance of jobs by the personnel, working
in an organization.
2) One of the primary reasons for organizing a food service institution is to establish
lines of authority which create order within the organization. Organizing also
improves the efficiency and quality of work, as the coordinated efforts of people
working together begin to produce a synergistic effect. Improved communications
can also be a product of organization and its structurally defined channels of
communication among members of the organization.
3) Refer to sub-section 15.3.1 and 15.3.2 and write the salient features on your own.
4) Departmentalization is the most frequently used method for implementing division
of labour, which involves grouping activities into related work units. Give an
example based on your understanding of the concept. Also refer to sub-section
15.3.3 and list the various parameters, based on which different departments are
organized.
5) The organization chart graphically portrays the organization structure. It depicts
the basic relationships of positions and functions while specifying the formal
authority and communication network of the organization. It is not an exact
representation of reality and therefore, has limitations. The organization chart
shows few of the relationships even in the formal organization and none of those
in the informal organization.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) a) The function of specifying the work activities of an individual or group or
developing assignment that meet the requirements of the organization and the
technology, and that satisfy the personal and individual requirements of job
holder.
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Entrepreneurship and Food b) The process of determining, through observation and study, the pertinent
Service Management information relating to the nature of a specific job.
c) The titles assigned to jobs which are primarily designed to distinguish among
various jobs.
d) An attempt to increase the task dimensions of a job to give greater autonomy,
feedback etc.
e) Movement and storage of materials and products as they proceed through the
food service system.
2) A job description is a written statement identifying the tasks, duties, activities, and
expected performance results in a particular job. A job specification, on the other
hand, identifies the ability, skills, or traits necessary for successful performance
of a job.
3) Approaches that have been used to restructure job are job enlargement and job
rotation. Refer to sub-section 15.4.4 and discuss these approaches based on your
understanding.
4) The principles of motion economy, relate to the design of work methods, of the
workplace, and of tools and equipment. These principles specify that movement
should be simultaneous, symmetrical, natural, rhythmic, and habitual. Refer to
section 15.5 and present a discussion on the principles of motion economy in
context of design and layout of workplace.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) a) work measurement
b) log
c) occurrence sampling
d) forced delay
e) elemental standard data
2) Direct functions are any essential activity contributing directly to the production
of the end product. Indirect functions are any catalytic activity which contributes
to production of the end product. To list the various direct and indirect functions
refer to sub-section 15.6 B.
3) Quality circle is a concept which leads to increased productivity. In this concept
small groups of employees organize into a group which can identify problems,
analyze them and then promote better control over activities. For basic steps refer
to sub-section 15.7.2 and write down these steps.

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 Personnel Function —
UNIT 16 PLANT AND EQUIPMENT Work Productivity

MAINTENANCE

Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Plant and Equipment in Food Services
16.2.1 Definition
16.2.2 Classification
16.3 Types of Plant and Equipment
16.3.1 Plant
16.3.2 Equipment
16.4 Maintenance of Plant and Equipment
16.4.1 General Care and Maintenance
16.4.2 Cleaning Systems
16.4.3 Planning for Maintenance
16.5 Safety Concerns
16.5.1 Safety Measures in Food Service Operations
16.6 Checks and Inspections
16.6.1 Procedures
16.6.2 Schedules
16.7 Equipment Suppliers
16.8 Let Us Sum Up
16.9 Glossary
16.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

16.1 INTRODUCTION
In our previous units, we have learnt about manpower management and the productivity
of people working in food services at all levels of the establishment. Productivity in
food services depends largely on the skills of people, the equipment available to them
and the training they receive in the operation and maintenance of their equipment.
This unit deals mainly with the equipment that people use especially at operative
levels from where food is actually served to the customer in all types of food
services.

The unit introduces some definitions and general classification of different

equipments, discusses the types used by various establishments and ways of maintaining
them in good working condition. Some design and safety features have also been
introduced along with methods of cleaning and developing procedures for maintaining
equipment to ensure sanitary practices, as should be observed in their handling, use
and storage.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• define plant and equipment in relation to food operations,
• identify the different types of equipment used in food services and their classification,
• choose the right size and type of equipment for a particular purpose,
• discuss the maintenance of equipments,
• explain the importance of water quality and cleaning agents,
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Entrepreneurship and Food • highlight the importance of personal cleanliness and equipment maintenance,
Service Management
• describe some safety measures taken in food services, and
• establish procedures for carrying out inspections for ensuring safety of equipment
and people.

16.2 PLANT AND EQUIPMENT IN FOOD SERVICES

Any food operation, regardless of its size, needs a plant and an equipment so as to
function effectively and smoothly. You might have seen your mother preparing food
at home using various equipments. Can you list them down? Well, these could be
simple ones such as knife, peeler, grater, toaster, sandwich maker to a little bit complex
ones such as blender, juicer-mixer-grinder or food processor, microwave, oven,
refrigerator and so on and so forth. The list is endless. Well, before we further move
on to this section, let us first understand what do the terms plant and equipment mean.
Let us read and find out in the following sub-section.

16.2.1 Definition
With respect to food services, the term plant refers to large pieces of equipment that
need to be installed at a particular place in a store, kitchen or service area and used
by the staff at that location. Such equipment is therefore usually immovable and any
one who wants to use it has to come to the equipment with the necessary ingredients
that need to be processed. In other words, the equipment is large and heavy enough
to be planted or fixed at a chosen site in the establishment. Some examples of such
equipment are peeling machines, fryers, baking ovens, service units such as bain
maries and the like. It is important to remember however, that while all plant are
equipment in the form of large machines, all equipment are not plant, as they all
cannot be planted or used at one location.

The term equipment is used for all other appliances or tools that are partly or
wholly moveable from one area to another for use as required. These may include
anything from a trolley to a ladle or knife that is used in any establishment small or
large.
Next, let us get to know how equipment is classified.

16.2.2 Classification
Equipment may be classified in many ways according to weight or size, the order in
which it is used in the production cycle of a catering establishment, or according to
their mode of operation. Let us get to know classification based on each of these. We
shall begin with weight or size first.
a) Weight or size
Equipment is often classified according to the weight of the metal sheet from which
they are made, and often referred to as light, medium or heavy-duty equipment.

Do you know how the word duty got linked with equipment in this classification?
Simply because, most catering equipment were imported by hotels and other food
service establishments either as such or in the form of metal sheets to be used in their
manufacture. The heavier sheets were charged a duty by the customs and excise
department, which was slightly less for lighter metals. Today, food production equipment
is also made in India but the term duty continues to be associated with equipment
trade, whether it is imported or exported from the country. Let us get to know about
these duty equipments further.

Heavy duty equipment: Equipment made from heavy metal are generally too heavy
360 to move around easily, and are therefore generally fitted or installed after careful
planning of spaces and equipment use at the desired location. These equipments are Plant and Equipment
therefore either fixed on a permanent platform or may be free standing with a 10 cm Maintenance
clearance from the floor for ease of cleaning. The features of heavy duty equipment
are that they:
• perform heavy work,
• can operate for long hours,
• have a longer operational life,
• increase productivity, and
• improve cleaning and maintenance as the manufacturer assists in the servicing of
the equipment.
Such equipments however, are capital intensive and require heavier initial
investment for the buyer. Some examples of such equipment are cooking ranges,
ovens, refrigeration equipment; dough-making machines, which are usually ordered
through catalogues and specially, manufactured for the buyer and require a lag time
before delivery. These equipments can therefore not be delivered immediately.
Medium duty equipment: It refers to those pieces, which with effort can be
moved around for rearrangement and occasional cleaning. They may also be so
constructed as to get dismantled for ease of cleaning, or fixed on wheels for easy
mobility. Some examples are trolleys, food processor, cooking pans, small ovens and
so on.
Light duty equipment: Light in weight and convenient in construction, light duty
equipment is made from thinner metal or other materials, according to their utility.
They can be carried around to any work area or cleaning and washing area. These
equipments include most service equipment, cutlery, pans and ladles, knives etc.
The next classification of equipment is based on the order of use. Let us review this
classification.
b) Order of Use
This classification is based on the order in which equipment is used in the food
production and service cycle. All equipment in food services can therefore be placed
into six categories namely, receiving and storage, food production, service,
cleaning, clearing and waste management equipment. Let us have a brief look at each
of these.
Receiving and storage equipment: As the name suggests, this category consists of
equipment necessary for receiving food and other materials like linen, disposables,
detergents, mops etc. Receiving and storage equipment include items like, weighing
equipment for large quantity packs, platforms and other specific furniture and trolleys,
storage bins, mobile shelving racks, built in shelving, ventilation and lighting equipment,
office and security equipment. Large establishments may need mechanical or motorized
lifts and carrying trolleys.
Food production equipment: This includes all appliances necessary for food preparation,
cooking, holding and cleaning of utensils, ladles, knives, trolleys, kitchen furniture,
crockery, cutlery and glassware. Office furniture for chef, and washing and restroom
facilities are also essential for the staff in every food production unit.
Service equipment: Service equipment covers all heating and holding equipment,
portioning tools, table dishes and disposables, cutlery crockery, glassware and the like.
The type of equipment used is however largely dependent on menu and service style
adopted by the establishment.
Cleaning equipment: Washing up or cleaning is usually carried out in one designated
part of the kitchen as close to a source of plumbing as possible. The equipment would
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Entrepreneurship and Food involve sink units, sink incinerators, dish washers, glass washing machines and so on,
Service Management in addition to shelving trolleys for clean utensils, pots and pans, which would involve
air drying of the washed equipment. Complete washing up equipments are now
available for large kitchens, which provide free flowing water and
underground drainage. These are gradually replacing the use of multiple stainless steel
sinks connected to water tanks on one end and waste disposal pipe on the other.
Clearing and waste disposal equipment: The equipment for cleared and other waste
disposal has been transformed from the open dumps to closed bins, sealed bags and
incinerators. The latter come as sealed units in models that can be fitted to sinks for
crushing peels, bones from meats and any plate waste that is then passed through the
incinerator to the general drainage provided. This also helps to reduce the bulk of
wastes collected for disposal and keeps the environment of the food service clean.
Incinerators are also available as freestanding units for dealing with waste materials
collected in covered bins throughout the day. Waste disposal equipment is generally
installed at a distance from kitchens, to avoid cross contamination of fresh, raw, as
well as, cooked food.
This method of classifying equipment is the most commonly used in food services as
it helps to relate equipment with the area in which it is located and used. Next, we
move on to the last method of classifying equipments and that is based on mode of
operation.
c) Mode of Operation
Methods of operating different equipment vary according to their design and functional
features. Some are mechanical, some fully hand operated, others are semi-automatic
and still others are fully automatic. Let us get to know each of these.
Hand operated: These equipments are operated by hand using the mechanical energy
and effort of people, as they mix, slice or beat ingredients for food preparation. You
must have sliced vegetables or tomatoes for salad using a kitchen knife, or grated
ginger and onions for cooking. All these use human energy and we feel tired at the
end of such jobs. Imagine what would be the state of people who prepare ingredients
day after day by hand, especially in large quantities in food service operations.
Semi-automatic: These make use of electricity to reduce the effort; as such the press
of a button operates equipments after connecting to an electrical socket. Some examples
are mixers, beaters, toasters, which though functionally electrical, need to be monitored
or supervised by people for optimum results.
Automatic: These include models designed with auto controls for temperature and time
of use. They are fitted with thermostats and timers that ring an alarm, when the time
set for cooking is completed such as bakery ovens, cookers, steamers fryers and so
on. Automatic equipments are generally electrical equipment and require less effort to
operate, because once the timers are set and the dish placed into the oven to cook,
they are started with the press of a button. The productivity also increases as the staff
have more time to attend to other work while the cooking is in progress, and
monitoring time is saved since the equipment will switch off automatically when the
dish is ready.
With this, we finish our understanding of the different types of classifications of large
and small equipments and their uses in food operations. Let us further move on to
the types of plant and equipment in the next section.

16.3 TYPES OF PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

We have just reviewed both the large and small equipment used in food operations.
Let us therefore see how many types of plant and equipment are used by the different
kinds of food service establishments such as restaurants, hospitals etc. We start with
362 plant.
16.3.1 Plant Plant and Equipment
Maintenance
As already defined, plant refers to all heavy-duty equipment used in any operation.
You may recall reading about heavy-duty equipment in this unit earlier. When such
equipments are placed in a sequence to perform various functions one after the other
as in a factory or base kitchen, the set up is known as a plant and is used for very
large operations such as in the case of air or railway catering kitchens. These are often
called central kitchens, the food being produced in large quantities and then distributed
to service points. Can you think of any examples? Well, the most common would be
the Nirula’s base kitchen from where the processed food and ingredients are transported
in refrigerated vans to their satellite outlets. Mother Dairy milk is another example of
a factory plant that controls the quality of milk and its products and then transports
them in refrigerated vans to the various outlets.
Another type of heavy equipment arrangement is used in hospital kitchens, in which
selected heavy duty equipment are installed for the performance of those jobs which
require a lot of human effort and time and also produces an irregular or variable result.
Some examples are weighing equipment at receiving points where large quantities of
raw foods are delivered, or peeling machines usually installed adjacent to sink units,
as they require plumbing in addition to electricity supply. Installed equipment not only
takes care to provide standard quality of the end product but is quick and requires
little human effort to get consistent results. The result is that large quantities can be
handled with ease at one time.
Of course, a number of factors are responsible for the right choice of the equipment
and its capacity, according to the needs of each food operation such as the menu,
design features, ease of operation and cleaning, safety for the operator, cost of
installation and the maintenance contract with the supplier.
Next, let us get to know about the equipment.

16.3.2 Equipment
The equipment used in food services is of many types depending on the size and
material out of which it is made. Equipment may be small or large and made of metals
like copper, aluminium, galvanized steel or iron, chrome, silver, polyethylene, glass,
ceramic or even mud pots baked in the sun or glazed in a kiln, or cups and spoons
made of leaves, grasses and wood shavings, as was common for traditional disposable
equipment. Figure 16.1 shows the shapes and types usually used even today in some
food services to give the traditional touch. Other disposable equipment made of
plastics, paper, cardboard, aluminium foil and so on, have now largely replaced them
in modern versions.

Figure 16.1: Some traditional and modern disposable equipment 363

Entrepreneurship and Food Each type of equipment has its own advantages and disadvantages with respect to
Service Management utility for a particular type of establishment. These are briefly discussed herewith.
a) Mobile Equipment: As the term suggests, such equipment can be moved from one
work area to another as is the case with trolleys, sinks, mobile table tops on which
food processors may be placed for use to be wheeled to different areas of food
production activity. Some equipments are presented in Figure 16.2.

Figure 16.2: Some mobile equipment

Any medium duty equipment can be made mobile for flexibility of use and placement
in a food service. This not only saves human energy and time in lifting out equipment
and carrying it to wherever it is needed for use, but also enables it to be taken to the
sink unit for proper cleaning. The cleaning of spaces under the equipment also
becomes easier and more efficient when they are moveable.
b) Modular Equipment: When two or more equipments are put together as a single
piece the equipment is called modular. For example, a cooking range, which also
has an oven and grill built into it along with burners or hot plates on the top for
cooking, would be termed modular, as it would come as a single module.
This is also sometimes referred to as multiuse or multifunction equipment because
the same piece can be used for performing many different functions in food services.
Some equipments are designed in a manner that enables parts of one to be used
interchangeably in another equipment. Modular equipment is very useful where size
of the establishment is small and number of equipment that can be installed or stored
are limited. Some models are indicated in Figure 16.3.

364 Figure 16.3: Modular equipment

A few of the equipment in this category are briefly described to indicate the different Plant and Equipment
ways in which one piece of equipment can be utilized. Maintenance

• Pans and trays: The pans or trays that fit into a bain marie can be made to
dimensions that also fit into the oven for baking, get stored on the refrigerator
shelf, fitted into a hot or cold trolley shelf and wheeled in for service as required.
Sometimes spaces can be made to size to match the standard sizes of equipment
available. For example, a 9" × 12" or 12" × 18" pans to fit into the same sized
space. Modular equipment minimizes the handling of food, as well as, washing
because food transfer from one pan to another is reduced to a minimum.
• Food processor: A food processor comes with multiple attachments and can be
used for grating, slicing, chopping, mincing, grinding and even juice extraction. It
is however, also a disadvantage to use only one machine all the time because in
case it gets spoilt, quality and productivity get hampered. This can however, be
overcome by regular maintenance, to extend its life. In addition, replacements too,
can be planned in advance as soon as its estimated life is nearing completion.
• Griddle plate: A griddle plate is a heavy duty electrically operated equipment and
usually comes in square or rectangular shapes. It can be used to cook a variety
of dishes such as chappati, dosa, eggs, pancakes, papads and shallow fried
products like cutlets, parathas etc.
• Steamer: A steamer can also be used for preparation of a large variety of foods
such as steamed vegetables, fish, eggs and steamed fermented foods like idli,
dhokla, momos and the like.
• Boiler: Boilers like steamers are very versatile equipment and can be used for
cooking any food in liquid. In food service kitchens they are used for blanching
foods, making curries, soups, stews and so on.
• Kadai or wok: A kadai is a piece of equipment very similar to the Chinese wok.
It is made of metals like galvanized iron, heavy to medium duty aluminium, iron,
steel and today available with non-stick coatings as well in order to make them
lighter to handle. For very large quantity cooking, tilting pans are used in hotels
to prevent lifting, but the utility is similar to that of a kadai especially for stir-
frying, mixing, roasting, shallow frying or simmering and poaching foods.
There are a number of equipment available for use of food service operations that are
general purpose and multifunction in their potential such as trolleys, trays, bins etc.
which can be used in any area of the establishment for carrying goods, crockery,
cutlery and so on. Some of these are shown in Figure 16.4.

Figure 16.4: Some multifunction equipment

365
Entrepreneurship and Food The advantages of such types of equipment are that it:
Service Management
• occupies less space and therefore can be installed by small to medium sized
services,
• flexible in use,
• lowers investment, and
• has a greater utility.
Creative and innovative food production staff can convert equipment designed for a
single use into multi function units. An outstanding example of this is the use of the
doughnut machine being used for vada preparation in the Nirula’s base kitchen in
Delhi. Perhaps other batters of similar consistencies can be used for preparing a
greater variety of products with versatility and making the equipment more cost
effective.
c) Labour Saving Devices: Labour saving devices are equipments which help to
reduce energy and time of staff in production and service of food, or in clearing
and cleaning of dishes, and in waste management. The special features of such
equipment can be summarized as:
• Time and energy saving
• Improve quality of food
• Increase productivity
• Standardize portions
• Decrease food handling
• Ensure food safety
Some examples of labour saving equipment are peeling machines, dish or glass
washing equipment, thermostatically controlled ovens storage equipment, detergent
dispensers and so on.
d) Custom built Equipment: As the name suggests, this equipment is usually made
according to the specifications and size desired by the buyer. In other words, it
is specially designed for the customer’s requirements. The equipment may vary
from furniture, to a size of container, fridge, blender, peeling machine to just any
thing or feature that the buyer might like for his establishment. For instance,
equipment can be ordered to fit into a particular space available or made to a size
or capacity required.
Since it is specially manufactured for the customer, it is more expensive and spare parts
for it would have to be specially designed for it when needed as the standardized mass
produced ones would not be appropriate. Manufacturers generally offer the service for
manufacturing equipment according to the specific needs of establishments for size,
shape, weight and fit.

Before we move on to the care and maintenance of the plant and equipment we just
studied, let us take a break here and recapitulate what we have learnt so far.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) What is the difference between plant and equipment?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

366
 Plant and Equipment
2) In how many ways can equipment be classified? List the methods giving Maintenance
examples under each.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) What kind of equipment are the following:
a) Food processor ......................................................................................
b) Cooking range with oven and grill .....................................................
c) Glass or dishwashing machine ............................................................
d) Specially designed equipment .............................................................
e) Food trolley ..........................................................................................

16.4 MAINTENANCE OF PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

You must have noticed that it is very essential to keep the equipments clean that we
use during food operations. Even at our homes, where the cooking is not done at a
massive scale as is in the case of hospitals or restaurants, our mother ensures that all
equipments are stored clean and dry. Why it is important to do so? Well, this is to
ensure their long use and safety, as well as, the safety of the personnel handling it.
All equipment large or small, heavy or light requires careful handling in use, cleaning
and storage to maintain it in good, relatively attractive and usable condition. Proper
care and maintenance also extends its life by reducing the depreciation or deterioration
of efficiency of the equipment. When used improperly or not at all equipment
deteriorates in its performance capacity very rapidly. Let us see how we can keep it
operating efficiently and maximize the returns on investments made on plant and
equipment. General care and maintenance of equipment follows.

16.4.1 General Care and Maintenance

In the case of heavy equipment installed by the manufacturer, general care needs to
follow certain simple guidelines such as:
• Keeping equipment clean using methods recommended by the manufacturer.
• Washing all removable parts after use, with suitable detergent and hot water, then
air-drying them completely before refitting for next use.
• All small equipment like cutlery, chopping boards, kitchen and service tools should
be washed with detergent and rinsed in hot water, air dried, to avoid contamination
through excessive handling, and then stored on racks ready for use.
• Close supervision is necessary at work to ensure that correct handling methods
are being followed for each type of equipment.
• All electrical inputs to equipment should be checked periodically to ensure that
the proper electrical load is available for their efficient operation.
• Insulation, plumbing and other connections need periodic checks to keep them
operating at optimum efficiency.
• Simple instructions in a form understood by operators should be pasted above the
equipment so that anyone who operates that equipment can refer to the instructions
when in doubt, about any sequence in its operation, repositioning washed parts
and so on.
367
Entrepreneurship and Food • An unusual sound detected while equipment are in use or warning lights found
Service Management fused, should be attended to immediately. Timely repair will prevent equipment
breakdown and long disruptions in production and service.
• A weekly, fortnightly or monthly programme or schedule for oiling or servicing
equipment is important to maintain machinery in order.
• Assign the care of each machine to one responsible person.
• Make full use of warranty periods to help train operating staff and supervisors,
to learn regular maintenance procedures from the manufacturer’s engineers.
The servicing procedure supplied by the manufacturer for each equipment bought,
provides a good guide for general care and maintenance of heavy and medium duty
equipment. In the case of small or light duty equipment such as cutlery etc. some
metals require less specialized care than others. Stainless steel is the most easy-to-care-
for metal as it is non-corrosive as compared to silver or other plated materials that
get easily scratched and unsightly with use. These therefore need care more frequently
in the form of re-plating and polishing.

With kitchen tools like chef’s knives, choppers etc. care is limited to preventing the
blades from rusting if they are made of iron, and keeping them dry and covered or
lightly oiled to prevent oxidation. With whisks and beaters, it is the rotating parts or
wiry ends, which need special attention. It is good practice to wash or soak these
immediately after use to prevent foods from drying on them and making cleaning
difficult.

In small establishments, the care and maintenance functions are usually entrusted to
those who operate the equipment, as the types invested on are usually light or medium
duty pieces. In larger establishments, heavy-duty equipment predominates, and therefore
a maintenance department performs this function for the entire organization.

General cleanliness of equipment in storage and in its operational environment therefore,

is the guiding principle in good care and maintenance. Money, time and effort spent
on care helps to maintain equipment in continuous working order, while that spent on
repair can result in work interruptions causing unnecessary strain on staff, in addition
to incurring extra costs.

Let us next have a look at the cleaning schedules. What are these and how these must
be administered for better care and maintenance of equipments?

Cleaning Schedules
Before moving on to the cleaning schedules and its understanding, let us understand
what do we mean by the term schedule. Schedules are instructions laid down to guide
the staff in the cleaning of equipment in their charge. They should therefore be
simple to understand and follow at work.

Cleaning schedules involve routine cleaning of equipment, which is generally the

responsibility of the operative staff of an establishment. All staff must understand the
proper procedures for cleaning and strictly follow schedules laid down, not only for
equipment cleaning but also the areas in and around the organization. Managers in-
charge of food operations may make schedules for cleaning on a daily, bi-weekly,
weekly or fortnightly basis according to the size of the facility, equipment, its design
and frequency of use. The cleaning schedules for some commonly used equipment
in small to medium sized establishments are briefly discussed.
a) Cooking equipment: These include, hotplates, gas stoves and cooking ranges. The
cleaning schedule for these equipments include:

368
 • Wipe the top daily while still warm using wet cloth or sponge. Plant and Equipment
Maintenance
• Any food spilled and burnt during cooking may require the use of mild
detergent, or scouring pad.
• For open burners a weekly boil in warm soapy water will help to remove any
food particles that may have caused blockage of pores, leading to inefficient
heating.
• Wipe dry with slightly oiled cloth.
• Sharp edges should be carefully handled while cleaning.
• Dry and carefully refit the parts into the machine for use.
• Small equipment like graters, peelers, knives and other sharp tools should also
be cleaned immediately after use so as not to allow food particles to dry on
it.
• Cooking pans need to be soaked in hot water; adhering food removed with
a brush, and cleaned using a scouring pad and suitable detergents.
b) Ovens: These may vary in size and type depending on the usage and size of
establishment. Cleaning schedule for oven includes:
• Wash and rinse the outer surfaces daily and after every use.
• Use liquid wax for enamel finished parts.
• Brush the insides clean to remove any sediment due to food particles charred
during cooking, while the oven is switched off but still warm.
• Any sticky areas may be wiped.
• Clean all plastic knobs with wet cloth and wipe dry.
c) Holding Equipment: This includes equipment like refrigerators, food warmers,
bain maries, each requiring slightly different cleaning routines. The routine include:
• Refrigerators may be cleaned twice a week or weekly depending on the type
and amount of foods being stocked.
• They require to be emptied out, defrosted completely, wiped with a sponge
dipped in mild detergent, and then dried with a soft moist cloth dipped in
warm water.
• After cleaning the door should be kept open for air-drying for 15-30 minutes.
• Close door and switch on the fridge, for half an hour before filling it again.
• Wipe with a soft cloth wringed in hot water, and let air dry till required for
use.
d) Preparation Equipment: All removable parts should be cleaned after every use,
with a scouring pad using a light detergent.
e) Serving Equipment: Food warmers need to be cleaned after each use as for
ovens. This means at least 2-3 times a day after each mealtime depending on the
type of food service operation.
Bain maries require daily cleaning as they are used at mealtimes every day. The
routine involved should be:
• Remove the food containers and lids from the equipment and send for pan
washing.
• Drain out the hot water used for heating the equipment completely and wipe
dry after every use.
• Wipe with sponge containing mild detergent to remove any adhering food that
may have spilled during service.
Beverage equipment includes tea and coffee urns, brewing or filtering equipment
and vending machines. 369
Entrepreneurship and Food • Equipment should be emptied out after each use, the insides cleaned with a
Service Management hard brush using a solution of sodium bicarbonate.
• Outer surfaces may be cleaned as for any other equipment described.
In general, it is a good policy to follow manufacturer’s instructions for care and
maintenance of any equipment, small or large.

Now that we have gone through the cleaning schedules that must be followed for
different equipment used in the food operations, let us move on to the cleaning systems
that are in use in various food service institutions, next.

16.4.2 Cleaning Systems

There are two basic systems followed for cleaning in food service operations, manual
and mechanical. Let us get to know each of these. We shall begin with manual system,
first.
• Manual system: This system is also known as hand washing and is generally
followed in small to medium sized establishments. In this, people do the cleaning
of pots, pans and other utensils by hand. The system requires a row of sinks from
2-5 depending on space available in the washing area, to enable soaking, washing,
rinsing and sanitizing to be done before letting equipment air dry for next use.
Manual cleaning is also done for installed or fixed position equipment such as
ovens, boilers, griddles and equipment that make use of steam for its operation.
Further all removable parts of mixing equipment such as juicers; blenders knives
etc. are also cleaned manually.
If hot water is used for sanitizing, the relevant sink compartment should be
supplied with enough water that can be maintained at 75-77°C and provided with
a basket to allow complete immersion of equipment in it. Figure 16.5 shows the
sequence of manual washing operations.

Sanitization can also be done by adding chlorine to water (50 mg per litre at 24°C
and immersing the utensil basket in it for one minute. Iodine solution can also be
used for the purpose by dissolving 12-13 mg per litre at room temperature and
exposing the washed utensils for the same period. The water should however, be
changed regularly and temperatures monitored either with a thermometer or a
thermostatically fixed device if a heating element is provided in the design of the
rinsing sink.
• Mechanical System: In this system, dishwashing machines are used for cleaning
delicate or expensive equipment such as glassware, crockery and cutlery, which
needs to be sanitized for customer use. There are many types and models
available according to the needs of each establishment.
Single tank, stationary rack machines wash only one rack at a time, which is
loaded manually. These may operate at single or dual temperatures for wash and
rinse cycles. Conveyor machines may have one or more tanks which move
through the machine automatically. This type of unit is used in very large washing
areas connected to base kitchens as in the case of air catering services which are
high volume operations.
The basic mechanical washing procedure involves a number of steps that are listed
in the user manual provided for each model. These must be strictly followed for
proper cleaning and sanitization of equipment. The steps must however be listed
clearly in the washing area for the operators to follow, such as:
• Scrape soiled dishes and presoak them.
• Rinse to remove all visible adherents.
• Place in rack so that water will spray evenly on all surfaces.
370
• Adjust the wash and rinse cycle at 70 - 80°C for 7 seconds or according to Plant and Equipment
instructions in the manual. Maintenance

• Final rinse at 82°C

• Air dry.
• Stack clean without touching surfaces that come in contact with food.
• Clean the machine according to instructional manual.

Arrangements of sinks for dishwashing

Scrapping plate waste Soaking dishes in hot water Removing adherents

Scrubbing in detergents Washing out detergent Rinsing in warm water

Rinsing in hot water Air drying Storing for use

Figure 16.5: Manual dish washing process

To machine wash dishes, it is important to read the instruction manual for each
equipment carefully and follow them strictly, to optimize their cleaning and sanitizing
ability. As with manual systems, enough counter space must be provided for accumulation
of soiled tableware, which must never come in contact with clean equipment at any
time. 371
Entrepreneurship and Food It is imperative that staff should be well trained in their operation and maintenance
Service Management to prevent undue risks to themselves, as well as, to the equipment. This would also
control the costs of operations in the long term.

Now that we are well versed with the types of cleaning systems, let us study further
about the different cleaning materials and cleaning agents that can be used in different
food operations.

Cleaning materials
Food operations require a number of cleaning materials according to the surfaces that
need to be cleaned. While this requires the most attention, it is observed that cleaning
materials are easily wasted especially in large establishments, where attention of
supervisors is not focused on this area of activity and usage. While most managers
are extremely conscious of the importance of thorough cleaning of utensils used in food
preparation and service, even the kitchen staff themselves look upon dishwashing as
a menial task. This is because cheap unskilled labour is usually employed for cleaning
jobs, which therefore become the most unrewarding and the least efficient.

The introduction of dishwashing machines have somewhat upgraded the job, but then
staff including supervisors, need to be trained in their use and maintenance. Supervisors
usually check for surface cleanliness and pay attention to equipment such as tableware,
but not how much cleaning materials like soaps or detergents actually go down the
drain. Excess use of cleaners actually damage surfaces, equipment, as well as, the bank
balance because cleaning materials are expensive.

Control in this area of work is difficult but essential, and staff needs training in the
use of the right cleaning materials and correct measures in terms of cups per sink of
water, or tablespoons per wash and so on. This can drastically change the profitability
of the establishment. After having understanding of cleaning materials, let us next have
a look at the various cleaning agents that are used in food service operations.

Cleaning agents
Cleaning agents are of various types ranging from water to synthetic chemical
compounds, which dissolve or disperse soil, and hold the particles in suspension in the
washing water. They are particularly effective in removing fats and oils.

All cleaning involves the use of water, a detergent or scouring powder or abrasive and
something to scrub with. The nature of these components, affect the quality of the
wash and the degree of cleanliness that can be maintained.

Many formulations are available in the market for cleaning and sanitizing of premises
and equipment to make them safe. These act by removing surface dust and soil and
destroying microorganisms which if allowed to grow can cause harm to both staff and
customers, through the food prepared and served in the establishment. Some cleaning
agents used in food operations are discussed below.
• Water: The two important aspects to be considered in the water used for dishwashing
and cleaning purposes, are its quality and temperature. The quality refers to its
being free from pollutants and soft and therefore requires occasional testing in
order to decide what kind of detergents are necessary for a good safe wash. For
water to be considered safe, it must contain less than 22 coliform organisms per
litre, which though not all pathogenic or disease producing, indicate sewage
contamination and requires sterilization before it can be considered fit for use in
dishwashing.
The term pure or unpolluted water is generally used to indicate the absence of
microorganisms, but it may still contain some dissolved chemicals. When calcium
372 and magnesium salts are present the water is termed as hard water. When such water
is repeatedly used for washing dishes or cleaning equipment it leaves a coating that Plant and Equipment
prevents efficient heat transfer. Scaling may also block pipes or leave deposits on Maintenance
which microorganisms can grow making cleaning difficult and affecting food quality.
Hard water flowing through boilers therefore reduces their efficiency. The steam from
such boilers also becomes alkaline, and starts corroding aluminium and tin lined
utensils. If the calcium and magnesium is present as bicarbonates, the hardness can
be removed by simple boiling, but as sulphates they make water permanently hard and
can be removed only by a process of precipitation.

The use of ammonia softens the water, as well as, emulsifies adhering fat on the dishes
being cleaned. Addition of vinegar often helps in cleaning as it neutralizes alkalinity
of the water. Washing soda softens water but is injurious to health because it is a strong
alkali. It is often used as an ingredient in cheap washing powders but is useful for
clearing pipes after the washing is done.

Besides being hard or soft, the acidity or alkalinity of water varies. Soft water foams
better with soaps and brings about better penetration of detergents into materials
adhering to dishes resulting in better cleaning. Water at high temperatures destroys
microorganisms, besides softening the water. Temperatures best suited for dishwashing
are 50°C for the pre-rinse, 60°C for the wash and 80°C for the final rinse. In no case
should the temperature be below 60°C for the wash.
• Detergents: Chemical compounds or their mixtures used for cleaning purposes are
called detergents and are relatively unaffected by hard water. They are more
alkaline than soaps, which are alkaline salts of organic acids. Soaps are primarily
for hand washing because they do not irritate the skin as detergents do. The major
disadvantage of using soap is that it produces a scum or residue when combined
with hard water. Detergents henceforth are sure better than soaps and water.
Then, how do detergents work? Let us see this next.
Action of detergents
Some detergents soften water others exercise a germicidal effect, but they do not
replace sanitization which removes harmful bacteria and other microorganisms. There
are some factors important to selecting detergents that are:
• Surface to be cleaned,
• Type of soil, and
• Cleaning process.
Dishwashing detergents need to be measured carefully to ensure good results, because
using excessive amounts of detergents does not ensure better cleaning and sanitization.
Detergents used for manual washing of dishes are usually in liquid form, while those
used for dishwashing machines through automatic dispensers are powders. Some
highly alkaline detergents may irritate the skin and therefore need to be handled with
rubber gloves. Let us review a few of these cleaners.
i) Abrasive cleaners: These are powders used to scour off rust, grease and heavy
soil. These contain substances that can permanently scratch stainless steel and
porcelain surfaces and therefore should be used with caution.
Contrary to normal belief, staff should be properly trained to use abrasives for
proper maintenance of equipment.
ii) Acid cleaners: These vary in their strength according to the amount and degree
of cleaning required and the obstinacy of the stains to be removed. Weak citric
acid is used for wiping stainless steel, hydrochloric acid (HCl) often called
plumber’s acid is used to remove mineral deposits formed on equipment due to
use of hard water. Acid cleaners must be used with care in the correct dilution
or strength as they may cause skin irritation and food contamination if the staff
are untrained or careless in their use. 373
Entrepreneurship and Food iii) Degreasers: These are highly alkaline cleaning agents and also skin irritants, and
Service Management usually dissolve in solvents like alkali, chlorine and hydrocarbon solvents. Some
are water soluble or used as vapours to clean kitchen exhaust ducts. Solvent
cleaners are produced from emulsifiers and hydrocarbons used specially for
heavy-duty equipment to remove grease from surfaces.
iv) Metal cleaners and polishes: These cleaners are oils or oil emulsions that remove
both soil and oxidation from pans and pots. If not rinsed out properly they leave
a white film, which contaminates equipment and food.
v) Deodourizers: These are used to remove unpleasant odours, but may leave a
residue on surfaces, if not used properly. These should never be used in place
of cleaning.
vi) Sanitizers: These are chemical compounds that destroy harmful microorganisms,
the details of which you will study in the next unit on sanitation and safety.
By now you must have realized how important these cleaning agents (water, detergents
and its types) are and how essential it is to use them effectively and safely. Let us
next understand the handling of these in food operation.

Handling cleaners and sanitizers

The cleanliness of any operation, as you would have realized, is largely dependent on
the people who handle the products that clean. So while training of staff is vital to
impart the methods of using cleaners and sanitizers effectively, some broad guidelines
need to be pasted in every area of operation as a constant reminder. These are:
• It is dangerous to mix cleaning formulations with sanitizers.
• Follow manufacturer’s instructions before use.
• Clearly label cleaners.
• Store under lock and key.
• Do not store alongside food products.
In some cases, outside agencies are hired for cleaning and maintenance of
establishments. They need to be briefed about the dangers of leaving residues from
cleaning materials on work surfaces where they could come in contact with food and
contaminate it.

You would definitely recall reading about planning as one of the most important steps
in the management of any organization. Here, also we do need to plan out equipment
and plant maintenance. How can we plan out these effectively for each area of food
operation, such as kitchen, service areas, storage etc.? How do we go about it? Let
us read and find out in the following sub-section.

16.4.3 Planning for Maintenance

It is useful for every food service operation to keep records of all amounts spent on
the care and maintenance of each piece of equipment in every area of operation. The
maintenance procedures will vary according to the size, usage, and simplicity of
design and mobility of each equipment. The larger the size and weight of the machine,
the less will be its mobility and more complex its design. All these factors affect the
type of maintenance that equipment requires.

Since every type of equipment requires different maintenance treatment, there is a

need to plan for it to ensure that equipment do not lie idle due to disuse or misuse
at any time when required.
• Maintenance in kitchens: The maintenance of equipment in kitchens is extremely
important because the maximum number of heavy and medium duty equipment
are used in this area of production. For any kitchen therefore, a schedule for
374
 general and specific equipment maintenance is essential, a sample of which is Plant and Equipment
presented in Table 16.1. Maintenance

Table 16.1: Maintenance schedule for kitchen

Area of Activity Maintenance Schedule
Drainage Grease traps properly emptied and cleaned at regular
intervals before refitting.
Physical structure
• Floors Wash, mop and sanitize daily.
• Walls Those above sinks and basins wash daily.
• Ceilings Clean twice a week to prevent cobweb formation, or
dust accumulation.
• Work surfaces Inspect corners or edges for lifting or stripping.
Renew as often as necessary.
• Windows/doors Dust daily and wet clean twice weekly.
• Fittings Clean weekly.
• Equipment Light-clean daily; heavy-twice a week following
maintenance procedures according to manufacturer’s
instructions.

Record forms may be kept updated for the maintenance of large and small equipment.
A sample of such format is placed in Figure 16.6 and 16.7, respectively.

Appliance or item ……………… Purchased from ………………….............

Style …………………………… Date of purchase …………………...........

Size …………………………….

Quantity purchased ……………. Cost ………………………......................

Replaced ……….Pieces on ……….by ……………..Reason …………..............

Balance amount ……………… as on ……………………..................................

Figure 16.6: Record form for small equipment

Name of Equipment ……………….. Purchased on ……………….........

Manufacturer ………………………..... Supplier ………………………......
Cost …………………………………..
Estimated life ……………………….....
Specifications Motor horsepower ………….........
Wattage/Voltage …………….........
Size ……………… Type …………………Capacity ……………………...............
Estimated rate of depreciation ……………………………………………...............
Date of repair .....................................
Nature of repair ..................................
Cost of repair ...................................... Engineer ………………..
Remarks ………….................................…………………………………………….
Figure 16.7: Record form for large equipment
375
Entrepreneurship and Food Next, let us get to know about maintenance in service and storage areas.
Service Management
• Maintenance in service areas: The equipment required to be maintained in
service areas differs slightly from that in kitchens being mostly holding equipment
for food, cutlery and crockery, glassware, as well as, table appointments such as
cruets, candle stands, vases, napkin holders, baskets and table dishes. It will vary
with the nature of the establishment, its menu and the style of service followed.
Holding equipment may include bain marie which holds food hot during service and
is usually operated by steam. The food warmer, on the other hand, requires direct
electric connections. The maintenance of each equipment requires different methods
for small, medium or large pieces and therefore separate procedures have to be
established for proper maintenance.
• Maintenance in storages: Storages usually have a limited number of equipment
to maintain such as storage racks, bins, baskets, weighing equipment and trolleys.
The schedules for cleaning, on a daily or weekly basis is the norm, or whenever
a bin or drum gets emptied of food after issue to user departments.
Other than cleaning and maintenance equipment, tools such as brooms, brushes, mops
and buckets are used for cleaning jobs, and need to be stored for easy accessibility.
The storage needs to be planned so that they are kept and cleaned away from food
handling or production areas to prevent cross contamination of the food, utensils and
linen at every stage and area of production and service.

In general, staff is the key to the cleanliness and maintenance of areas using food and
cleaning materials, therefore procedures followed by them in all areas of operation are
vital. The important message is clean hands, clean equipment and clean surroundings,
to minimize the possibility of contamination due to microorganisms, insects and
rodents. In conditions where staff hygiene is paramount, the agents of contamination
and infection cannot thrive, making food operations safe for all – staff, customers and
visitors.

When consciousness of the above is high among staff and procedures are systematically
carried out, maintenance follows on its own to prolong the life and optimum usage
of the appliances, irrespective of their size or nature.

Maintenance, hence, is an ongoing process and needs to be performed according to

the schedules prepared for the needs of each operation. All maintenance activities
should be recorded in a logbook with details of any special attention needed, along
with date and any replacements required. Equipment maintenance should be the
responsibility of a single manager, who also deals with engaging outside contract
services when required such as fumigation of storages and other areas as required.

Schemes for preventive maintenance need to be planned to reduce both risks and
costs. What is the maintenance costs associated with equipment? What factors determine
it? Let us read and find out next.

Maintenance Costs
The cost of maintaining any equipment should be determined on the basis of the
following factors:
• Cost savings in terms of fuel consumption.
• Cost of servicing and regular cleaning of equipment.
• Rate of depreciation over the expected life of the equipment.
• Better utilization of raw ingredients and prevention of waste after installation.
• Any resultant reduction in staff costs through elimination of daily wagers.

376
Any equipment that requires less money to buy can prove very expensive in the long Plant and Equipment
run if its maintenance costs are high. It is, therefore, important to weigh investment Maintenance
and maintenance costs carefully before deciding to spend the money on any equipment.

Before we move on to the safety concerns, let us take a break here and recapitulate
what we have learnt till now.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) How can the following equipment be maintained?
a) Heavy duty machines
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
b) Kitchen tools
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
2) Fill in the blanks:
a) All equipment should be washed and ………… with …… water.
b) …………… inputs should be checked ……………… to ensure that
proper electrical load is available.
c) ……………. operators should be ……………. thoroughly before they
use any expensive equipment.
3) Briefly discuss the term cleaning systems.
................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) Give the difference between:
i) Detergent and sanitizer
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
ii) Abrasives and degreasers
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

16.5 SAFETY CONCERNS

When selecting any equipment for a food service its safety features should be the most
important criteria. Let us see what these factors or features are. They include all those
features that relate to a manager or supervisor’s concern for safety of:
• Staff
• Equipment
• Establishment
• Customer
Let us take up each of these next. We shall begin with staff safety first. 377
Entrepreneurship and Food • Staff safety: Staff needs to feel safe when they operate any equipment, and the
Service Management confidence will only come if they are instructed and trained properly in its use
and maintenance. They also need to understand how the equipment will help them
in their jobs to produce the desired quality consistently, and the necessity for its
maintenance to reduce their effort and time.
The managers too need to understand the features of the equipment design so
that they can judge for themselves the impact it will have on their staff and
customers especially in terms of food safety.
• Equipment safety: The equipment should be simple in design so that any operator
can understand how to use it without much difficulty. Parts, which come in
contact with food during operation, should come apart easily for cleaning and
sterilization, and then be put back without a problem. It should not have any sharp
edges that can cause cuts or bruises every time it is cleaned. Every equipment
should be demonstrated in operation prior to sale, so that the expectations of
managers and operating staff are satisfied.
It is also important for food services to contract for installation and maintenance,
as well as, demonstration and training at the time of purchase. This will enable
the organization to avail of expert services for maintenance and advice from the
manufacturers during the warranty period.
• Establishment safety: Without doubt, every establishment wants to feel safe with
respect to the quality of equipment used in it. In electrical devices, features such
as insulation, electrical load, quality of wiring all will determine safety from
accidents on account of short circuiting caused by the equipment. For pieces
operated manually such as toasters, ovens that require handling for placing foods
in and out of the equipment, shock proofing needs special attention as staff may
use wet hands. Auto timers and alarms are some improvements on equipment in
this direction. Equipment in general should not be fragile so that its operation is
not affected adversely by breakdowns.
• Customer safety: If equipment cannot be cleaned easily, food may remain in
crevices not easily visible to the cleaner or reached by ordinarily used cleaning
brushes. This can result in food contamination and jeopardize customer safety.
Let us have a look at the safety measures that can be employed in food service
operations to ensure cleanliness and hygienic environment.

16.5.1 Safety Measures in Food Service Operations

Simple safety measures can be implemented in food services to eliminate the detrimental
effects of microorganisms, insects and rodents. Since people, insects and rodents
transfer most of the infections to food, personal hygiene of staff and use of killer
traps and equipment should be put in place for the purpose. In areas of heavy
infestation, the advice of pest control agencies should be sought, keeping in mind that
food and sprays or chemicals are kept wide apart to ensure safety of all who consume
the food.
• Staff Cleanliness: Personal grooming of staff is extremely important in the food
service environment. Ideally, staff should be provided with clean overall and caps
every day for work in food production and service areas. If working footwear is
also provided, the contamination through dust and dirt from street shoes can be
controlled.
Most important simple instructions like Wash your hands should be pasted at the
entrance to kitchens and other entrance points where food is to be handled. This would
act as a reminder before they enter for work. Some handy hand washing tips are
highlighted herewith.

378
Some hand washing Tips Plant and Equipment
Maintenance
• Wash hands before touching food, and after touching any thing else.
• Use antibacterial soap and wash for at least 30 seconds.
• Wash nails with brush each time, washing between fingers too.
• Dry thoroughly.
Rules should be made and adhered to strictly or else punishable in some way.
Managers should keep abreast with newer developments in technologies for cleanliness
maintenance and organize sessions to educate staff, making them aware of the
relationship of personal hygiene and food safety.
According to a survey reported in the Clean and Hygiene Review (vol.2 no.6. Nov.-
Dec. 2002), 60% of food service personnel do not wash their hands after using toilets,
and only 28.6% who handle food in hospitals wash their hands between handling
cooked and uncooked food. You can imagine how many would be scratching their
heads, or other body parts while cooking, or sneezing, yawning or coughing over the
food, all of which are sources of contamination and hazardous for the customer.
Thus, you would appreciate that it is the staff alone, which can reduce the risks of
food poisoning outbreaks in food services. Maintenance of clean equipment and
premises, as well as, personal cleanliness is the key to the success of any operation.
Let us next review about checks and inspections, which form a very essential part of
any food service operation.

16.6 CHECKS AND INSPECTIONS

Regular checks and inspections are necessary in every area of activity to detect and
control any possible causes of contamination whether it is food handling practices,
hygiene and cleanliness of staff, particularly those who rejoin duty after sick leave,
equipment cleaning and drying methods, waste disposal methods, service techniques
and so on. Equipment in service areas requires to be fitted with sneeze guards to
prevent the possibility of infection from customers particularly in self-service operations.
So let us move further and find out what these procedures and schedules are all about
in the following sub-sections.

16.6.1 Procedures
Procedures should be set up in every food service establishment for the routine
checking of all equipment irrespective of their size and frequency of use. Some
examples of scheduling for cleaning and maintenance have already been discussed
under section 16.4 of this unit. However, it is important to construct a timetable for
routine checkups to ensure against breakdowns and maximize utility of the equipment.
A sample procedure format is presented in Table 16.2, which will provide a guideline
for establishing and implementing checks on the functioning of equipment and the skill
development of the operators in each area of activity.
Table 16.2: Format for checking equipment

Equipment Procedure When Checked by Remarks

Kitchen tools Random check of Daily Head chef

washing and storing
quality

Small Equipment Check After use -do-

Large Cleanliness/readiness After use Supervisor
All Equipment General On round Manager

379
Entrepreneurship and Food When such a format comes with the remarks of staff who have checked the
Service Management equipment, the manager takes notice of discrepancies, establishes controls for defects,
need for expert maintenance, cleaning procedure changes, staff training or direction
and so on.

16.6.2 Schedules
A number of schedules can be worked out and set by every manager for each area
of activity as presented in Table 16.2, according the type and number of equipment
used. In fact, the authorized person for implementation may prepare detailed schedules
for each operator. Daily checks for implementation can then be put in place to ensure
concurrence with the schedules. A weekly inspection report may be submitted to the
catering manager for information and necessary action taken where required.

Lastly, let us move on to the various suppliers, which can supply equipment to the
food service institutions.

16.7 EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

A number of equipment suppliers for food services are listed in the Yellow Pages
directory in India. Another source is to make enquiries from other food services using
certain models to ascertain which ones are cost effective and efficient in terms of
utility, as well as, maintenance. Trade journals are another source of information and
the addresses can be used to call for catalogues and study the features of the
equipment models available.

With this, we end our study on plant and equipment. Before we move on to the next
unit on sanitation and safety, let us review what we have learnt till now by answering
the questions in check your progress exercise 3.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) What safety concerns need to be kept in mind before purchasing equipment?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) What is personal cleanliness and how can it be implemented in a food service
operation.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) What sources of information can be used to select equipment for a food
service?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

380 ................................................................................................................
 Plant and Equipment
16.8 LET US SUM UP Maintenance

In this unit, we learnt about plant and equipment. While plant refers to large machines,
installed at a particular place for use by operative staff. Those pieces that can be
moved to different areas for use are called equipment or appliances.

Then we moved on to the classification of equipment based on weight or size, order

of use or mode of operation. Then, we learnt that every type of equipment requires
careful handling in use, cleaning and maintenance in order to maximize its utility and
extend its life.

Next, the unit focused on to the cleaning materials that are and should be used in food
operations. Here we also got to know that parts with which food comes in contact
need to be removable as they require proper sterilization, followed by air drying before
refitting for use. Knowledge of cleaning agents like soaps and detergents was then
given.

Next, we got to learn that supervision and monitoring the implementation of cleaning
and maintenance schedules is of paramount importance in view of concerns regarding
safety of the establishment, equipment, staff and customers. Also, training and retraining
of staff are important features of cleaning and maintenance of equipment and premises.

16.9 GLOSSARY
Baine marie : is a device used in industry, chemical laboratories, and in cooking
to heat materials gradually to a fixed temperature.

16.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) There are many differences between plant and equipment. These are:
a) All tools or machines used for food production and service are called equipment,
while only heavy machines fixed at one place are referred to as plant.
b) Equipment is small and large, plant is only large.
c) Equipment is moveable while plant is fixed at one location.
d) Equipment is cheaper than plant.
2) Equipment can be classified in three ways.
i) by weight or size ii) by order of use iii) by mode of operation.
List the examples for each of the three category on your own.
3) a) multifunction
b) modular
c) labour saving
d) custom built
e) mobile

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Entrepreneurship and Food Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Service Management
1) a) Heavy duty machines should be wiped clean with a wet cloth after each use.
Parts that come in contact with food need to be dismantled and thoroughly
cleaned after use in hot water at 75-77°C. If parts cannot be separated,
thorough cleaning using special cleaners as directed by manufacturers should
be employed.
b) Kitchen tools can be maintained by daily washing using suitable detergent and
rinsing in hot water followed by air-drying for next use.
2) a) rinsed, hot.
b) Electrical, periodically.
c) Equipment, trained.
3) Cleaning systems mean methods used for cleaning, such as manual and mechanical.
Refer to sub-section 16.4.2 and present a detail discussion on cleaning system in
your own words.
4) i) Detergents are chemical compounds or their mixtures used for cleaning
purposes. Sanitizers, on the other hand, are chemical compounds that destroy
harmful microorganisms.
ii) Abrasive cleaners are powders used to scour off rust, grease and heavy soil.
Degreasers are highly alkaline cleaning agents and also skin irritants, and
usually dissolve in solvents like alkali, chlorine and hydrocarbon solvents.
Some are water soluble or used as vapours to clean kitchen exhaust ducts.
They are used specially for heavy-duty equipment to remove grease from
surfaces.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Safety concerns to be kept in mind before purchasing equipment are staff,
equipment, establishment and customer safety.
2) Personal cleanliness refers to the cleanliness of staff working in a food service
establishment. It means clean hands and nails, clean clothes, shoes and above all,
clean work habits such as the avoidance of hair touching, nose picking, coughing
or sneezing while handling food.
3) Sources of equipment information are catalogues, trade journals, directories and
other food service establishments.

382
 Plant and Equipment
UNIT 17 PLANT SANITATION AND SAFETY Maintenance

Structure
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Sanitation and Safety
17.2.1 Definitions
17.2.2 Sanitation in Food Services
17.2.3 Sanitation and Public Health
17.2.4 Plant Sanitation and Safety
17.3 Considerations Necessary for an Efficient Cleaning Programme
17.3.1 Three Methods to Wash, Rinse and Sanitize Food Contact Surfaces
17.4 Post Cleaning Care and Cleaning of Premises and Surroundings
17.5 The 3-E’s of Safety
17.5.1 Safety Engineering
17.5.2 Safety Education
17.5.3 Safety Enforcement
17.6 Standards, Policies and Schedules
17.6.1 Standards
17.6.2 Policies
17.6.3 Schedules
17.7 Let Us Sum Up
17.8 Glossary
17.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

17.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 16 we got a glimpse of what hygiene, sanitation and safety is all about. This
unit will focus on this very important area particularly in food service operations, which
aim at providing clean and wholesome food to its customers, visitors and staff. You
may recall studying about the food safety issue in the Food Safety and Microbiology
Course (MFN-003). You know how many cases of food poisoning are reported in the
press every few months especially during the rainy season. This unit will tell you why
this happens and how a food service can ensure zero cases of poisoning by following
certain policies, standards and schedules in their establishments.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• define sanitation and safety,
• discuss the three components of sanitation and safety,
• explain the importance of training people in hygiene, sanitation and safety,
• manage and conduct employee sanitation programmes in food operations,
• enumerate how strict adherence to policies, standards and schedules improve
productivity and profits in food services,
• identify the government laws on sanitation and safety, and
• describe how food services formulate policies on sanitation and safety.

17.2 SANITATION AND SAFETY

You may recall studying in Unit 10 in the Food Microbiology and Safety Course
(MFN-003) that sanitation means creating and maintaining hygienic and healthful
383
Entrepreneurship and Food conditions. Let us here once again focus on the same issues in the perspective of food
Service Management service institutions. Let us begin with definitions first.

17.2.1 Definitions
Sanitation is the quality of living that is expressed through a clean home, clean
establishment, clean surroundings all leading to a clean community and country. It
is a way of life that comes from within people to a conscious level, and gets reflected
in their behaviour irrespective of where they are. This behaviour is encouraged by
knowledge and grows to become an ideal that has far reaching effects on the physical,
mental and social health of people in any environment in which they are placed.

Safety as related to sanitation implies freedom from infection and disease of any kind
that may affect health of people. This signifies freedom from the agents of infection
such as microorganisms like bacteria, viruses etc. which can be transmitted to man
through soil, polluted air and water, ill people, insects, rodents and the like. Then,
through man it gets carried to food they handle and then to people who eat that food.
These carriers of infection may not always exhibit any symptoms of infections, but
are effective in spreading them to others through food, which is a very rich medium
for growth for all living organisms.

Let us now get to know about sanitation aspect in food service operations in our next
sub-section.

17.2.2 Sanitation in Food Services

For all people working in a food service operation, whether managers, supervisors or
operative staff actually handling food, it is vital to acquire knowledge and understanding
of sanitation and make it a way of life for themselves.
It is only when a constant awareness is developed regarding the dangers that can occur
due to lack of sanitation, that people can develop a positive attitude towards its
practice. Practice has to be carried out day in and day out, till it becomes a
habit that can be carried on as a routine throughout life, irrespective of where the
person is.
Food service operators and handlers are morally responsible for the health of their
customers, who eat out completely unaware of the practices followed in production
areas. Since they are unsuspecting of any ill-effects of eating the food served to them,
the responsibility of providing safe and wholesome food, falls entirely on the food
service provider. In that sense they contribute towards public health to a very large
extent, as more and more people depend on eating outside their homes today. Not only
that, because of their busy, hurried and tiring routines they even carry food from
outside to eat it with the family at home.
Basically the causes stem from ignorance about clean food handling practices and the
methods by which diseases can be transmitted to others. The danger lies more when,
people themselves do not suffer from any serious symptoms of illness, but are unaware
that they can act as carriers. This holds good even for customers who eat in the food
service environment and can act as carriers. Figure 17.1 shows how food handlers and
customers too can acts as a vehicle for transmission of diseases in a food service
environment.
Whenever you go out to eat just notice the way waiters are dressed. Do they look
neat and clean? How are the tables cleaned when another customer just leaves? If you
have access to the kitchens or washrooms, see whether cleanliness is maintained
therein, the state of hygiene will tell you whether to eat there at all or not. This is
because unclean and haphazardly kept areas become a source of microbes, and staff
can become carriers of infection that is then spread to the customer.
384
 Plant Sanitation and Safety
FOOD HANDLER

Coughing Soiled or
Sneezing Unclean Hands

 Organisms on 
Food

Customers CUSTOMER Customers

Incubation
Period

ILLNESS

Figure 17.1: Modes of transmission of infection in food services

So, how can outbreaks of illness are controlled? Can you list them down? You may
recall reading about the control measures earlier as well in the Food Microbiology and
Safety Course (MFN-003). Well, so let us recapitulate. A few tips are:
• Persons who have been recently suffering from respiratory, intestinal or other
contagious diseases should not handle food.
• Staff should be medically checked and cleared before returning to work to ensure
that they are not only symptom free but are not carriers of any infection.
• Displayed food should be kept covered at all times and protected from contact
with customers unless served to them for consumption.
• Hands must be washed thoroughly before handling food.
Other modes of transmission of disease are indicated in Figure 17.2.

MAN/WOMAN

Sewage Soil Polluted Water Rodents Insects

Contaminated Environment
and Equipment


 Food
 

CUSTOMER
Figure 17.2: Other modes of disease transmission
385
Entrepreneurship and Food Let us now take up each of these modes of disease transmission one by one. What
Service Management makes each of these a potential source of microbial hazards in a food operation? What
does each of these modes consists of that can lead to safety and sanitation hazards?
What all diseases can it lead to? Let us read and find out. We shall start with sewage
first.
a) Sewage: It largely comprises of man or animal wastes. Untreated wastes contain
microorganisms that can cause outbreaks of typhoid, dysentery and even infectious
hepatitis. This can happen in food service establishments where plumbing is
defective. Sometimes sewage may be allowed to flow into rivers, lakes, ponds and
find its way into wells and thereby drinking water. If this happens, fish harvested
from such water sources can be toxic if eaten even after cooking. Septic tanks
should therefore be situated far away from water sources such as wells, from
which water is drawn for drinking and cooking, especially in distant rural areas.
It is important that all sewage be treated and disinfected before being directed into
any water sources. Further, fish and shellfish should be harvested from unpolluted
water.
b) Soil: When untreated sewage is allowed to fertilize fields, the soil gets contaminated
and thereby crops such as vegetables and fruits that are grown on it. The only
control that users can exercise is to buy food from approved sources to ensure
they are free from contamination and of certified quality.
c) Water: Water is the most important vehicle for transfer of microbes and contaminants
of any kind; therefore, it is the responsibility of government agencies to provide
safe, drinking water to all people. This responsibility shifts to the food service
provider especially in areas where water is hard and therefore unfit for consumption.
Special equipment for softening and purification of water therefore needs to be
installed to make food safe for customers.
d) Rodents: Rodents like rats and mice can transmit disease if they come into the
environment of a food service operation, as they carry microorganisms on their
feet, fur and through their excreta or saliva left on food. The presence of rodent
excreta is therefore a dangerous sign for any establishment, and the staff needs
to be very vigilant about the quality of food received and used for production and
service. Any indication of droppings in the flour, or other ingredients should be
rejected straight away.
e) Insects: Insects of all types find their way to food whether in garbage dumps
around establishments or stored inside the institutions. The most common is the
housefly, associated with eating places, toilets, manure, garbage and uncovered
food. They can easily transmit contaminants from one food to another and can
be a frequent source of cross contamination.
Cockroaches are a common sight especially in tropical summers, wherever there
is unprotected food. They contaminate food in the same way as rodents and other
insects transmitting agents through the mouth, feet and droppings.
Insects are of concern to food operations as they enter the grains of cereals and
pulses, and are harder to remove than those feeding externally and visible to the
naked eye.
f) Equipment: Equipment and utensils get easily contaminated when touched by
carriers, ill food handlers or those with unhygienic working habits and contaminated
water which should be maintained in sanitary condition at all times to make it safe
for everyone.
You have already learnt about food handlers and personal hygiene practices in
Unit 16 along with causes of bacterial food poisoning, so you are aware of the
need to keep monitoring cleanliness of people, work areas, equipment and the
environment around food operations.
386
g) Food: The food operator is more concerned with growth of spoilage agents that Plant Sanitation and Safety
destroy product quality and appearance as their growth produces toxic reactions
in customers. All food prepared, stored or displayed in a food operation needs to
be kept covered at all times to protect it from any hazards. Every food needs to
be stored at the right temperatures as well, according to their degree of perishability.
No food should be held or stored for any length of time between 10°C and 65°C,
as this is the danger zone and encourage maximum growth of microorganisms.
As far as possible, foods should be served for consumption, delivery or take-home
services, as soon as it is prepared.
h) Customer: Customers must adhere to the same practices of cleanliness, hygiene
and sanitation before they touch or eat food anywhere. Establishments can assist
them by providing sanitary washing and toilet facilities for customers. It is
important to choose equipment fitted with sneeze guards, between the foods and
customers especially in self-service cafeterias.
i) Environment: Cleanliness of the environment of the food and the establishment
is extremely important. For this, schedules for cleaning, fumigation and pest
control need to be followed and monitored strictly. Making hygiene and sanitation
a habit is essential for all people associated with food services. Thus, sanitization
is virtually the process of destroying pathogens or harmful bacteria that survive
the process of normal cleaning. The cleaning process, therefore, primarily removes
the soil deposits. Sanitizing, on the other hand, destroys microbes that are left
on the cleaned surfaces. How then, can sanitation be maintained so that food
operations are safe for everyone?
Well, a number of sanitizing agents are now available that can be used to effect, but
only if enough knowledge about their composition and use is gained to enable selection
of the most suitable products. Let us see what these sanitizers are!
A) Sanitizing Agents
Remember, we learnt about the sanitizers earlier in the Food Microbiology and Safety
Course in Unit 10, sub-section 10.2.2. Can you recall which disinfecting agents are
generally used in the food industry? Let us find out.
Sanitizing agents or sanitizers are chemical compounds that destroy harmful
microorganisms. A number of formulations are now marketed, of which 5 types are
generally used. These are:
• Chlorine based
• Iodine based
• Ammonium compounds
• Acid-anionic surfactants
• Phenolic compounds
Let us go through each of these briefly.
• Chlorine based: These comprise of chlorine compounds such as hypochlorites,
chloramines and dichloro-dimethyl-hydantoin. These are inexpensive and
therefore most extensively used as bactericides in food plants. Just before
equipment and utensils are used, they are rinsed with a bactericide in large food
operations.
These formulations are active against all microorganisms and spores at a
concentration of 25 mg per litre at pH 10 or less, and at a temperature of about
50°C. Bacteria are destroyed in less than 15 seconds by a sodium hypochlorite
solution containing 50 parts per million (ppm) of available chlorine. The
concentrations increase as the temperatures fall although higher concentrations do
not increase effectiveness.

387
Entrepreneurship and Food Chlorination of water used in processing while reducing the total bacterial count
Service Management also removes any slime. It kills vegetative spore cells and thereby reduces the
number of bacterial spores. The sporicidal effect of chlorine is however influenced
by the pH, temperature and chlorine concentration.

Chlorine compounds are unaffected by hard water and do not leave a residue but
the odour of chlorine remains and the products have a short shelf life. As the pH
increases over 8.0, the effectiveness decreases. Chlorine sanitizers are usually
applied for one minute or more at 24°C or above. They can however, cause skin
irritation. Besides, chlorine preparations do cause damage when used as a spray
at regular intervals, as they can cause corrosion of light fixtures, switches, metal
window frames, pipes etc.
• Iodine based: Iodine based products are stable and do not deteriorate easily, have
long shelf life, destroy most bacterial cells but not spores. They are effective in
hard water and non-corrosive. They leave no residues and are not irritating to the
skin. They are brown in colour and their concentration is measured visually. The
formulations work slowly at pH 5.0 or above and may stain some surfaces. The
ideal concentration for use is 12.5 - 25 mg per litre at 24 - 49°C.
• Ammonium compounds: Also known as quaternary ammonium compounds
(QUATS), these were developed to destroy organisms in food industries and they
possess high germicidal activity, low odour when used in normal or specified
concentrations. They are also highly stable, non-corrosive and have low toxicity.
They are water soluble and lower surface tension of solutions, and therefore can
contact and kill organisms that are not accessible to non-wetting germicides. These
compounds are however, sensitive to pH or level of acidity or alkalinity, working
best at pH 9.0-10.0.
In acid environments, quaternaries are most active against some bacteria
(Pseudomonas) but in alkaline medium, they destroy coliform organisms. However,
hard water inhibits their activity. But, the addition of inorganic sequestering agents
and organic chelating compounds tend to restore their sanitizing effectiveness.

Quaternaries are however, not recommended for use in food service environments
because their carry-over into foods is not fully known. On the other hand, these
ammonium compounds are non-corrosive and non-irritating but also not as effective
as bactericides. They, however, eliminate and prevent odours but are not compatible
with other common detergents.

They are impractical for cleaning tableware although they can be used for cleaning
refrigerators.
• Acid-anionic Surfactants: These are stable compounds, active against
microorganisms, odourless, do not stain and are effective in hard water. Even
when they leave a residual antibacterial film, it is low in toxicity. These compounds
are most effective at pH 1.9 - 3.0, although they corrode metal surfaces, except
stainless steel and aluminium. Spores survive their action even in concentrations
of 100 - 200 mg per litre at temperatures of 24 - 43°C.
• Phenolic Sanitizers: These are more stable in combination with synthetic anionics.
They act as deodorizers but have limited application in sanitizing food handling
equipment.
Let us next move on to the cleaning agents. You have already studied about them in
Unit 16. Let us here refresh your memory.
B) Cleaning Agents
Cleaning agents are of varied composition and since they exert their effect on soiled
388 surfaces they are sometimes called surface active agents or surfactants. The oldest
forms are soaps, which are still used today in solid, liquid and powdered forms. Some Plant Sanitation and Safety
cleaning agents are called detergents, a term usually used for synthetic products which
are more alkaline than soaps. Cleaning agents dissolve or disperse soil and hold odours
although they may leave a residue on surfaces if not used properly. You may recall
studying about the cleaning agents in the Food Microbiology and Safety Course in Unit
10, sub-section 10.2.1. The classification of cleaning agents is presented in Figure 17.3
for your convenience here as well.

CLEANING AGENTS

Natural Alkaline Acid Soaps and Solvent

origin Detergents

Strong Heavy Mild Strong Mild

Duty

Figure 17.3: Classification of cleaning agents

Let us review these cleaning agents and other processes used for maintaining plant
cleanliness and sanitation such as illumination, ultrasonic and oligodynamics.
• Soaps: Soaps are alkaline salts of organic acids used commonly for cleaning but
they form insoluble deposits if used with hard water. A number of improved
formulations are now marketed for different uses.
• Alkalines: Alkalines are cleaning compounds which have a pH between 7 and 14.
These include phosphates, silicates, carbonates and borates. Trisodium phosphate
(TSP) is the most used compound although it is less reliable and harsher than
some of the newer materials. Alkalines are generally used because of their ability
to prevent or remove hard water deposits.
Silicates are especially useful for cleaning tin and aluminium, where other alkaline
materials may cause surface discolouration or etching. Soda ash and sodium
carbonate are commonly available, as well as, they are cheap and good.
• Iodophores: These are complexes of iodine and surface active agents in which
the surfactants act as carriers and solubilizers for the iodine. An iodophore
solution has all the properties of iodine as a germicidal agent, but displays low
vapour pressure, is practically odourless, low irritant and does not stain. It can
be used wherever a general purpose sanitizer is required. Iodophores have a
number of advantages. They:
• are mildly acidic and prevent lime build up on equipment,
• exert maximum germicidal action because of their pH and wide germicidal
spectrum,
• provide free rinsing and therefore easily mixes with surface active agent,
• are completely water soluble,
• possess reduced corrosiveness and toxicity, and
• permit use of colour as an indication of iodine concentration.
However, there are some disadvantages of Iodophores too, such as:
• High iron content in water can inactivate iodine.
• Iodine is lost at temperatures above 30°C.
• Stains a few materials.
• Requires stringent control in use as low concentrations are effective.
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Entrepreneurship and Food Iodophore products with low foam properties have been formulated specifically for the
Service Management beverage industry.
• Oligodynamics: This is the study of the movement of metallic ions in formulations
that become active and exert an effect in minute amounts when active. The most
ancient method of disinfection was the use of sulphur and metal salts.
The practice of storing water in silver or copper vessels produced an oligodynamic
action from the metallic ions of the vessel, which was activated by very small
amounts of the ions.
One-tenth gram of silver is fatal to 5000 colibacteria in one ml of water within
a few hours. The traditional use of vark or a fine silver film on top of foods
provided a bactericidal action against E.coli, B.proteus and P.pyocyanea strains
that are particularly sensitive to gram-negative bacteria. Gram positive species of
bacteria however, such as the pus forming staphylococci are more resistant and
bacilli, fungi and tubercular bacteria are even less susceptible.
Tributylin benzoate is however, particularly active against staphylococci far more
effective than silver, copper or mercury salts. Newer sanitizing agents have since
been developed for use and it is best to follow manufacturer’s instructions if
selected. One must however, be aware of the toxicity that certain chemicals can
cause if not used correctly.
• Ultrasonics: These formulations are based on sound vibrations at frequencies
above 20,000 cycles per second that are not audible to the human ear. The sound
waves get converted into mechanical energy and create microscopic bubbles.
These constantly form and collapse, beating against the surface or the part being
cleaned. In this way, the soil is removed from the surface or cavities of the part
being cleaned. The process is therefore, also called cavitation. The advantages
of ultrasonic cleaning are:
• Speed
• Removal of soil from the smallest crevices or cavities
• Cleaning precision
• Ability to clean complete assemblies of equipment without removal of any
parts.
The method provides complete safety in spite of vigorous agitation.
• Illumination: Satisfactory illumination is an important factor in maintaining plant
cleanliness and sanitation. In designing therefore, it is common practice to double
the amount of light needed because microbes and insects tend to thrive in dark
corners and crevices. The light fittings however need to be kept clean at all
times.
Let us now discuss handling of these cleaners and sanitizers. This, aspect has already
been highlighted earlier too in Unit 16. Let us once again recapitulate here what we
learnt in Unit 16.
Proper handling of cleaners and sanitizers
It is dangerous to mix cleaning and sanitizing compounds, as in combination they can
produce a gas which can cause headaches, nausea and so on. Similarly, if QUATS
are mixed with chlorine compounds, a lot of heat is produced that can be damaging
to the hands or skin of the user.

It is important to follow manufacturer’s instructions for proper dilution and application.

Low concentrations may prove wasteful being ineffective, while high concentrations
can prove harmful. Therefore, training and close supervision in the use of detergents
and sanitizers is important to effective cleaning and sanitation. Then, how should you
handle dangerous chemicals? The following tips will be useful:
390
• NEVER MIX compounds. Plant Sanitation and Safety
• Label each formulation clearly
• Keep locked and issue right amounts
• Store in original containers
• Never store with food materials
• Have distinctive packaging so they are not confused with food products
• Use under strict supervision
Let us next move on to the chemical toxicity associated with these cleaning agents.

Chemical Toxicity
Chemical toxicity can result from overuse of chemicals while at the same time, it is
important to remember that using more of the sanitizers or their formulations does not
necessarily lead to better cleaning and germicidal or bactericidal action. Toxic chemicals
may be divided into those that:
• damage cell structure,
• interfere with cell respiration and energy supply, and
• block biosynthetic paths in the cell.
Their action is however, dependent upon the concentration of the chemical and the
temperature, each varying their activity in a number of ways. For example, mercuric
ions in low concentrations may inhibit enzymes involved with respiration and protein
synthesis or may denature proteins in higher concentrations. Therefore, it is important
to use chemical or synthetic sanitizers in the right dilutions, remembering that excessive
use does not improve efficiency of sanitation.

Metallic contamination especially of lead and arsenic can also result from impurities
in raw materials or from processing equipment. This however, is not so common now
because especially in processed foods because of the strict controls used in handling
of raw materials by the industry. The risk however, remains if equipment is made of
materials other than aluminium, glass and stainless steel. Water, however, is the main
source of contamination if its quality is not controlled.

Effective sanitizers are cationic and anionic detergents, phenol, cresol and alcohol.
Some agents such as formaldehyde, acids, alkalis, ions of heavy metals and oxidizing
agents such as halogens and hydrogen peroxide also cause protein denaturation.

Let us next focus on the public health perspective. What role does sanitation plays
here? Let us read and find out this in the following sub-section.

17.2.3 Sanitation and Public Health

There is enough evidence to support that diseases transmitted through food have been
on an increase in recent times, more so when food is cooked in large quantities and
distributed to unsuspecting customers by unaware food handlers.

You must have read or heard so many reports about children falling sick and being
hospitalized after eating ladoos or sweets distributed to them on festival days, or people
having diarrhoea and other gastrointestinal infections after eating lunches in their office
canteens and so on. What do you think are the causes of illness transmitted through
food?

Once a particular food item becomes a source of infection, the symptoms take on
epidemic proportions and can pose a public health problem. This then, makes it
difficult for the establishment to survive and has to close down. In this context
therefore plant sanitation and safety is crucial which is discussed next.
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Entrepreneurship and Food 17.2.4 Plant Sanitation and Safety
Service Management
The various features/requirements, from the food safety perspective, that have to be
considered in selection of the site, designing the premises, kitchen, selection of the
equipment, food service area, storage and drainage, in the context of the food service
establishment, you may recall have already been described in the Food Microbiology
and Safety Course (MFN-003) in Unit 9, section 9.3. Please look up the unit once
again now as it will provide a good overview on food safety measures in a food service
set-up.

The importance of product related quality and food safety with respect to spoilage
related effects has increased significantly. Every food processing or service operation
has to ensure that food is not harmful and is fit for consumption. Wholesomeness
implies that the products are of a quality that do not harm the health of people
consuming it, and this can be ensured only through preventing its decomposition,
adulteration, unhygienic handling during production by preventing its contamination in
any way. Quality is therefore no more an option but an obligation that covers safety,
hygiene, reliability, wholesomeness and acceptability.
Let us then get to learn about plant, equipment and food hygiene.
Plant Hygiene: There are a number of factors operating for maintaining plant hygiene
such as removal of dust, soil, wastes, and cleaner sediments and so on from the food
environment that will encourage microbial growth and or contamination. One basic
reason for focusing on hygiene aspects in food processing plants is to strive for
continuous improvement in quality of the products offered. This has been motivated
by the global trade agreements that necessitate constant upgradation of product quality
to meet international norms.

Food and Equipment Hygiene: The main sources of contamination in food products
are equipment and utensils with which raw foods come in contact during production.
Methods of cleaning and maintenance of equipment have been discussed in Unit 16.
If precautions are ignored a variety of microorganisms can be introduced into products
right from farms to plant levels. Cleaning and sanitizing equipment at all levels
therefore, needs to become routine so that foods of high bacteriological quality can
be produced each time. The aim is to remove all conditions which bacteria require
for their growth, and destroy those which are present.

Detailed procedures and goals need to be developed for food contact, as well as, non-
food surfaces to prevent cross-contamination at all stages of production and operation
to achieve high standards of quality and capture customer confidence. The considerations
necessary for an efficient cleaning programmes are described in section 17.3 next. But
first we shall recapitulate what we have learnt so far by answering the check your
progress exercise 1.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Define the term sanitation. Briefly discuss how it can be maintained in a food
service operation.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) What are the different ways in which diseases can be transmitted?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
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 Plant Sanitation and Safety
3) Fill in the blanks:
a) Insects are of ………. because they enter the ……….. and are hard to
detect and remove.
b) All foods prepared, ………. or displayed need to be kept ………. to
protect them from ………….
c) Cleanliness of the ……… and its ………….. is extremely important.
d) Water is the most important vehicle for ……….. of microbes and
……………...
4) Briefly explain the following:
a) Alkalines
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
b) Iodophores
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
c) Ultrasonics
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................

Next, let us move on to discussing the importance of cleaning programme and

considerations that must be kept in mind while planning an efficient cleaning programme.

17.3 CONSIDERATIONS NECESSARY FOR AN

EFFICIENT CLEANING PROGRAMME
Both cleaning and sanitizing form the basis of food service sanitation as we have
already mentioned earlier. It must be clear that cleaning removes visible soil, sanitizing
reduces microbial load to a safe level.

The main purpose of cleaning and sanitizing dishes is to remove visible surface dirt
and reduce the level of bacteria to a safe level so as to:
1) reduce health hazards by avoiding contamination,
2) prevent spoilage of food,
3) control odour, and
4) create a pleasing appearance.
Before any cleaning programme is implemented, it is necessary that all food service
workers understand the importance of cleaning procedures. It is the duty of every
employee to ascertain that all dishes and utensils used in the catering establishment
are clean. Dishes are handled by various people like waiter, busboys, cooks and
dishwashers. Dishes cleaned and sanitized by dishwashers may be mishandled and
contaminated after washing. They may collect dust or get covered with a greasy film
if they are not stored or handled properly.

You would appreciate that an act of carelessness on part of one person, can cancel
the painstaking efforts of others and result in wastage of costly detergents, money
393
Entrepreneurship and Food invested in machines, labour, etc. Therefore, it is important to note that no matter how
Service Management well food is prepared and served, it is unacceptable if served in improperly cleaned
dishes or accompanied by unclean crockery or cutlery, or crockery which retains the
smell or remanent of the food served in it earlier.

All utensils, equipment, tableware and other food contact surfaces used in the food
service operation must be cleaned and sanitized after every major use or at least once
a day. Any utensil or equipment used in the storage, preparation and service of food
and which touches the food directly, is a food contact surface. The methods employed
to clean and sanitize these food contact surface are discussed in the subsequent sub-
section. Pots, pans, dishes, glasses, cutlery, trays, mixer bowls, slicing machines,
chopping boards, work platforms and stainless steel table tops are food contact
surfaces.

Surfaces which do not touch the food directly are non-food contact surfaces like the
top of the refrigerator, the bottom of work platforms and tables, floors, etc. These
surfaces need to be cleaned regularly and sanitized occasionally.

There are three methods to wash, rinse and sanitize food contact surfaces. These are
enumerated herewith.

17.3.1 Three Methods to Wash, Rinse and Sanitize Food Contact

Surfaces
The three methods to wash, rinse and sanitize food contact surfaces include: the three
bucket method, the sink method and the dishwashing machine method. The method
to be used will depend on many factors, such as the surface to be cleaned and the
size and nature of the food service establishment.

Even if all dishes are machine washed, workers should be trained in manual methods
as well. All methods listed above follow three basic steps, namely, wash, rinse and
sanitize. All these steps are necessary for proper cleaning and sanitizing. Let us get
to know these three methods.
a) The Three Bucket Method
This method is used to clean and sanitize equipment which is too large to place in
a sink or dishwashing machine or is stationery. Three separate buckets, containing a
wash, rise and a sanitizing solution, are required. All buckets should have different
colours.The procedure for the three bucket method is elabourated herewith.

Procedure for the Three Bucket Method

The three bucket method involves 3 steps. These include:
1) Wash: Remove food scraps from the surface to be cleaned. In the first bucket,
mix detergent in warm water. Scrub surface with a scourer to loosen food, grease
and dirt.
2) Rinse: Take clean warm water in the second bucket. Wipe the surface with a
sponge to remove loosened soil and detergent till surface is clean. If surface does
not look and feel clean, repeat these two steps.
3) Sanitize: Add chlorine in the correct concentration to warm water in the third
bucket. With a clean sponge, wipe the entire surface lightly and allow solution to
air dry. Do not dry surface with a dishcloth. Large equipment is sanitized by rising
carefully with boiling water, or live steam from a hose in case of equipment in
which steam can be confined.
b) The Sink Method
Dishes, pots pans, chopping boards, containers, knives, spoons and other small utensils
394 are washed and sanitized in sinks. Sinks should ideally have three compartments so
that washing, rinsing and sanitizing can be done in separate sinks. A one or two Plant Sanitation and Safety
compartment sinks is not very hygienic, as all steps are carried out in the same sink.
The equipment required for this process is enumerated herewith:
1) Sinks: Two or three compartments with a hot and cold water supply are required.
The sinks should be large enough to hold washing baskets and allow dishes to
immerse completely in wash solution. They should be made of a non-toxic, non-
corrosive, smooth material like stainless steel or vitreous enamel. Galvanized iron
sinks are recommended for washing large pots and pans. The sinks should have
an overflow pipe to remove excess water. The pipe should be fitted with a strainer
and funnel draining. The number of sinks required depends on the number and
variety of meals served. Separate sinks should be used for crockery and cutlery
and for pan washing.
Waste pipe traps should be removable, smooth, and easy to clean and easily
fitted. Plastic, which is acid and hot water resistant, is preferred. A spray hose
fitted to the sink is a desirable feature to wash down the sink and the draining
boards.
2) Drains: They should be 10 to 15 cms (four to six inches) in diameter to remove
all waste water without the risk of flooding. Grease traps should be cleaned
regularly.
3) Ware tables and drain boards: They are necessary to hold soiled dishes before
washing and to hold clean dishes after washing. They should be large enough,
self-draining and should be so place that they do not interfere with washing
procedures.
4) Ware washing baskets: They are used for immersing soiled ware in the rinse and
sanitizing compartments. They should have long handles and be large enough to
handle the normal load of wares. They should ensure complete immersion of
items and prevent contamination of cleaned and sanitized items by human hands.
5) Booster heaters: They should supply hot water between 74 to 82°C for sanitization.
They should ideally be located under the final rinse sink to prevent water
temperature from dropping.
6) Thermometers: They are meant for dishwashing and should be portable and
accurate to with in 2°C.
7) Clock: It is necessary to check immersion time during sanitization and the clock
should have a second’s hand.
8) Cleaning tools: Bristle brushes, scourers and abrasive pads in a good state of
repair should be placed in a convenient place. Sponges should be avoided as they
encourage the growth of microorganisms.
Next, let us learn about the procedure for the three sink method.
Procedures for three sink method
Check that sink is properly clean before starting work. The steps involved include:
1) Scrape and pre-rinse: This is to remove loose soil from dishes and keep wash
water cleaner and free from bacterial build-up. A scraper or squeegee is used and
food residue is transferred to a garbage container. Sometimes, soaking may be
necessary to remove more stubborn residues.
2) Washing: The first contains a hot detergent solution at 43.5°C to 52°C. Dishes
are washed in this sink with the help of cleaning tools. All visible soil is removed
from the surface of dishes. As more and more articles are washed, the
effectiveness of the detergent is reduced. The detergent solution is no longer
effectiveness if the detergent is reduced. The detergent solution is no longer
effective when a scum or grease layer forms on water and should be changed.
395
Entrepreneurship and Food Brushes and scourers should be cleaned, sanitized and dried. Grease is removed
Service Management at 52°C.
3) Rinsing: The second sink contains water at 40°C. Rinse dishes till washing
solution or other material is removed and dishes are clean to sight and touch.
Rinse water should be changed when it becomes dirty. If a basket is used, dip
the entire basket until all traces of detergent are removed. A basket must be used
to sanitize dishes because: (a) it reduces hand contact with eating surfaces of
dishes, and (b) temperature of water needed for sanitization is too high for the
use of hands.
4) Sanitizing: This step removes any soil and microorganisms that remain after
rinsing and has a bacteriostatic effect. Sanitizers used may be chemicals or water
at specific temperature and pressure. The concentration and duration of immersion
should be strictly followed.
5) Drying: No item should be touched on the food or mouth contact surface. All
items should be air dried to retain the effects of sanitization. They can be left in
the baskets to dry. Glasses should be inverted on a well ventilated drain board.
Towel or dish cloth drying is not recommended.
Finally let us get to know about dishwashing, which is the third methods to wash, rinse
and sanitize food contact surfaces.
c) Dishwashing
Dishes are washed in sinks or in the dishwashing machine. Dishwashing is one of the
most important tasks in any food service establishment. Unfortunately, it is one of the
most neglected areas. The job is usually assigned to the lowest grade of employees
who are inexperienced, unskilled and do not understand the importance of using the
right amount of detergent, water or time for this work. It is the responsibility of the
management to select correct methods of dishwashing and train employees
accordingly. Let us understand this process in greater details.

Mechanical Dishwashing: A dishwashing machine is used to clean and sanitize all

plates, glasses, cups saucers, knives, forks and spoons which are used in the dining
area. Other equipment and utensils that fit in the machine can also be cleaned and
sanitized. The machine works automatically and is extremely useful where quantity
food preparation and service takes places as both time and labour are saved. For
effective cleaning, it is necessary to follow the manufacturer’s operating instructions
carefully and to maintain the equipment in good working condition.
Before selecting a machine it is essential to have the following details:
• type of ware
• volume of dishes to be washed
• type of food service establishment
• space available for dishwashing
There are various types of dishwashers availabe. A brief review follows.
Types of dishwashing machines: Dishwashing machines are basically of two types:
stationary machines and conveyor machine. What are these? Let us find out.
1) Stationery machines: These machines have a single tank. The articles to be
washed are suitably placed in the rack and the racks are lifted and placed in the
machine. The racks of dishes stays in one place while the wash and rinse solution
circulates around the dishes. The timing is automatically controlled in most
machines.
2) Conveyor machines: In the conveyor machine, the dishes move on a conveyor
belt through the different cycles of washing, rinsing and sanitizing. The dishes are
either placed in racks on the conveyor belt or directly on the pegged conveyor
396 belt.
Conveyor machines may have: Plant Sanitation and Safety

a) A single tank where dishes are cleaned by the wash solution at one end and
conveyed to the clean end of the machine where it is rinsed with fresh water at
82°C (180°F). Water is sprayed from nozzles above and below the dishes.
b) Two tanks or multiple tanks: the first tank, i.e. the wash tank, contains the
detergent solution. After the wash cycle, the rack is conveyed through the power
rinse tank to rinse the dishes free of most of the detergent solution. The rack then
passes through the final rinse for sanitization. The racks are transported through
the machine on a pretimed conveyor at a speed set by the manufacturer. These
machines are recommended for larger establishments.
Loading of dishes may be done from the top or side of the machine, depending
on the model. Dishes are cleaned in a machine either by a jet or spray of hot
water and detergent forcefully sprayed to remove soil; by revolving brushes that
scrub soil off the dishes; or by mechanically agitating the detergent solution to help
in removing soil.
The steps in dishwashing are highlighted next.
Steps in dishwashing: Before beginning the cleaning operation, it is essential that
the machine, dish tables and work area is clean. Some preliminary steps which should
be checked are:
1) Check the insides of the machine to ensure that no food soil, broken dishes or
other foreign objects are present.
2) Overflow pipes should be free of debris.
3) Spray arms should be clean and properly installed.
4) Inspect final rinse nozzles and see that they are not blocked.
5) Make sure sufficient detergent in the dispensers.
6) Keep scrap bins and strainers in place.
The steps to be adhered for successful cleaning are enumerated next.
Operating procedure: The following steps should be adhered to for successful cleaning:
1) Sorting: Set aside any dishes that require special handling, as well as, heavily
stained dishes which will not get cleaned by the routine cleaning process in the
machine.
2) Preliminary scraping and pre-rinsing: Remove excessive loose food particles
with the help of a rubber scraper. The purpose of scraping is to:
a) prevent the clogging of spray nozzles with food particles,
b) avoid frequent changes of wash water,
c) reduce bacterial contamination of wash water,
d) remove as much grease as possible prior to washing,
e) wet the soil remaining on the dishes, and
f) facilitate easy cleaning
Manual pre-rinsing is not required if the machine has a power pre-rinse attached.
3) Soaking : This may be necessary for dishes on which soil has hardened or dried,
especially flatware may need soaking for sometime to loosen the soil. Soaking can
be done in tubs placed under the counters or ware tables.
4) Racking : In this step, the dishes are arranged either in racks for conveyance
through the machine or on a pegged conveyor for travel it. It involves proper
placement of dishes to permit the wash and rinse solution to come in contract
with all surfaces to be cleaned. Ensure that:
397
Entrepreneurship and Food a) there is no overcrowding of dishes,
Service Management
b) similar sized objects are racked together, and
c) cups, glasses and other deep dishes are placed open end down to prevent
water accumulation.
5) Washing: The purpose of washing is to remove all food soil from the dishes and
dissolve the grease on dishware. This requires clean water, with correct proportion
of detergent at the right temperature and pressure, in contact with the dishes for
the proper amount of time. The detergent solution circulates at a specific rate the
dishes pass through this tank. The temperature of the washing solution will vary
according to the type of the machine and its specifications.
6) Power rinse: It completely removes most of the detergent-laden water and permits
effective sanitization, because of the build-up of heat, it hastens the drying
process. Hot pumped rinse water is sprayed over the dishes in the correct volume
and with sufficient pressure to rinse.
7) Final rinse and sanitization: At this stage, any remaining detergent is removed
and the dishes are sanitized. If water is used as a sanitizer, then it should be
sprayed in adequate volumes and at a correct pressure with temperature varying
between 77° and 82°C. Ideally, as it leaves the nozzles, it should have a temperature
of 82°C. However, it should not exceed 90° to 93°C, as the water at the
temperature under pressure would atomize and become vapour. The wash water
temperature during different cycles of machine dishwashing is mentioned in Table
17.1.

Table 17.1: Wash water temperatures during different cycles of machine dishwashing

Cycle Type of Machine Temperature of Water

°C °F
Pre-rinse 43 to 55 110 to 130
Wash Single tank stationary 60 to 74 140 to 165
Single tank conveyor 71 160
Multiple tank conveyor 66 150
Power rinse 71 to 77 160 to 170
Final rinse and sanitize 82 180

8) Drying: Crockery and utensils must be left in racks to drain and air dry. Although
dishwashing machines are a boon to us, they can create problems if not selected
well. Some of the common causes of failure are:
i) machines located in the wrong place,
ii) improper plumbing,
iii) machines are too small,
iv) untrained employees,
v) water is not adequately hot,
vi) water pressure is low, and
vii) wrong selection of detergent.
With drying we end our study of the steps to be adhered to for successful cleaning.
Another area that require attention when we talk of plant and equipment sanitation is
post cleaning care and cleaning of premises and surroundings. This aspect is described
next.

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 Plant Sanitation and Safety
17.4 POST CLEANING CARE AND CLEANING OF
PREMISES AND SURROUNDINGS
Dishwashing operators must take the greatest care while removing sanitized dishes,
utensils and equipments from racks, baskets or the conveyer itself. Contamination of
cleaned and sanitized ware should be avoided. Drying clothes should be used only
when necessary. They should be changed frequently and washed and boiled each day.
The dish clothes themselves carry many germs and the wise operator will realize that
the germs may be passed back onto cleaned and sanitized crockery and utensils. The
use of disposable absorbent paper for final drying can be considered, if affordable.
Clothes for mopping should, if used be boiled frequently or soaked overnight in a
disinfectant solution.

Some important aspects related to post cleaning storage and cleanliness of premises
and surroundings are highlighted herewith.

Cleaning of Premises and Surroundings

Cleanliness is an essential part of the daily routine in all areas and departments in any
catering establishment. It is the key to good health and efficient work. The cleaning
schedule should be carefully planned so that the premises, all equipment, furniture and
surroundings are thoroughly cleaned everyday. The cleaning schedule should not
interfere with or hamper the regular working in the establishment. The cleaners should
be familiar with the work programme and should strictly adhere to the time-table. Any
spillage or accidental mess should, however, be cleaned up promptly. This will prevent
accidents and grease spots forming on floors.

A surface is clean when it is free from dust, dirt, grease, stains, cobwebs or any such
unacceptable element. To remove soil from any surface, it is necessary to select the
proper cleaning technique. This will depend on the type of soil present. Soil can be
removed by:
1) Sweeping
2) Dusting or damp dusting with a cloth tightly wrung in a multipurpose cleaning
solution.
3) Washing with water and a cleaning agent
4) Friction using an abrasive agent
5) Suction using a vacuum cleaner or wet pick-up machine
6) Pressure using a scrubber or polisher
7) Force by using water or air
8) Solvents for removing grease and stubborn stains.
The cleaning schedule is elaborated next.
Cleaning Schedule: The cleaning schedule should be prepared for daily, weekly and
monthly cleaning. Special cleaning, like outside windows, light fixtures, walls which
require white-washing polishing, distempering and painting of surfaces, is carried out
a couple of times a year. The general rule for cleaning is that there should be no
large-scale sweeping and cleaning while food is being prepared, as sweeping raises
dust laden with microbes which contaminate food.

Let us next have a look at the constructional features and cleaning schedules and how
cleaning can be done effectively in these areas.

399
Entrepreneurship and Food Floor: Floors in areas where traffic is heavy, as in kitchens, bakeries, pantries,
Service Management dishwashing rooms, walk-in-refrigerators, corridors, dining rooms, washrooms and
toilets, should be cleaned everyday. Floors in areas where traffic is light can be cleaned
weekly.

All washable floor surfaces should be washed. Wooden floors should be waxed or
polished. Hot water, soap or detergent, a scrubbing brush and a mop is needed. Before
cleaning the floor, all movable light equipment and furniture must be shifted. The floor
is best washed at the end of the day. Floors in the pantry, dry food store and vegetable
store should be swept daily and washed at least once a week. Fixed carpets and
matting in dining rooms, passages, and stairways should be brushed or swept every
working day, preferably by a vacuum cleaner. Loose mats and rugs should be vacuum
cleaned or taken out into the open and beaten at least once a week. Carpets should
be shampooed or dry cleaned at least once a year.

Walls and Ceilings: Walls and ceilings should preferably be non-porous and in good
repair. This helps the cleaning procedure and prevents pests from breeding in cracks
and crevices. While cleaning the walls and ceiling, follow the principle of cleaning the
uppermost areas first. Walls, ceilings and fixtures should be cleaned at least once a
week. Areas within reach should be dusted everyday. The method of cleaning will
depend on the surface to be cleaned. Ideally, walls should be washed with warm water
and a detergent. The ceilings should be brushed and swept. The girders, piping, electric
fittings, etc. should be dusted. Dusting should be done carefully so that dirt is not
shifted from one place to another. The best way of removing dust is by using a
vacuum cleaner or by damp dusting as it prevents dust from flying about. All walls
must be dusted. Walls that become heavily soiled or spattered daily should be washed.
All walls should be free of dust, moisture, grease, cobwebs, grime and mildew. Light
coloured walls make dirt more visible. Painted walls should be repainted regularly and
papered walls kept in a good state of repair with no loose paper.

Kitchen Tables, Counters and Preparation Slabs: Kitchen tables, counters and
preparation slabs should be washed at least once a day. All surfaces coming in contact
with food should be cleaned after each service by the three bucket method. All metal
surfaces should be cleaned with hot water, a non-scratching detergent and by a hand
swab. Wooden and marble surfaces should be scrubbed with a scrubbing brush, hot
water and detergent. The surfaces should be rinsed well and wiped with a clean cloth
every time they are used. Such clothes should be washed well and boiled. They should
not be used for wiping dishes. All parts of tables, including the framework and
underside, all areas of the counter, like the hot cupboard, and all preparation areas
including chopping boards and pastry slabs should be cleaned at least once a day. The
bain marie (hot food serving counter) should be turned off and the water drained off.
It should then be cleaned inside and outside with hot detergent, water, rinsed and dried
everyday.

Shelves and Cupboards: Shelves and cupboards that are constantly in use should be
tidied and cleaned once a week. Shelves and cupboards are mainly used for storing
ingredients or utensils. They should be first emptied and then swept or dusted. The
upper surfaces of the shelves should be scrubbed and lower surfaces should be dusted.
While cleaning, always start with the topmost shelf. Cupboards which are used for
storing reserve crockery, linen etc. long-term storage cupboards, should be cleared out
cleaned at least once a month.

Surroundings and Drainage: The entire working premises should be thoroughly

cleaned once a week. This should be done after the dining area is closed. All edible
items should be covered and put away. All easily movable articles should be removed.
The procedure helps in putting things back in place and prevents accumulation of
rubbish. Cleaning is thus made easier.
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All furniture should be thoroughly dusted at least once a day and table tops scrubbed Plant Sanitation and Safety
clean. If table clothes are used, they should be changed. Walls, ceiling, fittings and
fixtures should be swept or dusted at least once a week.

All passages and staircases, whether used to carry food or used by customers, should
be cleaned frequently, and any spillage should be mopped up at once. All nooks and
corners should be swept out and cleaned thoroughly once a month.

Any open space outside the building should be swept and washed everyday. No
rubbish should be allowed to collect in the drains or else drains will get blocked, give
off foul odours and encourage pests.

Drainage: Drains should be adequate to remove all wastewater without being overloaded.
Each drain should have a water seal or trap which will prevent unpleasant odours rising
from the pipe into the room. Drain pipes should have a diameter of 10 to 15 cms
and should be cleaned regularly. They get blocked mostly because food accumulates
on the sides and blocks the pipes. Blockages can be cleared by using a rubber water
plunger. If not cleared then the cleaning eye at the bottom should be opened. The drain
can be cleaned with a flexible wire or a cleaning liquid especially available for blocked
drains.

Grease traps are necessary because they prevent grease from concealing in the drain
pipes. The grease tray should be removed regularly and washed out.

From our discussion so far it is evident that safety of plant, equipment and premises
should be the concern of all staff. In the next section we shall focus on the three E’s
of safety.

17.5 THE 3-E’S OF SAFETY

Safety problems differ with the nature of an operation, its size, skills and education
of staff, their levels of awareness regarding the hazards that can occur due to
negligence in hygiene, sanitation and safety. Managers too, tend to take sanitation and
safety casually, usually monitoring surface cleanliness without much knowledge of the
minor details of cleanliness or sanitation practices. They usually concentrate on prices
and profits not realizing that all these can go down the drain if they do not have the
right information about detergents and sanitizers in the market, and their effectiveness
in use for keeping the food services safe from hazards of infection.

Safety, therefore, should be the concern of all staff, at all levels of an establishment.
Problems that do arise from any source can basically be tackled in three ways, usually
referred to as the 3 E’s of safety namely:
• Safety engineering
• Safety education
• Safety enforcement
These three components of safety are being separately discussed herewith to highlight
their importance in prevention of hazards anticipated through any channel, in a food
service operation. Let us start with safety engineering.

17.5.1 Safety Engineering

Safety engineering involves the building-in of safety features in the design of
equipment, furniture and fittings and their proper placement in the spaces within work
areas of the establishment. Particular emphasis must be laid on safety features in
buildings meant for use by the handicapped whether inmates or customers. Some

401
Entrepreneurship and Food examples are the need for a higher level of illumination, provision of lights in cupboards,
Service Management adjustable working or seating heights as the case may be.

Equipment design: Safety needs to be built into the design of equipment selected for
food services, such as the ability to dismantle parts that come in contact with food.
This is essential in order to sterilize those parts and make it possible to maintain
sanitation, through air-drying them, for use after refitting.

Equipment design should also ensure that the linings and insulation is well aligned and
heat or other agents used and generated in kitchens do not produce a separation or
lifting of laminates to allow microbial or insect infestation of any kind.
Next, let us review safety education.

17.5.2 Safety Education

Safety education involves gaining information on safety standards and methods,
detergents, sanitizers and knowing the impact on the sanitation standards of the
operation and the possible result of lack of sanitation and safety as well.

Most important is to be aware of the human factors in safety and make a continuous
effort to inculcate proper working habits in staff handling food at all times. Let us
elaborate further on this aspect.

Human factors in safety

A number of factors relating to the habits and behaviour of people at work
affect their attitude to safety. These are improper working habits, psychological
and emotional factors operating in the work environment. Let us understand
them better.

Improper working habits: Proper working habits develop only when a sense of identity
is established with the workplace, thereby placing caution foremost in the minds of
the staff, who would want to protect, look after and preserve or extend their resources
as much as possible. Some working habits which can be identified as safety hazards
in catering situations are:
• Not wiping spillage immediately.
• Smoking while working.
• Unguarded coughing, sneezing or yawning during cooking and service of
food.
• Not reporting gastrointestinal or other infections on returning to work from
leave.
• Wearing street clothes at work in kitchens without using overalls or
headgear.
• Using shortcuts for cleaning and not following procedures laid down.
These are only a few examples cited to indicate what a wrong working habit can do
to destroy the safety of an establishment. Hence, it is wise to update one’s knowledge
of sanitizers, detergents, sanitary and cleaning equipment available from time to time
along with methods for their proper use. Keeping in touch with newer research and
products and using it for training and retraining staff in sanitation and safety will help
to keep establishments ahead of others in terms of attracting customers, as well as,
in generating profits.
Next, we move on to the third E of safety i.e. safety enforcement.

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17.5.3 Safety Enforcement Plant Sanitation and Safety

Enforcement is another term for implementation and practice. It is not enough to

know about safety and its procedures, but more important to motivate staff to put the
knowledge gained into practice. This does not come to everyone easily and therefore
needs to be enforced by rule, law or custom and practice. Safety regulations set, need
to be enforced through:
• Discipline
• Close supervision
• Vigilance
• Action
Let us review each of these next.
1) Discipline: Discipline at work involves an awareness of safety not only of self
but of all people in the work environment, which includes customers and suppliers
as well. The basic disciplines guiding safety are:
• Avoid overcrowding
• No smoking
• Not eating while preparing food
• Silence when handling food
• Personal neatness
• Correct working habits
• Orderliness and cleanliness in work areas
The above guidelines can be unending because each operation differs in its layout,
nature of activities and so on. Further, the nature and behaviour of people in their
job environment varies too depending on their education and level and extent of
training acquired.
2) Supervision: Close supervision is necessary to ensure that staff follows safe work
procedures that become routine with them in due course. This becomes easier,
if supervisors are seen as examples of what they wish to inculcate in their staff.
It is obvious that if a supervisor is well groomed and clean in his appearance and
working habits, always leaving his work table neat, that staff will follow his
example.
3) Vigilance: Every one in a food operation has however to be vigilant that there
is no scope for contamination in and around them. Any hint of a cold or intestinal
infection among staff should be brought to the notice of the manager. Also
equipment should be checked for cleanliness before using them in case of an
insect, dust or dirt in crevices. In such cases, it should be cleaned again before
using it for food preparation or service.
Extra care is needed in tropical summers and during the monsoon season as the
temperatures and humidity are very high, both the factors being conducive to
microbial growth.
4) Action: Immediate action should be taken if proper procedures are not
being followed, or if a particular sanitizer is not working well. Even if a
single insect or rodent is seen in the environment action is necessary to eliminate
it and prevent any breeding ground for it in the vicinity of the food service
establishment.

With safety enforcement measure we end our study on the 3 E’s of safety. Now
answer the questions included in check your progress exercise 2 to recall what you
have learnt so far.
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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) What do you understand by the phrase 3-E’s of safety?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Discuss briefly the human factors in safety education.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Differentiate between:
a) Cleaning agent and sanitizer
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
b) Illness and poisoning
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
c) Food plant and food service operation
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
4) List the four elements of a good enforcement programme.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

In our discussion so far it emerges that safety should be the concern of all staff, at
all levels of an establishment. Further, it is also important to ensure that systems for
regulating food safety are in place within the establishments. What are the standards,
policies, schedules governing food service operations? The next section focuses on this
important aspect. You may recall studying about HACCP as a food safety assurance
system and about the food legislations, acts and standards operating in our country
in the Food Microbiology and Safety Course (MFN-003), in Unit 13 and Unit 14. Here
the specific standards, policies, schedules for good plant sanitation and food are further
highlighted.

17.6 STANDARDS, POLICIES AND SCHEDULES

The setting up of standards, policies and schedules or procedures that can be religiously
followed by all those working in food operations is essential for supervision and
monitoring of effective production and customer satisfaction. Let us review them.
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17.6.1 Standards Plant Sanitation and Safety

Standards of good plant sanitation require an examination of the built-in features of

equipment, quality of water supply, waste collection and disposal practices, and
planning of quality facilities.

In every country, laws are passed to safeguard the health and well being of people
at work to which all food services too, must adhere. Standards for achievement in all
areas are provided by the nodal institution for standards in India, called the Bureau
of Indian Standards (BIS). These include standards for equipment, food, environmental
hygiene and sanitation and so on.

The Ecomark was a standard launched by the BIS in an attempt to preserve the
environment from pollutants. The mark ensures the consumer that products such as
detergents, sanitizers and others do not produce hazardous waste materials, are
biodegradable and can be recycled. The ISI certification mark on packaging and
equipment also serves the same purpose.

The government has set up departments to monitor implementation of the standards

in registered organizations and proper machinery for regular inspection of plant and
premises exists.

The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) appointed an ad hoc inter-governmental

task force on foods and is in the process of developing standards, guidelines and other
principles for such product traits, introduced into foods with respect to safety, keeping
in mind consumer health. The government of India has taken the initiative to formulate
a code and has laid down the internal norms for minimum residue levels (MRLs) for
pesticides in water and foods.

The harmonization of food standards across countries is an important step in meeting

challenges thrown up by the World Trade Organisation (WTO), to which India is a
signatory. Under WTO agreement, all food standards imposed would have to be
justified on socioeconomic and scientific grounds for export competitiveness.

The government has instituted a task force to look into the area of safety concerns
such as, the risk of transferring toxins from one life form to another, or creating new
toxins and allergenic compounds. According to the Ministry of Food Processing
Industries, food standards are under review to include provisions on technical barriers
to trade and sanitary and phyto-sanitary provisions and measures.

17.6.2 Policies
Every food operation should lay down their own policies for the operation to ensure
efficient functioning, keeping in mind the goals of food safety to ensure staff and
customer health. A good policy for every food service is to lay down an inspection
routine that can be followed regularly by all managers responsible for their units. A
sample is presented as a guide.
Sample Inspection Routine
• A daily quick cursory inspection of all areas.
• Detailed inspection starting from:
• Refuse storage areas looking for condition of bins and areas for evidence of
rodents, insects etc.
• Outside drainage for leakages, blockages, overflows, yards etc.
• Sanitary condition of staff restrooms, customer toilets and housing.
• Food storages for ventilation, lighting, cleanliness, equipment maintenance,
condition of foods and non-food items.
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Entrepreneurship and Food • Kitchen walls, floors, ceilings, ventilation, lighting and equipment.
Service Management
• Staff inspection for personal hygiene and at work.
Supervisors or managers should then on the basis of inspection, make recommendations,
offer praise or reprimand where required, offer guidance through constructive suggestions
for improvement.

While routine inspection is important, what is lacking is proper communication with

employees regarding their safety policy. It is good policy to have a weekly meeting
with all employees on a fixed day and time, when the results of the inspection can
be communicated to them visually through use of audio-visual aids. It can be an hour’s
meeting of free discussions over tea making them aware of the importance of maintaining
sanitary working areas, as well as, the ill-effects that can occur if procedures laid down
are not properly followed.

Instructional materials in the form of charts may be prepared for each area, with the
help of staff concerned to increase knowledge and practice. The best area may be
awarded and the list of award winners displayed to motivate others.

17.6.3 Schedules
Schedules are timetables set for cleaning and sanitizing all areas of the operation that
the staff needs to follow to achieve a sanitary work environment. Such timetables need
to be prepared for every staff member in each area of activity according to the special
requirements of the equipment being used and the spaces in question. Each plant or
operation should appoint a sanitation officer to ensure sanitary conditions prevail at
all times.
The sanitary control methods are highlighted next.
Sanitation control methods
Control methods should aim at insect, fly and rodent control besides maintenance of
hygienic and sanitary surroundings both within and outside the food establishments.
Some guidelines are briefly enumerated.

Insect control: Depending on the type of infestation the right insecticide should be
selected to eradicate insects. Sprays are also available but are not recommended for
food processing facilities, as they may mix with or leave residues on food and
ingredients. DDT emulsions are effective, but the disadvantage is that insects have a
tendency to become resistant to them. Melathion, an organo-phosphorus insecticide is
more dependable.

It must be remembered however, that insecticides control insects more effectively in

clean premises. If processing areas are cleaned, scrubbed and flushed especially with
hot water or steam at least once a day any insect eggs or microbes can be eliminated
without use of chemical or other formulations.

Fly control: For flies and wasps, preventive measures in the form of fly proofing, or
fixtures such as insect fly killers which attract with a dim blue light and then electrocute
flying insects are useful equipment to fix at entrances to kitchens and dining areas
above the doors or high up towards ceilings away from human contact.

Insect sanitation is one of the important goals of plant sanitation, and should be
achieved by avoiding insect infestation by all possible means. This may include site
selection for plants, fly-proofing or using perforated zinc sheets as a means of
prevention of entry into food handling and storage areas or periodic fumigation.

Sites near rivers, streams, ponds, railroads, city dumps etc. should be avoided as they
form breeding places for insects and pests. It is also dangerous to have storages
406
opening directly to open areas. All trolleys and trucks carrying waste materials act as Plant Sanitation and Safety
vehicles for flying insects and should be sprayed with pyrethrin oil before
entering food production and service areas. These days electromagnetic killer equipment
for flying insects is available and can be fitted to entrances or walls to protect against
flies.

Fumigation: Fumigation is a curative measure, but invaluable as a means of preventing

insect damage to stored food. All dehydrated or dried foods can be fumigated safely
and effectively.

Fumigants being volatile can penetrate large bulks of stored food and react with insects
even inside grains. The fumigants work fast and ensure ultimate disappearance of
poisonous residues from treated areas.

Schedules are necessary for the implementation of policies of the establishment, and
desired standards maintained with respect to hygiene, cleanliness and sanitation. In
fact sanitation risk management (SRM) programmes need to be planned with
controls at various vulnerable points to ensure success. Any control programme
should be based on prevention, rather than control, by keeping insects out and by
adopting methods to ensure thorough cleaning, maintenance and sanitization of all
areas.

You have already learnt in Unit 16, that the cleaning and maintenance encompasses
many areas of day-to-day food service operations of which equipment care and
maintenance are important facets.

Here we end our study on plant sanitation and safety. Do answer the
questions included in check your progress exercise 3 to recapitulate what you have
learnt so far.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) a) What do the following abbreviations stand for?

i) CAC …………………………………...........................................

ii) WTO …………………………………...........................................

iii) BIS …………………………………..............................................

iv) MRL …………………………………...........................................

b) Write two or three lines about each abbreviation.
i) ..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
ii) ..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
iii) ..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
iv) ..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................

407
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 2) Name three sanitation control methods.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Visit your local area food service operations and compare them for hygiene
and sanitation standards. Which do you think is the best and why?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

17.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we learnt that plant sanitation and safety is an area of study important
to food service operations because its maintenance and implementation ensures
wholesome food to staff and customers. We got to know about a wide range of
cleaners and sanitizers that must be used in a food service operation and these have
been outlined along with their advantages and disadvantages, so that each operation
can decide which is best for them.

Next, we learnt that the primary causes of food contamination are substandard or
infected water, chemical compounds, disintegrated or infected food. We saw that plant
sanitation and safety basically depends on three facets, safety engineering, education
and enforcement. These can prevent hazards anticipated through any channels, be they
soil, sewage, insects, rodents, pests or other. You would have realized that the food
operator is more concerned with the growth of spoilage agents that destroy product
quality and appearance, which is just as important as the growth of microorganisms
that induce toxicity in man.

Next, we got to know that to ensure zero cases of food related health problems, certain
policies have to be planned and standards well defined, on the basis of which schedules
are prepared for implementation.

17.8 GLOSSARY
Fumigation : is the introduction of smoke or fumes or a gaseous chemical in
an enclosed space in order to exterminate pests or disinfect.
HACCP : is an acronym that stands for Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Point, a systematic, science-based approach used in food
production as a means to assure food safety.
Pyrethrin : are natural organic compounds that have potent insecticidal
activity.
Sporicidal : a substance used to kill spores.

17.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Sanitation is the quality of living that is expressed through a clean home, clean
408 establishment, clean surroundings all leading to a clean community and country.
 Refer to section 17.2 and based on your understanding of the topic present a Plant Sanitation and Safety
discussion on how sanitation can be maintained in a food service operation .
2) Disease can be transmitted through people when they cough, sneeze, yawn
without covering their mouth and nose, and through soil, sewage, polluted water,
rodents (rats, mice), insects, contaminated equipment utensils and food.
3) a) concern, grains.
b) stored, covered, hazards
c) food, environment.
d) transfer, contaminants.
4) a) Alkalines are cleaning compounds which have a pH between 7 and 14.
These include phosphates, silicates, carbonates and borates.
b) Iodophores are cleaning compounds which are complexes of iodine and
surface active agents in which the surfactants act as carriers and solubilizers
for the iodine.
c) Ultrasonic is a processes used for maintaining plant cleanliness and sanitation.
In this process the sound waves get converted into mechanical energy and
create microscopic bubbles. These constantly form and collapse, beating
against the surface or the part being cleaned. In this way, the soil is removed
from the surface or cavities of the part being cleaned. The process is
therefore, also called cavitation.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) The three E’s of safety refer to its three components engineering, education and
enforcement, all of which are important for preventing hazards in food service
operations and in the food processing environment.
Engineering refers to the design and construction aspects of a plant, spaces and
equipment, while education teaches the staff handling food in any area of work
to follow sanitary and safe practices, both at work and in their behaviour. The
enforcement involves implementation of hygiene and sanitation in the operations
and units, as well as, ensures that proper standards of personal and environmental
sanitation are maintained. Education involves making people aware.
2) Human factors in safety education involve making people aware of proper and
improper working habits and the results of both as far as hazards are concerned.
The impact on food and environmental quality is highlighted along with their own
and customer safety if proper working habits are adopted.
3) a) A cleaning agent makes surfaces look neat and clean or hygienic removing
soil, dust, dirt and waste materials. A sanitizer makes surfaces and equipment
free from disease spreading bacteria or other microorganisms.
b) Illness from food contamination usually results in diarrhoea and other stomach
disturbances which go away as the agents of infection are excreted through
the human body. Poisoning on the other hand is more serious and results
from toxic agents in food, requiring hospitalized treatment. If very severe it
may even lead to death.
c) A food plant is usually a factory type operation which processes food
continuously, while a food service operation is one which prepares food
freshly and serves it to customers on demand as in a restaurant, café or even
a dhaba.
4) The four elements of a good enforcement programme are discipline, close
supervision, vigilance and action.

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Entrepreneurship and Food Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Service Management
1) a) i) Codex Alimentarius Commision
ii) World Trade Organisation
iii) Bureau of Indian Standards
iv) Minimum Residue Level
b) i) CAC is the international organization for setting food standards for all
countries in the world.
ii) WTO regulates the trade agreements between countries by setting down
quality standards and norms for export and import of goods of all kinds.
iii) BIS is the central agency set up by the government of India to set
standards for all goods to safeguard the consumer. It is responsible for
issuing standard marks for products. The marks of quality on a label
show that the product quality is approved by the government.
iv) MRL indicates the minimum level of pesticide residues that are permitted
in or on surface of products to consider them safe for consumption.
2) The three sanitation control methods used are insect control, fly control and
regular fumigation.
3) Visit and present an opinion report.

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 Plant Sanitation and Safety
UNIT 18 ISSUES IN FOOD SAFETY

Structure
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Microbiology and Food Safety
18.2.1 Microorganisms in Foods
18.2.2 Growth of Bacteria and the Factors that Affect the Growth of Microorganisms
18.2.3 Control of Microbial Growth in Foods
18.3 Food Borne Illness
18.3.1 Types of Food Borne Illnesses
18.3.2 Control of Food Borne Illnesses
18.4 Modes of Disease Transmission
18.4.1 Routes of Disease Transmission
18.4.2 Source of Contamination
18.5 Conditions that Could Lead to Food Spoilage
18.5.1 Categorization of Food on the Basis of their Shelf Life or Perishability and Conditions
that could Lead to Food Spoilage
18.5.2 Signs of Spoilage in Fresh, Dry and Preserved Foods
18.6 Importance of Pest Control
18.6.1 Classification of Pesticides
18.6.2 Precautions to be Taken While Handling Pesticides
18.7 Hygienic Food Handling
18.7.1 Procedures in Food Preparation which Affect the Microbial Count
18.7.2 Cooked Food and Microbial Contamination
18.8 Let Us Sum Up
18.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

18.1 INTRODUCTION
In our previous unit, we have learnt about plant and equipment maintenance and the
ways by which they can be taken care of. Also, we read in Unit 17 about safety and
sanitation issues that could be a cause of concern if not dealt with caution. This unit
now could be considered a continuation with what we have learnt so far. In this unit
we shall focus on food safety. Issues related to food borne infections and poisoning,
different modes of transmission in food service institutions and conditions that could
lead to food spoilage would be highlighted.

Food contamination with microorganisms is a major source of illness either in the form
of infections or poisoning. You may recall reading about this in Unit 5 in the Food
Microbiology and Safety Course, MFN-003, as well. Negligence on the part of the
food handler can result in a large epidemic. The prime responsibility, as you would
agree to break the chain of transmission of disease from carrier to food and from food
to the consumer lies solely on the food handler. This important aspect has been
covered in the next and final unit. However, you may find certain concepts, topics
included here in this unit and in the next unit repetitive and you might be well aware
of these, as they have already been covered in Food Microbiology and Safety Course,
(MFN-003). Nevertheless, we strongly recommend that you read this unit carefully
and perhaps it would be more useful to study this unit in combination with Units 2,
3 and 5 of the Food Microbiology and Safety Course. This will help you consolidate
your understanding of issues in both worker and food safety.

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Entrepreneurship and Food Objectives
Service Management
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• recall the microorganisms that can cause infection and disease,
• differentiate between food borne infections and poisoning,
• discuss why and how to handle food to prevent infection,
• explain the various modes of disease transmission, and
• describe the conditions that can lead to food spoilage in a food service establishment.

18.2 MICROBIOLOGY AND FOOD SAFETY

You are already aware of the fact that microbiology and food safety are inter-linked.
Many microorganisms are disease-causing yet, some others are beneficial for us in
many ways. Can you think of any examples? Yes, for example moulds are useful to
humans. They are used to ripen cheese and to add flavour and colour to it. At the
same time some moulds are harmful because they produce toxins.

Like moulds, bacteria, viruses etc. are other microorganisms important from food
safety view point. These are briefly highlighted in the subsequent sub-section.

18.2.1 Microorganisms in Foods

Microorganisms, as you must know by now, can be classified into five groups. These
include:
a) Viruses
b) Bacteria
c) Fungi
d) Algae
e) Protozoa
A detail review on these microorganisms is already presented in Unit 2 in the Food
Microbiology and Safety Course. Hence we shall not repeat the review here. But
certainly, we shall like to recapitulate what we have learnt earlier. Quickly go through
the summarization presented herewith. We shall begin with viruses first.
a) Viruses: Viruses are very minute in size, strictly parasitic and cannot be cultivated
outside the living host cell. They feed on living cells of plants and animals and
are pathogenic. Viruses attach themselves to plant, animal or bacterial cells and
the nuclear material present in the virus is released in the cell. At the expenses
of the host the virus multiplies inside the cell. When sufficient numbers of
particles are formed, the cell bursts and the released viruses attack other cells.
Poliomyelitis and infectious hepatitis are viral diseases caused by contaminated
food and drinking water. Shellfish such as oysters, cockles and mussels from
sewage polluted waters can cause viral food poisoning if food is not cooked
thoroughly. Viruses are present in the nose and throat discharges and in the faeces
of infected.
b) Bacteria: Bacteria are found everywhere – in and on soil, water, air, plants,
animals, humans and their food. Bacteria are both useful and harmful to humans.
Can you list down their benefits? They are capable of fermenting sugar to lactic
acid. This makes them important in the manufacture of dairy products like curds,
yoghurt, buttermilk and cheese and fermented vegetable products like sauerkraut
and dill pickles. Some bacteria help in fermenting and curing coffee and cocoa
beans.
Many bacteria are pathogenic to humans and animals. Most food infections and
food poisonings are of bacterial origin. They are also responsible for spoilage of
food. Canned foods, fruit juices and alcoholic beverages are spoiled by acid
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 producing bacteria. They spoil beverages and milk by forming rope or slime in Issues in Food Safety
them. They may cause surface discolouration on many foods or putrefy foods
accompanied with the development of a foul smell. Some of the facts that a food
handler must be aware are presented in Box 18.1.

Box 18.1 Important Facts for Food handlers

The food handler should know that:
1) Bacteria are the most common cause of food poisoning.
2) They are present everywhere.
3) We cannot see them.
4) They do not have legs or wings but are carried from one place to another
by humans animals, water and wind.
5) Under favourable conditions they are present in large numbers.
6) An awareness of how they grow and reproduce is necessary if we want to
control them.
Bacteria live and multiply in many foodstuffs. Very often the type of food, atmospheric
temperature and humidity of the kitchen provide ideal conditions for multiplication of
bacteria. Protein rich foods like meat, fish and poultry, whether raw or cooked, are
excellent media for bacterial growth, especially when these foods are stored without
refrigeration.
c) Fungi: Fungi include the lower plants and are usually multicolour, but the plant
body is not differentiated into roots, stem and leaves. They are saprophytes and
lack chlorophyll. Some may be parasitic. They very in size from the small
microscopic yeasts to mushrooms in the fields. All of them are widely distributed
in nature. Fungi include both yeasts and moulds. Let us get to know both.
Yeast: Yeast are unicellular and are found naturally in soil and dust.
Moulds: Moulds are multicolour. Their bodies are thread-like or filamentous.
Moulds are useful to humans. They are used to ripen cheese and to add flavour
and colour to it. Blue cheese or Roquefort cheese is ripened by Penicillium
roquefort and Camembert cheese by Penicillium camembert. Some species of
Penicillium produce life saving antibiotics. Aspergillums orzo is used for making
soy sauce. Moulds are used in many oriental fermented foods like temper.
Some moulds are harmful because they produce toxins. Aspergillus produce a
toxic substance called aflatoxin when they grow on peanuts, corn, wheat grain and
their meal. Some are parasitic, for example, ringworm is a mould which is parasitic
on skin and hair. Certain varieties of mushrooms growing in the fields are highly
toxic and can cause death, for example, Amanita Sp. Any food with plentiful
mould growth should be discarded.
d) Algae: Algae include both unicellular and multicolour organisms found naturally
in water. They contain chlorophyll and are photosynthetic. Multicultural algae are
of importance as a source of agar for microbiological media. Red and brown algae
are used as a source of food and blue green algae as fertilizers because they are
rich in proteins. Algonac acid and its salts are made from brown algae. This is
used in ice creams to prevent ice crystal formation and to give a smooth texture.
It is also used in cheese and frosting.
A pathogenic algae Gonyaulaux catenulate is found in seawater planktons. Mollusks
who feed on this plankton become poisonous.
e) Protozoa: Protozoan belong to the animal kingdom. They are unicellular. Some
are parasitic.
Pathogenic varieties include Entamoeba histolytica which causes amoebic dysentery.
Trypanosoma causing sleeping sickness and Plasmodium which causes malarial fever.
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Entrepreneurship and Food Amoebiasis occurs when drinking water is contaminated by sewage through
Service Management salads and root vegetables grown on soil to which untreated excreta is applied as a
fertilizer. Entamoeba forms cysts which require heat for their destruction.
Despite of varying characteristics and harmful/beneficial effects, we discussed above,
all microbes have certain common characteristics such as nutrition and oxygen
requirements. Though the nature of these requirements may vary and can be used to
classify bacteria.
Microorganisms require their nourishment by any of the following three methods.
1) By feeding on dead and decaying organic matter. Such microorganisms are called
saprophytes. Bacteria, yeasts and moulds are saprophytic.
2) By feeding on living host cells. Such microorganisms thrive at the expense of the
host and are called parasites. Viruses, some bacteria, some fungi and protozoa
are parasitic on plants and animals.
3) By manufacturing their own food, Green algae contain chlorophyll and can
produce their own food by the process of photosynthesis just like plants.
On the basis of oxygen requirements, microorganisms are classified into three broad
categories. These include:
1) Aerobes: These microorganisms use oxygen to release energy from food, for
example, algae, protozoa and some bacteria like Salmonella which causes typhoid.
2) Anaerobes: These microorganisms obtain their energy without oxygen, for example,
viruses, some fungi and bacteria such as Clostridium causing food poisoning.
3) Facultative Organisms: They can respire either aerobically or anaerobically like
Shigella which causes bacillary dysentery and Staphylococci which causes food
poisoning.

Most microorganisms are harmless to humans. The metabolic wastes produced by

parasitic microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa are toxic to living
cells. These poisons or toxins produce the symptoms of disease such as fever,
inflammation, headache, nausea and gastrointestinal upsets.

While talking about microorganism, it would help us to know at what phase of

microbial growth we need to take precautions to prevent food spoilage. Let us have
a look at the growth pattern of bacteria. We have already discussed about it in Unit
2, Food Microbiology and Safety Course, (MFN-003). Let us once again refresh our
understanding of the growth of bacteria.

18.2.2 Growth of Bacteria and the Factors that Affect the Growth
of Microorganisms
Microbial growth as you would know is measured in terms of increase in cell number
and the time period which lapses between two successive cell divisions is called
generation time. It varies in different organisms. The environmental conditions available
also determine the time required for cell division. Many common methods of preserving
food and keeping it fit for consumption depend not on the destruction or removal of
microorganisms but on: (a) delay in the initiation of growth, and (b) hindrance to
growth once it has begun,

Most microorganisms, when added to food, multiply at a very rapid rate under
favourable conditions. A single bacterial cell divides into every 20 to 30 minutes. If
the rate of multiplication is maintained, a single will produce one billion new cells after
a period of 10 hours.

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If the logarithms of the number of organisms (per ml) and the time (in hours) is plotted Issues in Food Safety
on a graph, it is observed that the rate of multiplication is not maintained indefinitely,
but four distinct phases of growth are observed as indicated in Figure 18.1.

Resting phase

Log Of Numbers of Bacteria

Growth
(Log)

Lag
phase Death phase

Time

Figure 18.1: Four phases of bacterial growth

To control bacterial growth, therefore, we must first be familiar with these phases. The
first phase, as you can see, is the lag phase, where there is no growth. The second
phase is the exponential growth phase or log phase in which growth increases at a
very rapid rate and growth rate is highest. The stationery phase is the third phase.
The last phase is the death phase, in which the bacteria die because of a change in
the environment such as: (a) exhaustion of nutrients, (b) accumulation of toxic metabolic
waste products, or (c) alteration of pH etc.

The study of these phases will help us to prevent spoilage of foods at a much earlier
stage, as well as, retard the further growth of microbes. How well we can apply this
understanding to the food industry. This is the focus of the following discussion.

Applications of the Growth Phase to the Food Industry

To prevent spoilage of food it is important that the lag phase are lengthened as much
as possible. This can be achieved by the following ways:
1) by reducing the amount of contamination, i.e. keeping contaminating organisms
away from food.
2) by preventing addition of actively growing organisms which are already in the
logarithmic phase of growth – unclean utensils, containers and equipment that
come in contact with food may harbour such organisms.
3) by providing one or more unfavourable environmental conditions like low
temperature, heat, unfavourable pH, reducing the moisture level, keeping oxygen
away or adding inhibitors etc. The more unfavourable the conditions, the longer
the time required for growth of microorganisms.
4) by actual damage to organisms by processing methods such as heating or irradiation.
To give food the desired storage life and delay the initiation of growth, it is better to
use a combination of methods rather than a single method. Though the best approach
would be not to allow the growth of the microbes. For this, we must be aware of
the various factors that affect the growth and multiplication of microbes. You have
already studied about these factors in Unit 3, Food Microbiology and Safety Course
(MFN-003). Hence, here we shall not go into the details and just list down the factors
to refresh your memory. However, we suggest you look up these in details in the Food
Microbiology and Safety Course for a better understanding.

Factors that Effect the Growth of Microorganisms

Various environmental conditions affect the growth and multiplication of microbes. The
important factors, which have an influence on growth, are listed as:
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Entrepreneurship and Food 1) Food and Nutrients 5) Oxygen
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2) pH level 6) Time
3) Moisture 7) Osmotic pressure
4) Temperature 8) Sunlight or UV rays
Let us now review a few methods, which would control growth of microbes in foods.
18.2.3 Control of Microbial Growth in Foods
Microbial growth in foods can be controlled in a number of ways. When the conditions
necessary for bacterial growth are not available, growth and multiplication will be
restricted. Microorganisms can be prevented from growing by the following methods;
controlling temperature, removing oxygen, adding chemical preservatives, reducing
the moisture content and exposure to ultraviolet rays. A brief review follows.
A) Controlling Temperature
Most microorganisms require a warm temperature to multiply. Pathogenic
microorganisms grow and multiply best at normal body temperature of 37°C. It has
been seen that maximum number of microbes multiplies between the temperature
ranges of 5°C to 60°C (FSSAI). This temperature range is known as the danger zone.
Multiplication slows down towards both ends of the danger zone. Figure 18.2 depicts
the various temperature zones for varying purposes. Here, you can locate danger zone,
45° - 140°F, It is imperative for all food handlers to realize that food should be stored
outside this zone.
Water boils
and most 210
0

bacteria 200
0

killed
(2120F) 1900 Rinse temperature
180 for dishes
0

Internal
(175 -185 F)
0 0
170
0
temperature
for cooked 1600 Machine wash
pork temperature
150
0
(16 F) (145 -155 F)
0 0 0

140
0

Minimum Hand wash water

temperature 130
0
temperature
(135 -145 F)
0 0
for hot food 1200
handling
110
0
(150 F)
0

100
0
DANGER
ZONE! 90
0

Bacteria Room temperature

80
0
(-70 -90 F)
0 0
multiply very
fast 70
0

(450-140F) 600 Dry storage

(-50 -65 F)
0 0

50
0

40
0 Cold storage
(-36 -40 F)
0 0

30
0

200
10
0

Freezer storage
0
0
(-15 -10 F)
0 0

-10
0

-20
0

Figure 18.2: Temperature guide for food safety

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Microbial growth can be contained/controlled as described herewith. Issues in Food Safety

a) Freeing: At low temperatures microbes are not destroyed. Their growth rate is
retarded and so their numbers in food is controlled. When food is thawed and
temperatures become favourable, these microorganisms are capable of growth and
reproduction once again.
b) Heat: High temperatures destroy microorganisms by denaturation of cell proteins
and inactivation of enzymes needed by them for their metabolism. At temperatures
above 63°C bacteria stop multiplying and as the temperature increase, they are
gradually destroyed. The thermal death time (TDT) is the time need at a given
temperature to kill a number of microbes. Heat used to destroy microbes may
be in the form of wet heat or dry heat. Let us understand these two heat
conditions.
• Wet heat: This is more commonly used in the food industry. If carefully
administered, it is a useful method of controlling microorganisms. Wet methods
include pasteurization, cooking and canning.
1) Pasteurization: This method is used to control microorganisms in milk, fruit
juices and wines. Food may be pasteurized by any one of the three methods
listed below:
a) LTH (low temperature holding) method at 62°C for 30 minutes.
b) HTST (high temperature short time) or flash method at 72°C for 15
seconds.
c) UHTS (ultra high temperature sterilization) at temperatures above 135°C
for two seconds. This method makes foods commercially sterile. Such
foods are packed under aseptic conditions and can be stored at room
temperature for three to six months.
2) Canning: In this process, temperatures used are above 100°C. Heating the
food in an autoclave at temperatures between 115°C - 125°C destroys all
microorganisms that could spoil food under normal conditions of storage. The
exact temperature and time required for canning depends on the type of food
to be canned. Acidic foods such as fruit are heated to 100°C only because
acid also helps in preventing microbial growth. A vacuum is created inside the
can or the air in the headspace may be replaced by nitrogen gas to prevent
growth of aerobic bacteria.
3) Cooking (boiling, steaming, stewing and poaching): In these methods of cooking,
wet or moist heat is used. The temperatures attained are 100°C. At this
temperature most microorganisms are destroyed but spores survive. Foods
cooked by these methods cannot be stored for long.
Next, we shall review the dry heat methods.
• Dry heat: It comprises of the following methods.
1) Sun drying, smoking and freeze-drying: In these methods, dry heat is used to
control microorganisms. Dry heat brings about dehydration of the foods or of the
surface of food. It destroys moulds, yeast and most bacteria and spores.
2) Cooking (baking, roasting, and grilling): In these methods of cooking, food is
cooked by dry heat. The temperatures reached on the surface are approximately
115°C. Most bacteria are destroyed. Internal temperature of food is generally
lower.
If food has to be kept for sometime, it should be cooked thoroughly. Foods cooked
by dry heat methods do not spoil as moist heat methods as they lower moisture
content.
Next, let us learn how to prevent growth of microorganisms by other methods.
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Entrepreneurship and Food B) Removing Oxygen
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Removal of oxygen can stop aerobic microorganisms from growing. This can be done
by packing foods in airtight containers or vacuum packing of foods as in canned foods.
However, an aerobic microorganism can still grow in such foods, if these have
been inadequately processed.
C) Adding Chemical Preservatives
These substances retard deterioration of food by preventing microbial growth. Law has
restricted the use of Class II preservatives. If these preservatives are used in foods,
they should be mentioned on the label. They are used to preserve food in the following
ways:
1) They may be added to food, for example, sodium benzoate in tomato sauce and
potassium metabisulphite in lemon squash.
2) They may be applied on the surface of foods. Sulphur dioxide is used on dry fruits
and borax is used to wash vegetables and whole fruit.
3) Wrappers may be impregnated with sorbic acid to prevent surface spoilage of
cheese.
4) The ice used to chill foods like fish may contain tetracycline, an antibiotic that
is a permitted preservative.
5) They may be used as gases around food. Fruits and vegetables are stored in an
atmosphere containing two to three per cent carbon dioxide to retard the ripening
process.
D) Reducing the Moisture Content
The moisture content of food like milk is reduced by evapouration, dehydration or
desiccation of the food. Microorganisms survive in such foods, but they remain
dormant. When such foods are dehydrated, the microorganisms become active once
again. Class I preservatives like sugar and salt are natural substances that bind water,
which is present in the food, and make it unavailable to microorganisms like bacteria.
Moulds and yeasts, which are osmophilic, can grow on such foods. Milk, eggs, fruit
and vegetables are some of the foods, which are preserved by reducing the moisture
content. Such foods can be safely stored at room temperature till they are rehydrated.
E) Exposure to Ultraviolet Rays
Ultraviolet rays are lethal to bacteria. They have poor penetrating power and can be
used only for surface sterilization or for sterilizing the air in a room. They are used
to control mould growth on the surface of bakery products and to prevent spoilage
of meat while tenderizing and ageing.
With a review of the various factors we end our study of the various methods, which
can prevent the growth of microorganisms. What would be the consequences of
microbial growth in foods? Certainly, it would lead to food borne illnesses. Next, let
us get to know about the food borne illness.

18.3 FOOD BORNE ILLNESS

A food borne illness as you already learnt in Unit 5, Food Microbiology and Safety
Course (MFN-003), is a general term applied to all types of illnesses caused by
an organism, substance or material of any kind which is present in food and gains
entrance into the body when such food is consumed.
The cause of contamination is generally faulty handling, poor sanitary practices,
insects, rodents or microorganisms. The sources of contamination of food are shown
in Figure 18.3. The natural decay that occurs in animal or plant tissues is accompanied
by foul odours, and changes in appearance and taste. As the spoilage is visible, people
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is not visibly noticeable. Such food is likely to be consumed and may result in disease.

Spoiled Air
Food Raw
material with
Processing natural
microflora Water
Equipment

Diseased
plants and Soil
animals

Packing Sewage
Materials

Pests Humans

Faeces
Figure 18.3: Causes of contamination
Food may disease by any of the following ways:
1) The food itself may be wholesome but may act as a vehicle of disease
transmission. Pathogenic organisms can be transmitted from one person to another
through many routes like soiled linen, unclean cups, handkerchiefs, door handles
etc. Food handles with soiled hands or on which an ill person or a carrier has
coughed or sneezed, can also cause illness. Diseases like tuberculosis, tonsillitis,
typhoid and influenza can be easily transmitted this way.

2) The food may serve as an ideal medium for rapid growth and multiplication of
large number of microorganisms like Staphylococci and Salmonella. This may
result in food poisoning or food infection. These microorganisms can cause
violet illness of the stomach and intestinal tract. Some of these bacteria release
toxins into the food. The bacteria may die but the toxins formed cause food
poisoning.

Other bacteria do not act until they are consumed alongwith food. They then
cause an infection of the gastrointestinal tract.

3) Food poisoning may be caused by agents other than microorganisms. These

include toxic chemicals, poisonous plants like poisonous mushrooms, insecticides
and pesticides. Toxic metals such as cadmium, zinc, lead etc., or excessive use
of mono sodium glutamate in Chinese food may lead to severe reactions. Some
individuals may show abnormal sensitivity to certain foods and develop allergies.
Common food allergens are egg white, shellfish and strawberries.

Food-born hazards may thus result from microbial action, toxic metals and
pesticides, animal parasites, natural poisons in foods are allergic reactions of a person
due to sensitivity to a particular food. The food borne illnesses are summarized in
Table 18.1.

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Entrepreneurship and Food Table 18.1: Food borne illnesses at a glance
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Bacterial Food Poisonings or Intoxications
1. Staphylococcus food intoxication 3. Bacillus cereus food poisoning
2. Botulism 4. Perfringens food poisoning
Bacterial Food Infection
1. Salmonellosis 6. Campylobacter Infection
2. Typhoid and Paratyphoid 7. Streptococcal Infection
3. Bacillary Dysentary 8. Brucellosis
4. Cholera 9. Listeriosis
5. Enteropathogenic Infection
Viral Infections
1. Infectious Hepatitis 2. Influenza
Parasitic Infestations
1. Amoebiasis 4. Giardiasis
2. Trichinosis 5. Roundworm Infestation
3. Tapeworm Infestation
Naturally Occurring Toxicants in Foods
1. Lathyrus Sativus 5. Cereals and Groundnuts
2. Soyabeans 6. Poisonous Mushroom
3. Green Potatoes 7. Mussels and Clams
4. Argemone Oil 8. Ergot
Toxic Metals and Chemicals
1. Selenium 8. Tin
2. Zinc 9. Brass
3. Arsenic 10. Fluoride
4. Lead 11. Barium
5. Cadmium 12. Mercury
6. Cobalt 13. Pesticides
7. Copper
Food Allergies
1. Eggs 4. Chocolates
2. Shellfish 5. Strawberries
3. Peanuts

Let us review these food borne hazards briefly.

18.3.1 Types of Food Borne Illnesses

Of all the food borne hazards listed in Table 18.1 above, diseases caused by microbial
action in food are most widespread. Microorganisms cause food poisoning and food
infection and animal parasites cause infestation. Hygienic handling of food and good
personal hygiene can control all these. Microorganisms, which cause food borne
illnesses, are bacteria, viruses, protozoans and nematodes, as already mentioned earlier.
Among all these microorganisms, bacterial contamination is the most common cause
of food poisoning in the catering industry. It usually results from mishandling of food.
These illnesses are characterized by a severe disturbance of the stomach and intestines,
which occurs after consuming food in which the offending bacteria were given a
chance to multiply. Such illnesses are broadly divided into two categories: food
poisoning and food infection. Let us get to know about them.
a) Food Poisoning
Food poisoning or food intoxication is an illness caused by toxins present in
contaminated food. The toxin may be a poisonous chemical toxin, which is accidentally
or intentionally, added, a naturally occurring poison like solanine in green potatoes or
a toxic metabolite excreted by bacteria. Some important facts about food poisoning are
420 highlighted next.
 Issues in Food Safety
SOME IMPORTANT FACTS
• Food poisoning causes more than 23 million lost working days in a year.
• The number of reported cases has doubled in the last ten years.
• In spite of more public awareness about hygiene, food poisoning is on the
increase.
• The standard of food hygiene in most establishments is very poor.

In bacterial food poisoning the toxin is produced during multiplication cells. When food
is consumed, the toxin already present irritates the lining of the stomach and causes
vomiting. If the toxin reaches the intestine, it may cause abdominal pain and diarrhoea.
The incubation period for such food poisonings is comparatively shorter (one-six hrs)
than that for bacterial food infections. The offensive food may not contain any living
bacteria, which may have been destroyed during heating.
Toxins need much higher temperatures to be destroyed than the bacteria, which
produce them. They may thus be present in inadequately heated foods, even if the
bacteria have been destroyed. However, some food poisonings occur only when large
numbers of live bacteria are ingested. When these bacteria reach the intestinal tract
they produce the toxin, for example, Clostridium perfringens. Refer to Table 18.2,
which summarizes some common bacterial food poisoning. The causative agent, main
source of infection, food involved and preventive measures are highlighted.
What are food infections? Let us get to know about them.
b) Food Infections
Food infection is an illness caused by microorganisms. It results from the consumption
of food that contains living bacteria, which are multiplying and capable of producing
disease. The illness, which results, is the reaction of the body to the presence of
microorganisms or to their metabolites. The gastric juices secreted in the stomach are
acidic and destroys some bacteria. In the small intestine the pH is neutral and bacteria
multiply rapidly. This irritates the lining of the intestines, resulting in nausea, diarrhoea
and abdominal pains. The incubation period for an infection to occur is 12 hours or
more.
For bacteria must be present in food. It is likely that food could be contaminated with
several hundred causative bacteria. If conditions for growth are favourable, these
bacteria could multiply to over one million in a short span of three to four hours.
The time lapse between the consumption of food and the appearance of symptoms
is called the incubation time. The incubation time and the severity of the attack of
bacterial poisoning or infection will depend on several factors . Refer to Table 18.2,
once again which summarizes some common bacterial food infections. The causative
agent, main source of infection, food involved and preventive measures are highlighted
as such.
As mentioned earlier besides microbial action the food borne hazards may also result
from toxic metals and pesticides, animal parasites, natural poisons in foods and allergic
reactions of a person due to sensitivity to a particular food. Let us briefly review these.
c) Naturally Occurring Toxicants in Food
Besides food poisoning and food infections, certain plants and animals contain natural
substances that are poisonous and may produce gastrointestinal disturbances. Some
may even prove fatal. These naturally occurring toxicants in food are summarized in
Table 18.3. A detail review of the naturally occurring toxicants, as you may already
know, is already included in the Food Microbiology and Safety Course (MFN-003)
in Unit 7. You may have already gone through the unit. Hence, we shall not dwell
further.
Next, let us briefly review the toxic metals and chemicals.
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Metals, when consumed in excess of the requirement, could cause toxicity. These
contaminants may be present in the environment and may accumulate during the
different stages of food preparation. By the time food is ready to be consumed, it can
reach levels, which are toxic to humans. Some of the toxic metals are listed in Table
18.4. Table 18.4, in fact presents an outline of all toxic metals and chemicals their
toxic effect and the food involved. For a detail review we suggest you look up Unit
7 in the Food Microbiology and Safety Course (MFN-003). Perhaps you may have
already done that.
Finally, a word about food allergies.
e) Food Allergies
An allergy is defined as a special reaction of an individual to some ingredient of food.
Some people show abnormal sensitivity to foods that are harmless to a non-allergic
person. The substance that causes the allergy is called an allergen. Allergens may be
present in foods like eggs, wheat, fish, shellfish, chocolate, strawberries and cow’s
milk. You may recall studying about food allergies and their management in the
Clinical Nutrition and Therapeutic Course (MFN-005) in Unit 6. As described in this
unit, symptoms of allergies vary from urticaria or hive to gastrointestinal upsets and
may be mild to extremely severe. The food responsible for causing the allergy should
be avoided.

In the catering industry, the service staff should have basic knowledge of various
recipes in the menu in terms of ingredients used, so as to guide the customers about
food selection in case of allergy. Next, let us find out how can we control these
illnesses.

Having reviewed the food borne hazards, let us next get to know of measures which
can be adopted for the control of the food borne illnesses.

18.3.2 Control of Food Borne Illnesses

Food borne diseases are generally transmitted through careless food handlers who are
either suffering from the disease or are carries of microorganisms. A healthy food
handler may transmit microorganisms indirectly through cross-contamination. These
diseases are a constant threat to the food industry. Practicing the basic principles of
hygiene listed herewith can prevent them:
1) Food should be handled in a hygienic manner by all food handlers and infected
handlers should be kept away.
2) Cross-contamination from raw to cooked foods can be prevented by washing
hands and all equipment or surfaces in contact with raw food.
3) The time gap between preparation and service of food should be reduced to avoid
long storage in a warm environment.
4) Large masses of food, which have to be reheated later should be cooled quickly
to 15°C and refrigerated immediately.
5) Food should be reheated thoroughly so that the center of the food gets heated
to temperatures high enough to destroyed bacteria.
6) Frozen foods should be thawed carefully at temperatures between 10 to 15°C
and frozen food should not be refrozen unless it has been cooked well after
thawing.
7) Cooked foods, which are to be served hot, should be stored above 63°C. Avoid
cooling and heating food repeatedly.
8) Leftover food should be refrigerated immediately to keep it out of the danger
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Entrepreneurship and Food 9) Food should be prepared in quantities required and quantities for which adequate
Service Management refrigerated storage space is available. This will prevent perishable or high risk
from spoiling.
10) Suspect food should be discarded immediately without tasting it.
11) The kitchen and cooking equipment should be cleaned daily and regular pest
control measures should be taken.
12) Adequate toilet and washbasin facilities with a continuous supply of water should
be provided.
13) High risk foods like meat, poultry, eggs and milk should be purchased from
certified dealers only.
With a word on how to control the food borne illnesses we end our study on food
borne illnesses. Next, we shall focus on the mode of transmission of diseases, since
in the food industry this has a direct impact on food and worker safety.

18.4 MODES OF DISEASE TRANSMISSION

A communicable disease is an illness caused by a specific infectious agent or its toxic
products. The disease occurs through transmission of that agent or its
products from the source to the susceptible host either directly or indirectly. It includes
contagious, as well as, infectious diseases.
A carrier is a person who harbours a specific infectious agent in the absence of
obvious signs and symptoms of the disease and serves as a potential reservoir of
infection for other people. Carriers are either temporary carriers or chronic carriers
as enumerated herewith:
1) Temporary Carriers: They excrete the organism only for a short period of time.
Temporary carriers may be of three types:
a) Incubatory Carriers: These carriers shed the organism during the incubation
period of the disease.
b) Convalescent Carriers: These carriers continue to excrete organisms during
the period of convalescence.
c) Healthy or contact Carriers: These carriers acquire the disease producing
organism without suffering from the disease and may continue to excrete the
disease agent for variable periods.
2) Chronic Carriers: They harbour and excrete the disease-producing organism for
indefinite periods. The duration of the chronic carriers state varies with the
disease. For example in the case of typhoid, the carrier state lasts for several
years, whereas in chronic dysentery the carrier state lasts for one year or more.
From the point of view of spread of disease, chronic carriers are a far more important
source of infection than people who are actually suffering from the disease. This is
because chronic carriers are difficult to identify and it is likely that they may be
handling food and spreading infection unknowingly.
The first known chronic carrier of typhoid fever was Mary Mallon, often referred to
as Typhoid Mary. She worked as a cook in New York and infected at least 53 people
with typhoid fever in the early 20th century, before she could be identified as the
source of infection and removed from the job.
Another mode of transmission of diseases is through cross-contamination. Let us get
to know about it.
Cross-contamination
Harmful microorganisms present in one food can contaminate another food. This
430 process is known as cross contamination and is defined as the transfer of bacteria
from something dirty to something clean, or from a food with many bacteria to a Issues in Food Safety
food with fewer bacteria, by means of a non-food vehicle such as:
1) Chopping boards, knives, utensils and equipment,
2) Work surfaces, dish cloth etc,
3) Hands of the food handler,
4) Drops of liquid oozing from contaminated food, and
5) Infected droplets from cough and sneeze.
Cross-contamination can occur whenever clean and dirty operations are mixed or if
the same equipment is used for handling raw and cooked meat without cleaning and
sanitizing it between use. Raw meats and its juices contain many bacteria, which are
transferred to cooked meat by using the same equipment. Cross-contamination of
cooked meat can be prevented by:
1) Storing raw and cooked meat separately and not next to or on top of each other,
to prevent drops of liquid oozing.
2) Colour coding equipment such as chopping boards and knives for handling only
one type of food, for example using pink for raw meat and poultry and brown
for cooked meat and poultry.
3) Preparing cooked and raw meats on separate tables.
Can you list a few examples, which could lead to cross-contamination? Well, there
could be many examples of cross-contamination, but simple handling of equipment,
utensil, as enumerated herewith could be detrimental:
1) When a dishwasher places clean and sanitized plates on a table reserved for dirty
plates, the plates get contaminated.
2) When a busboy brings used plates to the dishwashing machine and picks up clean
plates without washing his hands, the clean plates get contaminated.
3) When the chef places a dirty cardboard box on a food preparation table, the table
gets contaminated and any food kept on that table will also get contaminated.
Even when a potentially hazardous food gets contaminated, it does not become
harmful immediately. Remember, the bacteria transferred to the food need time and
a warm temperature to multiply before the food can cause a food borne illness
when consumed.
In fact, besides the carriers and cross-contamination, in a food service establishment
diseases may be transmitted by many routes. These are highlighted in the subsequent
sub-section.

18.4.1 Routes of Disease Transmission

Diseases may be transmitted by more than one route. The common routes of transmission
are:
1) Contact transmission: by direct or indirect contact with the source of disease.
2) Vehicle transmission: where milk, water and other foods act as vehicles for
transmitting disease.
3) Vector transmission: by insects and other invertebrate hosts that transmit infection
by inoculation into the kin, by biting or by depositing infective material on skin,
food and other objects by their feet and bodies or by regurgitating on food.
4) Air-borne transmission: by droplet infection, droplet nuclei and infected dust.
Droplet infection can occur when a person sneezes or coughs and expels particles
of moisture containing a large number of organisms, up to a radius of 1 meter
or more. When the moisture from smaller droplets evaporates, a minute particle
of virus or bacteria which are called droplet nuclei, remain suspended in the air. 431
Entrepreneurship and Food 5) Infected dust: larger droplets of moisture settle down on the floor and become
Service Management a part of dust. During dusting or sweeping these dust particles become air- borne
and get inhaled or settle on uncovered food and drink.
In fact disease could be transmitted through food either directly or indirectly. Let us
find out how.
Direct and Indirect transmission
Disease is transmitted through food either directly or indirectly. In direct transmission
of disease, the pathway illustrated in Figure 18.4, is involved.
Coughs and sneezes
(Respiratory tract)

The food handler Open Sores Prepared Food Food is

(Diseased or Carrier) cuts, boils (Skin)
consumed

Soiled hands Illness results

(Intestinal tract)

Pathogens are
excreted
Figure 18.4: The direct transmission of disease

Let us get to know about it.

• Direct Transmission: The food handler transmits pathogens to food. Because of
coughing or sneezing on or near the food, droplets containing microorganisms may
fall on the food.
Unwashed or improperly washed hands transfer diseases of the intestinal tract.
If hands soiled with faecal matter handle food, disease-causing agents are transferred
to the prepared food. Consumption of such food causes illness. When food is
openly displayed, the customer handling the food can contaminate it.
• Indirect Transmission: The host of communicable diseases may transmit
pathogens indirectly through various routes onto prepared food and from there to
other people consuming the offending food as highlighted in Figure 18.5. The
other indirect routes of transmission of disease causing agents or pathogens are
through:
1) contaminated utensils and equipment,
2) sewage polluted water and food grown on polluted soil or through faulty
plumbing,
3) soiled linen, door handles and taps,
4) insects like flies and cockroaches,
5) rodents like rats, mice, and
6) infected animals and their products.
Disease causing various routes of indirect Food is consumed
agents transmission
(listed above)
Illness results

Pathogens are excreted

Figure 18.5: The indirect transmission of disease

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Food may also be contaminated through unclean utensils and equipment as already Issues in Food Safety
mentioned earlier. The pathogenic organisms eliminated from the human body are
found in sewage is mainly faecal matter. If untreated sewage is allowed to drain into
any drinking water, the water, as well as, fish breeding in such waters gets contaminated.
Salad vegetables, roots and tubers are at a greater risk of contamination as they are
consumed raw and because they are in direct contact with the soil. Rats, mice, flies
and cockroaches can also transmit disease. They live in sewers and garbage dumps.
Un-pasteurized milk and meat from diseased animals can transfer pathogens of animal
origin.
What could be the sources of contamination of food that would eventually lead to its
spoilage? Let us know about this, next

18.4.2 Source of Contamination

Food can be contaminated or spoilt by any of the following sources and at any stage
from the farm to the table till it is consumed. Sources of contamination of food include:
air, water, plant, soil, food handler, machinery and equipment, sewage and trucks or
carts during transport.
Contamination of food results in the spoilage. Food spoilage can be broadly classified
into six groups. Foods spoil mainly because of any one or more of the following
reasons. Let us see what are these.
1) Microbiological action: Microorganisms are present everywhere and in all the
sources of contamination mentioned above. These organisms can contaminate
food and spoil it. Milk turns sour because of bacterial action, yeasts ferment fruit
juices and mould grows on bread, which has to be discarded. Microbial growth
in foods may be obvious like the example listed above. Some bacteria, which
cause food poisoning or food infection, may contaminate food, which is
unhygienically handled. In such cases, microbial growth may not be obvious. Not
all microorganisms can cause disease, in fact some are useful to the food industry.
Foods having a high protein, moisture, vitamin and mineral content are an ideal
media for bacterial growth.
2) Presence of contaminants: If any unwanted inedible matter is added to or is
present in foods, the food is said to be spoiled and should be rejected. Contaminants
present in food could be nail chippings, hair stones, grit, dirt or other extraneous
matter. Accidental contamination by metallic fragments and shards of glass may
render food harmful. Some common metal fragments are stapler pins, flexible
aluminum wire, metal curls and fine filings from canned food opened with a
defective opener. Glass chips may enter food from broken glassware or misuse
of glass for taking out crushed ice.
Radiation used for preserving spices and those emitted by microwave ovens,
although invisible, may also prove hazardous to health if used in excess. This kind
of contamination occurs at any stage right from harvesting to food service
3) Action of insects: Foods are spoilt because of the presence of worms, weevils,
fruit flies, moths etc. These may damage the food and reduce its nutrient content.
Food spoilt by insects is not fit for human consumption. The presence of insects
or insect body fragments or droppings in food served to customers is highly
objectionable and will affect the reputation of the catering establishment.
4) Natural enzymes: Foods spoil by autolysis or the action of various enzymes
naturally present in them. After picking or harvesting, fruits and vegetables remain
alive for sometime. They respire and ripen and if they are not consumed or
processed soon they become over-ripe and ultimately spoil.
Enzymes naturally present in meat act on mutton fibers and bring autolysis. If
these natural changes are not controlled, foods may spoil. As action of enzymes
is influenced by temperature, refrigeration will retard the action and blanching will
destroy the enzyme. 433
Entrepreneurship and Food 5) Physical changes: These changes occur in food by freezing, desiccation, evaporation
Service Management and absorption of moisture. Freezer burn is a physical change seen in deep frozen
foods.
Mechanical damage during harvesting and transporting foods, like bruising and
crushing of fruits and vegetable, broken eggs and cracked shells, can accelerate
spoilage by microorganisms because of easy access. It also results in greater
susceptibility to decay and discolouration by enzyme action. This can be prevented
by proper storage and transport facilities.
6) Chemical reaction: Chemical changes, which are not catalyzed by natural enzymes
or action of microorganisms, can also result in chemical spoilage of foods. A
reaction between acidic food and iron from the can causes hydrogen swell in
canned foods. Development of oxidative rancidity in fats and the fatty phases of
foods results in spoilage of fried snacks and oil-based pickles. Other changes
include oxidative discolouration, flavour changes and nutritive loss.
Spoilt food can cause a great financial loss to the catering establishment. Spoilt food
is best discarded. However, bacteria causing food poisoning may soil the food without
showing any visible signs of spoilage. The caterer should take utmost care to prevent
spoilage from occurring. It is best to remember that once a food is spoilt, no amount
of cooking, freezing or proper handling can make the food fit for consumption.
In this context therefore it is important for us to understand or know about the
conditions that lead to spoilage. These are described in the next section.

18.5 CONDITIONS THAT COULD LEAD TO FOOD

SPOILAGE
We have already learnt about various modes of transmission of diseases caused due
to infections agents, or their products. Also, we saw the sources of contamination.
Next, how do we find out whether a food is suitable for consumption or not? We will
soon find out by going through the discussion presented herewith in this section.
A food is wholesome and it fit for consumption if the following criteria are fulfilled.
1) Food should be at the desired stage of development, or maturity, for example,
fruits should not be over-ripe.
2) Food should be free from pollution at any stage in production or handling, for
example, vegetables grown in areas fertilized by sewage should not be consumed.
Food handed by dirty and/or diseased workers, should be discarded. Food
contaminated by files or rodents should be considered as suspect food.
3) Food should be free from objectionable changes resulting from microbial
attack or action of enzymes in the food.
So then what is spoiled food and what are the conditions that could lead to spoilage.
Let us find out.

18.5.1 Categorization of Food on the Basis of their Shelf Life or

Perishability and Conditions that could Lead to Food
Spoilage
You would have realized that all foods don’t spoil at the same rate and to the same
extent. Certain foods like fruit and vegetables spoil more as compared to cereals, pulses
etc. Why so? This is because based on this characteristic; foods can be categorized
in to three main groups on the basis of their shelf life or perishability.
1) Non-perishable or stable foods: These foods do not spoil unless they are handled
carelessly. They should be stored in a cool, dry place. They can be stored for
434
 one year. They should be picked and cleaned before storage. If necessary, grains Issues in Food Safety
can be washed with water to remove any dust and dirt sticking to them. These
should then be dried in the sun, allowed to cool and stored in containers with tight
fitting lids.
Non-perishable foods include sugar, jaggery hydrogenated fat, vegetable oil,
ghee, whole grains, dals, whole nuts, dry salted fish and meat, papads, canned
foods, preserves such as pickles, jams and murabbas.
2) Semi-perishable foods: These foods do not spoil for a fairly long time, if stored
properly. They are less likely to decay due to microbiological contamination than
other perishable foods. Natural chemical breakdown is also slower in such foods.
If they are stored in a cool place with adequate ventilation, they have a moderately
long shelf life. Use of proper containers is equally important. Semi-perishable
foods include processed cereals, pulses and their products like flour, Bengal
gram flour, millet flour, semolina, parched rice, popcorn etc. Their shelf life
depends on the storage temperature and moisture in the air.
Other semi-perishable foods are potatoes, onions, nuts, frozen foods kept solidly
frozen at “zero” to 18°C and canned foods that need refrigeration, apples, citrus
fruits, pumpkin etc. Foods in this group can be stored for a week to a couple
of months at room temperature without the development of any undesirable
changes in flavour and texture.
3) Perishable foods: This is the largest of the three groups and includes most of
the food items we consume everyday, such as milk and products, eggs, poultry,
meat, fish, most fruits and vegetables such as bananas, pineapple, papaya, green
leaf vegetables etc. As these foods contain high amounts of protein, moisture and
other nutrients, they are an ideal medium for bacterial growth. They also spoil
easily by natural enzymatic changes. They have a very short shelf life of a few
hours to a few days, after which they spoil rapidly. It is this group which is
responsible for the outbreak of food-borne illness.
This group also includes all prepared menu items, opened canned foods and frozen
foods, which have thawed. Foods in this group must be stored at low temperatures
to retard the action of microorganisms and enzymes.

With a brief review of foods categorized into three main groups on the basis of their
shelf life or perishability, next let us get to know about the conditions that could lead
to spoilage.

Conditions that could Lead to Food Spoilage

Foods spoil easily if they are improperly handled. To prevent spoilage in foods, it is
necessary that care should be taken to ensure purity, wholesomeness, taste and
attractiveness of foods and beverages served. Food spoilage is hastened if conditions
are favourable for microbial, enzymatic and chemical contaminants and insect action
or if food is mechanically damaged.

Therefore, it is essential that foods are stored well. The following conditions could lead
to spoilage of foods:
1) buying more food than required,
2) buying poor quality commodities due to lack of accurate purchase specification,
3) insufficient inspection of incoming commodities,
4) lack of promptness in storing delivered items,
5) inadequate storing facilities,
6) failure to separately store dairy products, meats, vegetables, and prepared foods,
7) failure to maintain refrigerators and freezers in good operating condition,
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Entrepreneurship and Food 8) negligence in maintaining storage areas is a sanitary condition at all times,
Service Management
9) insufficient training and supervision of personnel handling the food.
Next, what signs to look for to identify the spoiled foods? Let us find out.

18.5.2 Signs of Spoilage in Fresh, Dry and Preserved Foods

The signs of food spoilage vary with the type of food, the cause of spoilage and the
environment. One can cause spoilage or more of the different factors mentioned
earlier.
Signs of spoilage generally seen in foods are: softening, hardening, discolouration,
mould growth, fermentation, drying, oozing out of liquid, off odours such as mouldy,
alcoholic putrid, and presence of insects.
Let us then review the spoilage indicator in different categories of food.
Spoilage Indicator in Different Categories of Food
The various spoilage indicators in variety of foods are enumerated herewith.
a) Canned Food: Although canned food have excellent keeping quality because the
contents of the sealed cans are practically free from microorganism, some heat
resistant spores may remain or bacteria may enter cans which are not properly
sealed. If cans are stored at warm temperatures these heat resistant, anaerobic
spores or bacteria may germinate, multiply and spoil the contents of the can.
Sometimes the acid from the food reacts with iron of the container and spoils the
food by forming hydrogen gas. The spoilage of canned foods result either from
chemical or microbial spoilage or both.
Signs of possible canned food spoilage are:
• a puffy, swollen appearance because of bulging ends.
• leaky, corroded or rusty cans.
• contents spurt out when the can is opened.
• contents smell putrid or of hydrogen sulphide.
• brine or syrup looks cloudy, bubbly, slimy or mouldy.
• contents are discoloured.
Note, canned food which is doubtful should be discarded without tasting the contents.
b) Frozen Foods: It is hard to detect spoilage in frozen foods unless there are
changes in colour and smell. However, if the following precautions are taken food-
borne illnesses can be prevented.
• Do not use frozen foods if off smell, taste or discolouration is there,
• Do not re-freeze food which has been thawed,
• Thaw only what you need,
• Do not purchase unsound packages,
• Do not keep frozen food out of the freezer for long before cooking or serving,
and
• Do not accept food which has a large quantity of ice crystals formed inside
the packets.
Note, frozen foods do contain some bacteria as freezing only retards bacterial growth
and does not kill them. Bacteria multiply when food has thawed and is in the danger
zone. Therefore, once frozen foods are thawed, they are highly perishable.
c) Fish: Spoilt fish shows the following signs:
• dull or sunken eyes
• gills are grey or green
• off odour
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 • flesh separates from the bone and is flabby Issues in Food Safety
• depression remains in flesh when outer skin is pressed
• few scales are left on fish
• shellfish claws and tail lose their spring
d) Meat and Poultry: Bad meat shows the following signs and spoils more
readily when more surface area is exposed, as in minced meat. These signs include
discolouration, putrid smell and slimy appearance and feel. Organ meats such
as liver, kidney and brain are more perishable than muscle meat.
e) Eggs: Stale eggs float in water. The eggshell is the spoilage indicator in whole eggs.
Spoilt egg shows the following signs:
• Cracked Shell
• Leaking contents
• Egg yolk is exposed
• Shell has a dirty discoloured appearance
• Blood spot, meat spot, foul odour or other contamination
f) Milk and Dairy Products: Milk and milk products, which are unfit for
consumption may show any one or more of the following changes:
• Change in taste to sour or bitter, fat separates out into clumps, milk curdles
when heated, butter tastes rancid
• Change in smell
• Rope formation
• Discolouration
• Cheese and curds develop off odours, mould growth and become a little slimy
g) Cereals and Pulses: Although they do not spoil easily, signs of spoilage are:
• Musty odour and off flavour
• Presence of weevils, beetles, moths and worms
• clumping of wholegrain
• presence of dirt, mud and stones
h) Vegetables and Fruit: These show the following signs of spoilage:
• presence of mould, leading to rot
• green leafy vegetables are wilted and limp
• discolouration and mushy texture
• presence of insects and worms
• green potatoes, sprouted potatoes and over mature vegetables
• skin or peel is damaged or bruised
i) Cooked Foods: These foods are at high risk of getting spoilt. They show various
signs of spoilage or may not show any visible signs and yet harbour microorganisms
capable of causing food borne diseases. Leftover should be stored carefully and
doubtful food should not be consumed. Very often there are no obvious signs of
spoilage in cooked foods.
In the discussion so far we have focused on the point that following several basic rules
to protect food from contamination can prevent food spoilage. Spoilage of food
depends upon the perishability of food. The food handler should be able to select
wholesome food and identify likely signs of spoilage in food. Now answer the
questions included in the check your progress exercise 1.

437
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) How does a food handler transmit a food borne illness directly?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) List the factors that facilitate the growth of bacteria.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Name the types of chemical food poisoning. How can they be prevented?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) State whether true or false.
a) All food borne illness can be prevented.
b) Protein rich foods are an excellent medium for bacterial growth.
c) Leftover food should always be mixed with fresh food for economical
reasons.
d) Brass pots and pans should be lined with tin.
5) Differentiate between food poisoning and food infection.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

Besides being able to identify wholesome safe food, it is important that a food handler
practices hygienic food handling practices. A detail review on this aspect is presented
in section 18.7. Before we move on to this section we would also like to bring to your
notice the importance of pest control in a food service operation since we have already
learnt earlier that food contamination leading to food poisoning and other serious
diseases in humans, is a major hazard of a pest infestation.

18.6 IMPORTANCE OF PEST CONTROL

The importance of pest control in food service operation is highlighted herewith.
1) Contamination: Food contamination leading to food poisoning and other serious
diseases in humans is a major hazard of a pest infestation. This is so because pests
move from dirt to food and transfer harmful microorganisms to it.
2) Legal requirement: According to the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (1954),
if any food article consist either wholly or in part of any filthy, putrid, rotten,
decomposed or diseased animal or vegetable substance or is insect infested or is
otherwise unfit for human consumption, it is deemed to be adulterated. Serving
adulterated food is punishable by law.
438
3) Wastage and destruction: Ten per cent of the world’s harvested cereals are Issues in Food Safety
destroyed by rodents and insects, which if saved could feed 260 million people.
Rodents are known to destroy pipe, insulation and cables. Termites and textile
pests cause grave damage to the woodwork and upholstery. Beetle, weevils and
warehouse moths destroy commodities, making them unfit for consumption.
Rodents contaminate much more food with their hair and droppings than they
actually eat.
4) Reputation: The reputation of any catering establishment depends largely on the
prevailing hygienic conditions. Flies hovering over uncovered food and insect body
parts and droppings found in food can be very repulsive to the consumer, thus
damaging the establishment’s reputation. Hence, proper sanitary practices and pest
control measures would go a long way in building up goodwill among customers
and in turn will improve financial gains.
Having looked at the importance of pest control, let us get to know about pesticides
and the different types.

18.6.1 Classification of Pesticides

Pesticides include insecticides and rodenticides. They are substances, which have
certain pharmacological effects on insects and rodents, either as poisons or as
repellants. Pesticides that are reliable, easily available, have a prolonged residual effect
and are not highly toxic to humans are preferred. Pesticides can be categorized on the
basis of the nature of the substances, their effect on pests, and method of application.
Let us learn how.
A) Nature of the Substances: Under this category, pesticides can be divided into
three types as inorganic, organic and synthetic pesticides. Let us get to know them:
1) Inorganic pesticides: These are natural chemical substances, for example, sulphur
dust, arsenic, hydrogen cyanide and Paris green.
2) Organic pesticides: These are mainly plant extract. They are least harmful and
are also least effective against insects, for example, parathyroid. They have a
quick ‘knok-down’ action but little residual effect hence repeated applications are
necessary.
3) Synthetic pesticides: As the name implies, these are manmade chemicals, are
highly dangerous and should be stored away from food preparation areas. They
include chlorinated hydrocarbons like Lindane, DDT and chlorophyriphos; organo-
phosphates like malathion, phosphine and diazion and carbomates like carbandazim,
aldicarb and carbaryl.
B) Effect on Pests: Based on this criterion, pesticides can be divided into six types.
What are these? Let us see next.
1) Stomach poisons: These are applied to plants and ingested by insects while they
feed on these plants, for example, arsenic, fluorides.
2) Contact poisons: These are applied directly to pests. They penetrate and damage
the insect body wall, for example, DDT, BHC (benzene hexachloride) and indiara.
3) Residual poisons: These are applied to surfaces. Inspects touching them pick up
a lethal does for example, DDT and BHC.
4) Systemic poisons: These are applied to plants and animals. These poisons are
absorbed and translocated to all parts of the organisms, so that insects feeding on
them acquire a lethal does.
5) Repellants: These keep insects and other pests away from a given area, due to
the odour they emanate, for example, Dimethyl phthalate (DMP), Dibutyl phthalate
(DBP) and Tulsi leaves.
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Entrepreneurship and Food 6) Fumigants: These poisons are inhaled by pests and cause death, for example,
Service Management hydrocyanic acid gas and sulphur dioxide.
C) Method of Application: This is the third criterion for classifying pesticides. Let
us see, what are the different types under this classification method.
1) Sprays, for example, lindane, pyrethrum
2) Pellets, for example, boric acid, naphthalene
3) Chalk coated or impregnated with insecticidal powder or dust
4) Dusts, for example, BHC, DDT
5) Meals, for example, zinc phosphide, warfarin
6) Vapours, for example, lindane, DDVP (dichlorvos), hydrocyanic acid
7) Lacquers, for example, insecticides mixed with lacquers, paints, and varnishes;
these are effective for at least a year
8) Liquids, for example, kerosene, mineral and tar oils
9) Aerosols: They contain liquefied gas, for example, Freon, under pressure, which
when released after the valve of the dispenser is opened, lets off the insecticidal
solution mixed with it, for example pyrethrins, DDT.
After having knowledge about what are pesticides and their classification, let us have
a look at the precautions that must be taken while handling pesticides.

18.6.2 Precautions to be Taken While Handling Pesticides

All pesticides are toxic to humans. Hence forth, use of certain pesticides has been
banned. These are given in Table 18.5, for your reference. Food service workers need
to be adequately instructed regarding the hazards involved and should be trained to
avoid them.
These are some of the precaution needed: -
1) Using gloves and masks while handling these chemicals is essential.
2) Wash hands thoroughly after use.
3) Never use sprays when food is openly displayed.
4) Storage of insecticides away from food articles. Holding these poisons in a
separate area with their proper labels is important to avoid accidental poisoning.
Also, they are to be kept away from heat and open flames.
5) Knowledge of the type of pesticides banned and the specific residual limits
permissible in food commodities as laid down by the Government of India is
essential.
6) First-hand knowledge of antidotes to various poisons is necessary for food service
workers.
Table 18.5: Pesticides banned by the Government of India
1) Aldrin 8) Pentachloron-nitrobenzene
2) Chlordane 9) Methyl parathion
3) Hetachlor 10) Nitrofen
4) Dibromo-chloropropane 11) Parquet dimethyl sulphate
5) Toxaphene 12) Nicotine sulphate
6) PCP 13) Tetradifon
7) PMA

Use of DDT in agriculture and BHC on vegetables, fruits and oiled crops and in
preservation of grains have also been banned because their safety is doubtful.
440
Table 18.6 suggests a few pesticides that have been recommended in kitchen against Issues in Food Safety
particular pests.

Table 18.6: Pesticides recommended for use in the kitchen

Pest Pesticide Recommended

1) Cockroaches Pyrethrum extract, malathion, Indiara
2) Flies Pine oil, cypermethrin, Indiara
3) Ants Cypermethrin, malathion, Indiara
4) Silverfish Cypermethrin, malathion
5) Stored grain insects Ethyl dibromide (EDB), mercury tablets, castor
oil, neem guard, boric acid, tulsi leaves
6) Rats and mice Warfarin, bromadiolone

The non-poisonous nature of organic pesticides (Indiara, neem guard) calls for their
extensive use in kitchens and foodgrain stores. Recent studies have indicated that
pesticides like Indiara with a composition of diallyl disulphide, isothiocyanate, allylpropyl
disulphide is non-toxic and non-poisonous. Also, neem oil, castor oil and ginger paste
used as repellants and which are easily available in a catering facility, are recommended
as replacements for the more toxic insecticides.

With this, we end our study on pesticides and their use in food operations. Next, let
us move on to study about hygienic food handling.

18.7 HYGIENIC FOOD HANDLING

You would recall reading about food handling and storage in Units 6 and 7 earlier in
this course. Here we shall first have a look at the general rules for hygienic storage
and handling followed by specific rules/considerations for variety of foods.

Let us first consider a few rules regarding hygienic storage and handling.

General Rules for Hygienic Storage and Handling

1) There should be clean place for storage of cleaned and sanitized ware. Store all
items either on clean dry shelves or in cart racks. Dusty or dirty shelves will
quickly resoil cleaned and sanitized items.
2) Handle items as little as possible, taking care not to touch food or mouth contact
surfaces.
3) Storage area must be dry and above the floor. Splashes from mopping solutions
or food spillage, exposure to dust or floor dirt from sweeping must be avoided.
4) Pans or containers stored on low shelves should be placed inverted or covered.
5) Utensils etc. should be hung in a self-draining position on hooks or racks.
6) Glasses and cups should be inverted on racks or on shelves.
7) Silverware should be placed in perforated plastic containers to dry. Cutlery should
be picked up by the handle.
Despite careful selection, storage of food, and good personal hygiene on the part of
the food handler, outbreaks of food-borne illness can occur if unsafe procedures are
followed in preparing and mixing food and if temperature is not controlled during
preparing and holding food.

Sanitary procedures are very important during preparation, cooking and holding of
food because of the following reasons:
441
Entrepreneurship and Food 1) Even if wholesome food is selected, microorganisms are still present in and on
Service Management food.
2) Not all food items served on the menu are cooked, for examples, salads.
3) Normal cooking procedures destroy most pathogens but not necessarily spores or
toxins.
4) Heating foods to safe temperatures is not always feasible as some foods may spoil
at high temperatures, for examples hollandaise sauce.
5) Food can get decontaminated during preparation, mixing or holding.
6) The internal temperature of cooked foods may not reach the safe temperature
level.
7) During preparation, food may get contaminated by other poisonous or harmful
substances.
Some bacteria are likely to be present and will multiply rapidly when ingredients are
mixed and their basic needs of (a) moisture, (b) nutrients, (c) temperature and (d) time
are met.
In the kitchen, most pre-reparations provide microorganism with sufficient moisture
and nutrients. The temperature in a hot, steamy, poorly ventilated kitchen is around
35°C the ideal temperature for microorganism to grow. If food is kept at this temperature
long enough, microorganisms will multiply and spoil food. Once spoilage occurs, if
cannot be rectified by freezing or pressure-cooking.
The majority of causes of food poisoning reported each year is caused by inadequate
refrigeration of perishable food. In India climatic conditions, perishable foods left at
room temperature for even three hours is at great risk as the ambient temperature is
higher as compared to western countries. It is necessary to follow the time-temperature
principles, especially when preparing perishable food. The food handler must observe
two basic rules when food is to be held:
1) Keep food hot, [at an internal temperature above 63°C (145°F)]
or
2) Keep food cold [ at an internal temperature below 5°C (41°F)]
During preparation, food should be exposed for a minimum possible time to temperatures
between 50°C to 63°C. This is the danger zone. Some common procedures in
preparation of food, which affect the microbial count, are highlighted herewith.

18.7.1 Procedures in Food Preparation which Affect the Microbial

Count
The procedure to be followed will depend to a large extent on the food being prepared.
Some common procedures, which affect the microbial count, are as follows:
1) Cleaning: Cereals and pulses are picked before they are milled or cooked, to
remove grit, mud, stones, husk, mouldy and insect-infested grains. Green leaves
are separated from the inedible roots and tough stalks.
2) Washing: Most foods need to be washed before preparation with potable cold
water. Washing removes extraneous matter like surface dirt, soil and preservative
and pesticide residue.
Fruits and vegetables to be consumed raw should be washed in a solution of
50 ppm chlorine for five minutes or in a dilute solution of potassium permanganate.
Leafy and salad vegetables should be washed thoroughly.
In case of suspected insect or worm infestation, soak fresh vegetables like
cauliflower in cold salted water for twenty minutes. If insects are present they will
rise to the surface.
442 Wash the body cavity of poultry well. Let all washed items drain well.
3) Pre-preparation: This step includes peeling, trimming and soaking. Potable water Issues in Food Safety
must be used for pre-preparation and cooking. Fruits and vegetables need to be
peeled, trimmed and cut to remove inedible or spoilt parts. Grains are soaked for
sprouting. Potable water should be used for all pre-preparation. No food container
should be placed on the floor as the floor is heavily contaminated. Keep all food
on racks or shelves.
4) Thawing: Frozen foods should be thawed completely before cooking, unless the
manufactures instructions are otherwise. Thawing large portions of food joints and
poultry takes time. Freezing only prevents bacteria from multiplying it does not
kill them. When a food is thawed, these dormant microorganisms start
multiplying rapidly once again.
If food is cooked while it is partially or totally frozen, a large amount of heat will have
to travel to the center of the food to melt the ice. The food may get cooked on the
surface, but internal temperature will not high enough to kill bacteria. The food is thus
likely to reach a temperature within the danger zone, which is favourable for bacterial
growth.

Meat may be thawed in a special thawing cabinet at a temperature of 10 to 15°C.

The advantage of such a cabinet is that cross-contamination is prevented and thawing
is faster and safer at a cool temperature of 15°C. A refrigerator may be used instead
of a thawing cabinet. Care should be taken to prevent any liquid from raw meat
dripping in the refrigerator and contaminating other foods. Raw meat can contaminate
any and everything it comes in contact with in the kitchen, like hands, work table,
chopping board, meat block, knives, cutters, utensils, dish cloth and dusters. These
articles can further contaminate other foods.

Never thaw meat by immersion in warm water or near heat as the microorganism on
the surface will grow rapidly while the center is still defrosting. Thawed meat should
be cooked immediately or kept in the refrigerator for maximum 24 hours before
cooking. Never refreeze meat, which has once thawed. If it has to be refrozen, then
cook and freeze. There are certain rules that must be considered for thawing food.
Let us see what these see.

Rules for Thawing Food

Thaw or defrost food in any one of the following ways:
1) In the refrigerator below 4°C (39°F).
2) In a thawing cabinet at temperatures between 10 - 15°C.
3) In potable running water at 21°C or below while it is still in the packet.
4) In a microwave oven, only when it has to be cooked immediately.
5) As per of conventional cooking, for example, certain frozen foods like frozen
vegetable and ready-to-eat chicken preparation are cooked in the frozen state
and quickly thaw when they are cooked.
Let us next review the different types of cooking methods and the microbial
contamination.

18.7.2 Cooked Food and Microbial Contamination

Food may be served uncooked, rare or medium cooked or well-cooked depending on
the foodstuff and the recipe. Cooking reduces the number of bacteria present in food.
The food handler should realize that conventional cooking procedures do not kill all
bacteria and spores or inactivate them. Hence, even cooked food should be handled
very carefully.

Food is a poor conductor of heat and for large pieces; longer time is needed for heat
to reach the center of the food being cooked. Generally, there are more bacteria on
443
Entrepreneurship and Food the surface than inside the food, unless it has been mashed, minced or rolled. In such
Service Management foods, bacteria present on the surface get distributed throughout the food. It is
necessary for the center of the food to reach temperature of at least 700°C for few
minutes while it is being cooked. Internal temperature can be checked with the help
of a probe thermometer. Wipe the probe with a sanitizing solution or isopropyl alcohol
after every use.

Most harmful bacteria present on the surface of a food are destroyed when food is
cooked. The microbial contamination in some common cooked preparations is
enumerated herewith.

Stuffed Preparation: While cooking any stuffed preparation, like stuffed chicken or
turkey, it is advisable to cook the stuffing and then stuff the bird. This is because
stuffing slows down heat penetration and sometimes even if the bird is cooked, the
temperature in the center may not be high enough to kill bacteria.
Food poisoning is more likely to occur from stuffed foods because:
1) Bare hands may be used to stuff the food.
2) Heat transfer is slow, permitting bacteria to remain in the danger zone for a
longer time.
3) Adequate heat may never reach the center of the food while externally the food
may be cooked to the desirable stage.
Although a final temperature of 63°C (145°F) is considered sufficient to prevent
microbial growth, the following temperature chart as given in Table 18.7 is recommended
for various meats.
Table 18.7: Ideal cooking temperatures for various meats
S.No. Food Stuff Internal
°C °F
1. Rare roast beef 54 130
2. Pork and pork products 66 150
3. Stuffed meat 74 165
4. Pork (gray stage) 77 170

The larvae of trichinella are killed at 66°C (150°F). As a precaution, it is recommended

that pork be cooked to the gray stage. It is preferable to cook or reheat food to at
least 74°F provided culinary quality is not lost.

Coated Preparations: Many food items are coated with a protective covering before
they are fried. This coating helps in retaining the juices and flavour of food and keeps
excess fat out. They are usually coated with batter or dipped in egg and covered with
breadcrumbs before they are cooked. These coverings act as good heat insulators and
reduce the transfer of heat to the food being cooked. They may also add to the
bacterial population. This can happen in conditions when:
1) the better is mixed by hand,
2) food is repeatedly dipped in better by hand,
3) microorganism from the raw food may contaminate batter,
4) if batter is state, and
5) dry bread crumbs favour microbial growth when they are moistened with beaten
egg and are left unused at room temperature. Excess batter or breadcrumbs should
be discarded or refrigerated.

444
Mixing Raw and Cooked ingredients: When raw and cooked ingredients are mixed Issues in Food Safety
and the products is not refrigerated or consumed immediately, it can lead to food
poisoning. Special care should be taken while preparing salads and sandwiches, which
are made from highly perishable foods like egg, meat and poultry. They should be
stored at refrigeration temperatures immediately. In sandwiches, the bread acts as a
heat insulator and prevents the filling from cooling fast. Preparing trifles, sandwiches,
etc. a day prior to use should be avoided.

Eggs may be contaminated with Salmonella which are destroyed only at 60°C (150°F).
This temperature may not be reached while preparing meringues, soufflés, egg nag,
soft cooked eggs and scrambled eggs. In such cases, use clean, whole shell eggs instead
of dried or liquid eggs.

We have in our discussion above highlighted the cooking methods and how they
influence the microbial growth. Once the food is cooked it is held at hot cold,
temperatures before serving. Also sometimes the left over food left in hot-holding
equipment during the entire lunch break is exposed to additional contamination. This
also influences microbial growth. Let us study about this aspect in greater details.

Holding Food: Food, after being prepared, need not necessarily be served immediately.
It may be held for sometime and then served. The holding can be for both cold and
hot foods. Extra precaution is needed while handling and storing such foods, as they
are prone to microbial attack. What are these precautions? Let us read and find out.

Precautions for Holding Hot Food

To maintain high culinary quality, food be prepared when it is needed and served as
soon as it is prepared. But this situation is not feasible in most catering establishments
as the volume of production is enormous and volume of sales cannot be accurately
predicted. To serve hundreds of lunches in a two-hour lunch break, calls for preparing
most of the items on the menu in advance. Foods which have to be served over an
extended lunch hour can be held hot with the help of a bain marie, double boiler steam
table or chaffing dish, The food handler should understand that these gadgets are not
reheating food but only hot-holding of foods. If used for reheating, food will remain
in the danger zone for a longer time.

The temperature at which food remains in the hot-holding equipment is very important
and should not be less than 63°C. If this temperature is not maintained, it is likely
that food spoilage will occur rapidly. Before keeping food in any of these equipments,
it should be heated to 74°C (165°F) and transferred immediately.
The following precautions should be taken during hot holding of foods:
1) Keep food covered to prevent heat loss.
2) Check temperature with a thermometer and not by just touching it with hand.
3) Stir occasionally for even heating as lower surfaces get heated and upper surfaces
get cooled by air.
4) use proper serving equipment like long-handled ladles and scoops to minimize
hand contact. Keep in a clean place when not in use.
5) Prepare and keep only required amounts as extended heating will affect flavour
and quality.
6) Dry preparations like chappatis, fried items and baked items may dry further, or
get overcooked during hot holding.
Cooling Food: Any perishable food, which is not to be consumed immediately, should
be kept outside the danger zone. Cold preparations like desserts should be cooled as
soon as possible to 15°C and stored in the refrigerator. Food should not be refrigerated
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Entrepreneurship and Food while it is still hot, otherwise the maximum internal temperature in the refrigerator of
Service Management 4°C would increase and favour spoilage of other foods stored in the refrigerator. Food
must be cooled prior to refrigeration in the coolest part of the kitchen. Large columns
cool faster when divided into smaller portions or when kept in shallow containers.
Cooling can be hastened by keeping food containers in ice-cold water or in quick- chill
units. Food cools faster when the container is placed in water, as water is a better
conductor of heat than air.

Stirring food occasionally brings about a uniform drop in temperature and faster
cooling. Other factors which influence the cooling process are
1) the type of food,
2) the temperature in the refrigerator or quick-chill unit, and
3) the container used- size of container, material it is made of and covering, if any.
Cooked food, which is not to be consumed immediately, should be refrigerated with
1½ hour at 4°C or below. If refrigerator space is inadequate, it is wise to purchase
a quick-chill unit or extra bain maries for ice chilling. Large catering units should have
walk-in chillers for rapid cooling of cooked food.
Leftover food: All food items have to be stored till they are consumed.
Left food or surplus food includes all items that have been:
1) displayed but not during meal time,
2) items prepared but not used in function, and
3) items produced in more than required quantities.
Leftover food, which has not been served and is left in hot-holding equipment during
the entire lunch break, is exposed to additional contamination. Leftovers, which are
highly perishable in nature and have been in the danger zone for more than two to
four hours (depending on the nature of the food), should not be served. Most foods
can be kept for a day if they are not handled much and are stored at the correct
temperature and reheated adequately. Foods, which are usually contaminated with
spore, like Bacillus cereus in rice and Clostridium in meat, require proper reheating.
These foods are responsible for a number of cases of food poisoning. Conventional
cooking practices do not destroy spores and as food is cooked and enters the danger
zone, these spores germinate and bacteria begin to multiply and continues to do so
till food is refrigerated or reheated. They remain dormant in the regulator and when
food is reheated and passed through the danger zone, they multiply once again.

To control bacterial growth in leftover foods, the caterer should keep leftover to a
minimum and highly perishable or high-risk foods should not be reheated more than
once. With each reheating, the bacterial population increases. Surplus food should be
reheated thoroughly to destroy all vegetative bacterial cells. Just warming up a dish
before service would be doing it more harm than good, as bacterial growth would be
favoured.

Food prepared too far in advance can cause embarrassment to the caterer, who may
be tempted to use rather throw it away. It may be recalled that such food is one of
the main cause of food poisoning. Careful planning can minimize over production.

To prevent surplus food causing food poisoning, the following points should be noted:
1) All food prepared but not should be stored at or below 5°C.
2) The caterer should judge the quality of leftover food and then decide whether it
is to be used or not.

446
3) It is considered fit for consumption if it has not been handled excessively or Issues in Food Safety
exposed to high temperatures for long periods.
4) Surplus cold food should be returned to the chilled storage at or below 5°C until
required.
5) Surplus hot food must be cooled as quickly as possible and retriggered below 5°C
until it is to be reheated for service. It should then be heated to 74°C and kept
at a temperature above 63°C until it is served. It should be reheated only once.
6) Surplus hot food like roast joints which have been held at or below 5°C can be
served as cold food over the next two days, provided they are held at 5°C until
required for service.
7) Leftover food should be handled carefully to avoid contamination through dirty
knives, chopping board, equipment etc.
8) It should not be mixed with fresh food.
9) It should be carefully covered and stored away from fresh and war foods to avoid
possible risk of cross-contamination.
10) All excess food should be sorted into categories and refrigerated as soon as
possible and stored accordingly.

The management should look into the amount of overproduction and keep it to a bare
minimum. If large quantities of leftovers are present, the food should be cooled,
covered and labeled before returning the food to the refrigeration. The label should
also record the date before which the food should be used. Such cases arise only when
a function is cancelled or very few people turn up for a function because of bad
weather, etc.

When deciding whether or not to use leftover food, always remember –‘ if in doubt,
throw it out’.
Now let us see what should be the storage temperature so as to minimize microbial
spoilage
Storage Temperature of Prepared Foods: Food Safety and Standard Authority of
India have introduced hygienic and safe transportation, handling and storage temperature
of prepared food. If the prepared food is to be served in the near vicinity, it should
be transported and serve hot at temperature above 60°C and consumed within 4
hours. Otherwise, it should be chilled to less than 5°C and reheated to a temperature
of atleast 70°C which should be served at 60°C and consumed within 4 hours. On
the other hand, cooked food which is to be served cold should be kept at below 5°C
to prevent microbial growth.

Though chilling helps in extending the shelf life of food products, it can be effective
only when high standards of hygiene are observed. Caterers should check temperatures
on receiving deliveries. All allowances at 20°C in the temperature is given for up to
two hours for the following:
1) Defrosting of equipment.
2) Breakdown of refrigeration equipment.
3) During cold food preparation in the kitchen.
4) When food is moved around on the premises.
However, an exemption for certain foods from temperature control is permissible.
These foods/dishes include:
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Entrepreneurship and Food 1) Certain foods are processed in such a way that it prevents the growth of
Service Management pathogens, for examples, sterilized canned food. Canned foods, which have been
only pasteurized, should be refrigerated and this should be indicated on the label.
2) Sandwiches with perishable fillings can be held at 8°C or below for a period of
24 hours only.
3) Mawa or khoa should always be refrigerated and used within 24 hours.
In our discussion so far we have reviewed the cooking methods and how they
influence the microbial growth. Further, we discussed the appropriate holding and
storage temperature of prepared and leftover foods which any individual/caterer in a
food service operation must follow. We would explore further and study about the
preparation methods for certain foods which are highly perishable and may require
careful handling.

Preparation of Specific Foods

In this section we will look at the preparation method of meat, fish fresh, fruits and
vegetables. These foods bring highly perishable require careful handling. Let us find
out.
a) Meat: Meat is a highly perishable food and gets contaminated from various
sources by the time it reaches the kitchen. It should be washed and trimmed as
it is cooked. Separate knives, cleavers and chopping boards should be used for
raw and cooked meat to reduce chances of cross-contamination.
Bacteria from raw meat may remain on improperly washed equipment and if the
same equipment is used for cutting ready-to-eat meat, like cold cuts which are
eaten without further cooking, the chances of food poisoning occurring become
very high. The bacteria on the raw meat are likely to get destroyed once meat
is cooked. After handling raw meat, wash hands well before touching cooked meat
or any other ready-to-eat foods which are not going to be heated again.
In the butchery, work table surfaces should be made of impervious material which
is easy to clean. The chopping block can be made of hardwood and should be
light enough to be removed for cleaning, scraping and rinsing after every use.
While deboning meat and making rolled joints, chances of contamination increase.
Such joints should be cut into small portions and cooked well to kill microorganisms
that may be present in the center of the cut.
Minced meat is at a higher risk than meat because microorganisms present on the
outer surface of meat get distributed throughout the entire mass of mince. Minced
meat is also handled more and spoil much faster, leading to discolouration and
foul odours and may cause food-borne illnesses. To reduce the chances of
spoilages, the following precautions should be taken:
1) Mince the quality required for the day only.
2) Cook mince thoroughly at sufficiently high temperatures.
3) Surplus mince be cooled rapidly in small portions.
4) Refrigerate surplus immediately.
5) Reheat mince thoroughly before serving.
6) If root vegetables like potatoes, carrots or onions are cooked along with
mince, clean them thoroughly to remove heat-resistant soil organism.
b) Fish: The best way to prepare fish is to place a stone slab long enough to fit
across the sink used for fish preparation and about two-third the width of the sink.
Place a hard wood board on it for cutting fish. This arrangement allows a
continuous flow of clean water with the wash going down the drain of the sink.
c) Fresh Fruit and Vegetables: Vegetables should be thoroughly washed to remove
448 traces of soil. If necessary, root vegetables may have to be soaked for sometimes
 and scrubbed clean as soil may contain Clostridium perfringens and Escherichia Issues in Food Safety
coil along with other intestinal pathogens. Some vegetables, like carrots and
ginger, may be scraped; fruits should be washed well and peeled, if required
before they are served. Peelings help in reducing microbial load and preservative
pesticide residue if any.
Green leafy vegetables should be washed under running water. Lettuce should be
broken up and washed. Leaves should be drained well. A separate sink should
be allotted for vegetables and fruit preparation. Spoilt, inedible portions be removed.
When food is handled carelessly, it is likely to get contaminated or spoilt and may
result in food poisoning. Box 18.2 highlights some common faults in food preparation.
Box 18.2 Common Faults in Food Preparation
The 10 most common faults responsible for outbreaks of food poisoning are:
1) Food prepared much before serving time.
2) Storing perishable food at room temperature beyond four hours.
3) Slow cooling of food in the kitchen at room temperature before refrigerating it.
4) Inadequate storage facilities and reheating of leftover food.
5) Cooking frozen meat or poultry without thawing it completely.
6) Cross-contamination from war to cooked food and use of cooked food
contaminated with bacteria
7) Undercooking meat and poultry.
8) Holding hot food below 63°C during service.
9. Infected food handlers.
10. Surplus food production and use of leftovers without checking quality.

With this we end our study of hygienic food handling. Next, we shall review the
personnel hygiene and sanitary practices linked with food safety in the next unit.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) What are pesticides? How are they classified?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) List some common rules that a food service worker needs to adopt for
hygienic storage and handling.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Give some examples of microbial contamination in some common cooked
preparations.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

18.8 LET US SUM UP

Unit 18 focused on food safety. We learnt that microorganisms such as viruses,
bacteria, yeasts, moulds, algae and protozoa affect humans and their food. The food
handler should understand the importance of keeping food free from disease causing
organisms and other harmful agents. The safety of foods must always be considered
while storing, preparing and serving foods. The food handler should know that some 449
Entrepreneurship and Food microorganisms are useful to us and affect the basic characteristics of food producers.
Service Management Others are harmful and can cause spoilage of food and disease.
Food spoilage refers to decomposition or decay by microbes, animal parasites, natural
enzymes, physical or chemical changes, as well as, external contaminants. In this
context we learnt that spoilt food should always be discarded. Food that is decayed
is easier to recognize than foods spoilt by microorganisms or unobvious contaminants.
Foods have been categorized as perishable, semi perishable and non-perishable on the
basis of the ease with which they spoil. They need to be stored properly.
The other aspect covered in this unit was the importance of pest control. The presence
of pests and their body parts or droppings in food served will not only result in
contamination and spread in disease but can ruin the reputation of any catering
establishment.

18.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) The food handler can transmits pathogens to food directly because of coughing
or sneezing on or near the food, droplets containing microorganisms may fall on
the food. Further, unwashed or improperly washed hands transfer diseases of the
intestinal tract. If hands soiled with faecal matter handle food, disease-causing
agents are transferred to the prepared food. Consumption of such food causes
illness. When food is openly displayed, the customer handling the food can
contaminate it.
2) The important factors, which have an influence on growth, are food and nutrients,
pH level, moisture, temperature, oxygen, time and osmotic pressure and sunlight
or UV rays.
3) Refer to Table 18.4 and answer on your own.
4) a) True
b) True
c) False
d) True
5) Food poisoning is an illness caused by toxins present in contaminated food. The
toxin may be a poisonous chemical toxin, which is accidentally or intentionally,
added a naturally occurring poison like solanine in green potatoes or a toxic
metabolite excreted by bacteria. Food infection, on the other hand, is an illness
caused by microorganisms. It results from the consumption of food that contains
living bacteria, which are multiplying and capable of producing disease. The
illness, which results, is the reaction of the body to the presence of microorganisms
or to their metabolites.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Pesticides are substances, which have certain pharmacological effects on insects
and rodents, either as poisons or as repellants. Pesticides include insecticides
and rodenticides. Look up sub-section 18.6.1 and present the classification of
pesticides on your own.
2) Refer to section 18.7 and list the rules that a food service worker needs to adopt
for hygienic storage and handling.
3) Eggs may be contaminated with Salmonella which are destroyed only at 60°C
(150°F). Pork can be contaminated with larvae of trichinella. Similarly give some
more examples based on your understanding of the topic.
450
 Issues in Food Safety
UNIT 19 ISSUE IN WORKER SAFETY AND
SECURITY

Structure
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Personal Hygiene and Sanitary Practices
19.2.1 Health of Staff
19.2.2 Sanitary Practices
19.3 Sanitation Training and Education for Food Service Workers
19.3.1 Sanitation Training and Education
19.3.2 Who should be Trained?
19.3.3 What a Training Programme should Include?
19.3.4 Employment Practice
19.4 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP)
19.5 Work Place Safety
19.5.1 Why Accidents should be Prevented?
19.5.2 How Accidents Take Place?
19.5.3 Types of Accidents
19.5.4 Precautions to Prevent Accidents
19.6 Sanitation Regulations and Standards
19.6.1 Control of Food Quality
19.6.2 Adulteration and Misbranding
19.7 Let Us Sum Up
19.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

19.1 INTRODUCTION
In our previous unit, we have learnt about issues related to food borne infections and
poisoning and different modes of disease transmission in food service institutions.
Sanitation and hygiene plays a very crucial role in food service operations – storage,
processing, preparation, holding, and waste disposal – which is the responsibility of
every food service worker. Negligence on the part of the food handler can result in
a large epidemic. Despite the ample information we have on microorganisms and
effective measures in handling food, it is not effective because of lack of proper
application. Many a time unskilled personnel are involved in the handling of food and
these could be a major source of contamination. Therefore knowledge about sanitary
practices must be the basis of all training programmes involving food handlers. The
prime responsibility, as you would agree to break the chain of transmission of disease
from carrier to food and from food to the consumer lies solely on the food handler.
This important aspect has been covered in this unit. Also, we shall deal with training
and education for food service workers. How training and education can aid in
preventing disease out breaks? This is the focus on the unit. The sanitation regulations
and standards, which you may recall have already been covered in Unit 14 in the Food
Microbiology and Safety Course, (MFN-003) have been summarized here as well.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the importance of personnel hygiene and good sanitary practices,
• identify safety issues and corrective measures to be taken for the worker, and
• design good training programmes in food safety for the food service worker.

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Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 19.2 PERSONAL HYGIENE AND SANITARY PRACTICES
You may be well aware of personal hygiene and sanitary practices as discussed in Unit
10 earlier in the Food Microbiology and Safety Course, (MFN-003). Hence, here we
shall not go into much details but just touch upon these issues.

Personal hygiene is necessary for everybody but more so for the food handler because
the health and well-being of hundreds of people is in his or her hands. A careless food
handler could be responsible for the spread of an epidemic. It is, therefore the duty
of every caterer, in fact the caterer is legally responsible for the wholesomeness of
food supplied by him or her. It is also the moral obligation of every food handler to
ensure that food is prepared and served hygienically. Sanitation codes call for a high
degree of personal cleanliness for all employees in food establishments. An employees
suffering from a disease that can be communicated by food or one who is a carrier
of food brone disease, is not permitted to work till he/she is medically certified.

Workers can spread infection knowingly by working when they are ill and infect other
workers and consumers directly or indirectly. Sometimes, healthy workers spread
disease by cross-contamination. They carry microorganisms from an infected area to
one that previously had no harmful microorganisms.

In some instances, the infected person does not show any visible signs or symptoms
of the disease. Such persons are called carriers, as discussed in the last unit, and they
unknowingly spread disease producing organism which they carry in their bodies. They
are the most dangerous of all food handlers as it is very difficult to trace the source
of infection in such cases.

Hence, it can be realized that food poisoning does not just happen, it is always caused
and the cause is carelessness on the part of the human being. It is estimated that
50 per cent of all food handlers carry microorganisms that can be transmitted to food.
For these reasons, personal hygiene is very necessary and should be practiced by every
food handler. The worker should be in a state of good health and maintain a healthy
health status and adopt good sanitary practices as highlighted in our subsequent
discussion.

19.2.1 Health of Staff

A sick worker is not only a source of infection, but being unwell, is likely to take less
care in handling food.

All staff employed in food preparation and service areas should be in a state of good
health. Working in a catering establishment means working for long hours. The work
may involve heavy physical exertion and mental tension and meal timings may be
irregular. Worker may have to lift heavy loads, work in hot steamy kitchens and
constantly be on their feet during working hours. They need to be active and alert.
For this, both the body and the mind must be in the best possible health.

Good health is not only the absence of disease. It does not depend on the person’s
height and weight but means that both the body and mind are in excellent condition,
free from illness or tension. It also means that a person is physically fit and mentally
alert, capable of taking on spot decisions and handling crisis situations. He or she
should be able to carry out routine work without any signs of undue fatigue and still
have ample reserve energy for recreation or to meet an emergency, if required.

To achieve all this, it is necessary for the employer to ensure good health and safe
working conditions for all employees by observing the following:

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1) It is compulsory to have a detailed medical checkup at the time of recruitment. Issue in Worker Safety
Recent history of any illness should be known before employing a worker. All and Security
food, service workers should be free from any infection that is likely to be
transmitted.
2) Medical checkups every six months and a checkup following a severe illness,
especially one related to the gastrointestinal tract, should be done. The cost for
this should be borne by the employer.
3) Periodic deworming (six monthly) and necessary inoculation (typhoid, tetanus,
etc.) should be ensured.
4) All illness should be reported to the management and ill workers should be kept
away from food during that period.
5) Personal cleanliness of employees in terms of general appearance, uniforms,
hands and fingernails, should be checked discreetly.
6) Restrooms and lockers used by employees should be inspected for cleanliness.
7) A nutritious and wholesome meal should be provided while on duly in a separate
room designed for this purpose.
8) The work area should be planned in such a way that accidents like falls, cuts
and burns are prevented from occurring while at work. The workers should also
be trained in proper methods of work.
9) Work hours should be 48 hours a week. This may be in shifts.
10) A weekly off is compulsory.
The employer should realize the importance of good health and help the employee in
maintaining it. Remember, good health and the right attitude towards work increases
work efficiency and productivity and this in turn increases the profits of the
establishments.
Personal appearance too is important as highlighted next.
Personal Appearance
A good personal appearance helps both the employee and the organization. It increases
one’s self confidence. It helps in promoting business by improving performance at
work. It reflects on the standards set by the organization and customers know what
to except.

It inspires customer confidence, makes them feel important and helps in attracting
more customers. Good health and good personal appearance can be achieved by
maintaining personal cleanliness both at home and at work.
Let us review the sanitary practices next.

19.2.2 Sanitary Practices

It must be evident to you by now that a food worker needs to be healthy and clean
to prepare safe food. All employees at the food service operation need good personal
hygiene. Personal hygiene refers to all conditions and measures necessary to ensure
the cleanliness of a person’s clothes and body. These measures are elaborated
herewith.

Bathing
Workers must bathe daily as body is offensive and skin is the main breeding ground
for bacteria. Use of good soap is important to wash away dirt, to emulsify secretions
of the sebaceous glands and to make cleaning of skin easy. A good deodorant should
be used after a bath and undergarments should be changed everyday.
453
Entrepreneurship and Food Hair
Service Management
Hair can be a breeding ground for bacteria found on the skin. Unclean hair causes
dandruff and lice, and makes the scalp itch.

Running hands through hair or scratching the scalp is a common habit because of
which Staphylococci present on the scalp may spread and hair may fall into food. The
presence of hair in food is obnoxious and can be avoided if food handlers wear caps,
scarves or nets. These would discourage the employee from touching their scalp and
contaminating food.

A head covering helps to keep hair out of food, prevents contamination by Staphylococci,
keeps hair free from kitchen grease and prevent long hair from getting entangled in
machinery. Hair should be neatly tied if long. Hair length for men should be up to
mid-ears. Hair should be shampooed regularly. Moustaches and beards should be clean
and trimmed. Men without moustaches or beards should be clean shaven. Kitchen
staffs are not permitted to grow beards.

Eyes
Eyes must be kept clean and washed frequently. Rubbing of eyes should be avoided.
An employees suffering from sore eyes should not be allowed to work.

Teeth and Mouth

Teeth should be brushed regularly and thoroughly cleaned with a moderately hard
brush. This should be done twice a day, i.e., first thing in the morning and last thing
before retiring. Food particles get lodged in the teeth and cause decay. Deposition of
tartar requires attention or teeth may loosen at the root. Tooth brushes must be kept
clean and should be changed frequently. The tongue tends to get coated and can be
cleaned with a tongue cleaner. The mouth should be rinsed well and gargling is a must
after every meal. These habits ensure good dental health, prevent painful cavities and
bed breath.

Hands
The hands are possibly the most unsafe serving equipment in the chain of infection
in the entire food service operation. Bacteria flourish on the skin because of the ideal
temperature conditions. Skin secretions provide food for growth and microbes get
lodged in pores, crevices and possibly crack on the skin. The presence of Staphylococcus
on the skin is dangerous for the food industry. In addition to the normal flora on the
skin, inadequate hand washing could cause accumulation of microorganisms usually
found in the bowels or those or those which could have been picked up from raw
contaminated foods.

Because our hands are in direct contact with food all the time, cross-contamination
can occur and bacteria can be transferred to high risk foods. To prevent this, hands
should be washed under the following conditions:
a) before beginning work and after a break,
b) before handling foods,
c) after eating or smoking a cigarette,
d) after using the toilet,
e) after touching infected or unsanitary areas of the body or combing hair,
f) after using a handkerchief, sneezing or coughing into the hands,
g) after handling raw foods, especially meat, fish and poultry,
h) after scullery or any cleaning operation after handling waste food or refuse, and
i) whenever they are dirty.

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Hands should be washed with plenty of soap and water and preferably rinsed in Issue in Worker Safety
running water. If soap tables are used, they should be kept dry. Liquid soap is more and Security
hygienic and economical to use. Washing hands with antiseptic soap and water reduces
the load of coliform organisms and Staphylococci from the skin. But some Staphylococci
still remain and this is the reason why foods which favour growth and which may not
be heated before service, should not be touched by the fingers.
Hand washing should be done properly or it will not be effective. Hands must be dried
thoroughly by using a roller towel, a hot air dryer or disposable paper towels. Frequent
hand washing with soap and hot water can make the skin crack causing roughness.
This can be prevented by wearing gloves or using a cream to keep them soft. Gloves
are helpful as long as they are unbroken and cleaned well. The use of gloves is
recommended while working with foods like sandwiches, cold cuts, pastries and salads.
Plastic gloves must be changes frequently.
Cuts, burns and raw surfaces can harbour Staphylococci. These should be covered
with a waterproof dressing. If the wound is infected, inflamed or pus is formed, the
person should not be allowed to handle food. Even the smallest cut can harbour a large
number of bacteria.
Food should be touched with bare hand only if absolutely necessary. Fingers must not
be dipped into food to taste it or dipped in water being served. The use of tongs or
spoons for handling or tasting food should be encouraged.

Fingernails
Fingernails are a frequent source of contamination or cross-contamination. They
should be trimmed and kept clean. Long nails with ragged edges tend to harbour more
germs. Nail polish should be avoided in production areas as it may mask accumulated
dirt or it could chip and enter the food (some nail polishes are toxic). It has been
observed that if nails are varnished, food handlers do not like using nail brushes or
trimming their nails. Hence, use of nail polishes should be discouraged.

Jewellery
Any jewellery which comes into contact with food should not be worn. Finger rings
can accumulate dirt, like dough accumulating in a ring while kneading, which could
later enter the food. There is also danger of stones or small parts of rings, earrings
and necklaces falling into food. Bangles and bracelets get heated soon and come in
the way of work. Wrist watches should not be worn in the kitchen. They can fail off,
wrist watch faces can break and glass can accidentally get into food. Also, the skin
underneath remains moist and may harbour bacteria.

Feet and Footwear

As most of the jobs in catering establishments have to be performed standing, the feet
or employees are subjected to extra stress and strain. Hence extra attention should
be given to the feet. Feet should be washed and kept clean, especially between the
toes. Socks should always be worn with shoes to keep away dirt and absorb
perspiration. They should be washed daily. Shoes should be sturdy, clean, well
polished and form a part of the uniform. They should be comfortable and well fitting
with a low heel. Shoes are necessary for protection of the feet against falling objects
and spills.

Habits
Good habits play an important role in maintaining good health. Once formed, they are
difficult to break. Good habits grow by practice. Since man is a slave of his habits,
care should be taken to form good habits and avoid bad ones, particularly the common
ones listed herewith:

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Entrepreneurship and Food 1) Smoking while preparing food can lead to contamination of the food and hence,
Service Management is prohibited. Smoking may touch their lips or saliva could get transferred onto
their fingers and could contaminate food. Smokers are also prone to cough
which could contaminate food by droplet infection.
2) Unguarded cough and sneezes can disperse a number of bacteria in droplets of
moisture from the nose, mouth and throat. This can contaminate food directly or
indirectly.
3) Nose picking or fingering the nose may leave Staphylococci or other harmful
bacteria on the fingers and should be avoided.
4) Avoid handling or shaking a dirty handkerchief near food. Paper or disposable
handkerchiefs are a more hygienic substitute for cloth ones.
5) Avoid using a dish cloth to wipe perspiration or wipe hands after using the water
closet (W.C.).
6) Avoid washing hands in sinks used for food preparation.
7) Avoid picking up bread, bread rolls, butter pats or ice cubes with bare hands. Use
disposable gloves and tongs.
8) Do not touch food contact surfaces of crockery and cutlery.
9) Tasting food with fingers or with the same spoon repeatedly should be avoided.
10) Chewing gum or taking snuff should not be allowed in food preparation and
service areas.
11) Leaving food uncovered for a long time should be avoided.
12) Blowing on paper or plastic bags to open them and on milk to keep cream from
being poured should be avoided.
Besides the measures described above, the food handlers need to all ensure protective
clothing as elaborated next.

Protection Clothing
All employees working in food establishments must wear a clean and appropriate
uniform while on duty. The uniform should be such that it (a) protects the workers
from external heat, grease and vapours from the work environment, (b) saves wear
and tear of clothes of the employee, (c) protects the food from any bacteria present
on the worker clothes. For this, it should be large enough to ensure that food will not
come into contact with any clothes worm underneath.

The choice of uniform will very for different areas of work. It should be so designed
that it helps the worker in his work and increases his efficiency. It should be light,
comfortable, and durable and should be made from absorbent material. It should be
easy to wash and must be laundered and changed daily. White or light colours are
selected as stains show up readily on them and they need to be changed frequently.
A review of the uniform specific for each operation i.e. kitchen, service etc. is
presented next.

Kitchen Uniforms
The chief’s uniform is white in colour, made of heavy duty cotton and includes the
following:
1) a double breasted chef coat with full sleeves,
2) a large white apron tied around the waist,
3) a scarf around the neck,
4) a chef cap,
5) black and white checked trousers, and
456
6) shoes and socks
The double breasted chef coat with long sleeves and the apron protects the body and Issue in Worker Safety
the same from hot splashes. The chef cap is perforated on top to allow circulation and Security
of air to the head. The cap prevents loose hair and dandruff from falling in food and
absorbs perspiration from the forehead.

Dishwashers and butches need waterproof aprons made of rubber sheeting or canvas.
Cleaners are not given white uniforms as they are difficult to maintain. Blue or khaki
are suitable colours for them.

Service Uniforms
In the food service area, the colours of the uniform should blend with the colour
scheme of the restaurant. Pastel shades suit most Indian complexions and the décor
of the place better than bright gaudy coloures. Waiters should wear washable jackets
and waitresses should wear light coloured wash and wear dresses or both could wear
the traditional black and white service uniform with a tie or bow. Synthetic blends of
fabric are easier to maintain than cotton and are permitted in the service area.

Uniforms most be worn properly and should be in a good state of repair. They must
be provided by the employer, who also makes arrangements for their storage and
washing. The employer should provide a suitable cloakroom with a full length mirror.
Uniforms should only be worn while on duty. Each employee should have a locker
to keep his or her uniform, personal clothes and uniforms. Clothes should be changed
in the cloakroom only. There should be a sufficient number of uniforms always
available. Only then can the employer question the employee about not being in proper
uniform. Uniform pockets should not be stuffed with personal belongings like combs,
wallets or other personal articles which may carry microorganisms.

Soiled clothing could harbour disease-producing organisms and also appear unappealing
to the customers. Bacteria can grow in food stains and perspiration stains.

A well dressed, neat and clean staff creates a good impression. Clean protective
clothing helps in boosting the staff morale by making them interested in their personal
appearance and hygiene.

Finally rest, exercise and recreation of workers go a long way in ensuring safe food.
Let us get to know how.

Importance of Rest, Exercise and Recreation

There should be a balance between the amount of work done and the rest, relaxation
and sleep obtained. Rest and relaxation help in reviving the individual, lessens
psychological and physical fatigue and motivates him or her to work. Fatigue reduces
the capacity of an individual to work. The long work hours, split duty and night duty
requires that workers get adequate amount of rest, relaxation and sleep to keep them
active and alert at work.

The amount of sleep required by an individual varies from four to nine hours. On an
average, person needs six to seven hours of undisturbed sleep to feel refreshed when
he awakens. Lack of sleep increases tension, and makes a person irritable and
aggressive.

For the human body to function properly and remain in good health, it must not only
be rested but exercised regularly as well. The amount of exercise required depends
on the nature of the job done. An active waiter or cleaner needs lesser exercise than
a desk manager who spends long hours in his office.

Exercising regularly in fresh air is necessary for people working under pressure, rush,
heat and odd working hours. Exercise helps to (a) promote good health by improving
457
Entrepreneurship and Food circulation and respiration, (b) maintains muscle tone and promotes digestion, (c) keeps
Service Management skin clean and (d) maintains efficiency of the nervous system.

It keeps the individual fit and healthy with no extra fat. Exercise could be in the form
of walking, jogging, cycling, swimming or yoga.

Some form of recreation is necessary in a person’s leisure time. Recreation is necessary

for a healthy mind. The choice of recreation varies from individual to individual. What
may be work for one person may be recreation for another. Recreation helps in
breaking the monotony, frustration or dislike for one’s job. It helps in refreshing the
mind, just like exercise refreshes the body.

Adequate rest, exercise and recreation are essential for both physical and psychological
fitness.

Let us next get on to the sanitation training and education for food service workers.

19.3 SANITATION TRAINING AND EDUCATION FOR

FOOD SERVICE WORKERS
The employer should check that all employees have a clean and tidy personal appearance
and follow sanitary practices while handling food. All employees should observe
healthy habits. They should be particular about their appearance and should be in clean
and comfortable uniform. Special attention also needs to be focused on training all
employees in safe food practices. Let us get to know more about this crucial and
important function in any food service set-up.

19.3.1 Sanitation Training and Education

In the industry today, special attention needs to be focused on training all employees,
directly or indirectly concerned with food, in safe food practices. In most instances,
it has been observed that the managers are busy with other matters like running the
food service establishment and proprietors may not be inclined to spend time and
money on training employees.
This training is, however, necessary for the following reasons:
1) The incidence of food borne illness is on the rise.
2) It is the legal responsibility of the management to serve clean, wholesome food.
3) Most of the employees have no formal training either before or at the time of
recruitment and have picked up the job from an older worker to whom they have
been assigned.
4) In this industry, the labour turnover rate, as well as, job change rate is very high.
5) Very few establishments have an inbuilt, well-structured sanitation programme.
6) Professionally trained food service personnel are not available or do not have the
time in their job. Training in sanitation should thus go on side by side and should
begin as soon as an employee joins duty.
An ideal situation would be one where it is mandatory for every food handler to
complete a course in sanitary food handling. This programme should be a continuous
one. But this may not always be feasible as some proprietors may object because of
high training expenses, as well as, high employee turnover. In such cases, to begin
with, all managers should be trained and they would train workers. This would cut
down on training expenses but would put pressure on the already over burdoned
managers.
Let us next have a look at the advantages of the training programme in terms of both-
458 employer and employee.
Advantages of the Training Programme Issue in Worker Safety
and Security
For the employer
1) labour turnover will be reduced,
2) employees will need lesser supervision,
3) increased food production,
4) need for skilled employees will be partly fulfilled,
5) working conditions will improve, and
6) reduction in cases of food borne illness.
For the employee
1) chances of advancement in position,
2) greater sense of security,
3) job satisfaction,
Being aware of the cost-factor of training programmes, as well as, its advantages, let
us now move on to understanding that who all among the employees must be
considered for training and why.

19.3.2 Who should be Trained?

For a food sanitation training programme to be successful, all employees should
be involved right from the job management down to the person doing the most menial
job.

Every person should understand the importance of his or her role in the overall
sanitation programme and how a simple act of carelessness on the part of one
employee can affect the health of a large number of people or wipe out the efforts
of other employees. For example, if cleaned, sanitized and properly stored glassware
is mishandled by the service personnel, the efforts of the dishwashing team would be
all in vain.

The basic principles underlying food sanitation should be made clear to all employees.
Only when a person understands the importance of following certain guidelines for
completing a job, will the task become interesting, it will also make the employee feel
responsible for the job.

Once the management has decided upon employees training, careful thought and
considerable action is required to carry it out. If the task of training a new employee
is given to an experienced but untrained older employee, the chances that the new
employee will pick up all work training is not enough, it needs to be implemented
continuously. Such training programmes need to be conducted all round the year, both
for new and experienced employees.
Now, let us see what a training programme must include.

19.3.3 What a Training Programme should Include?

The training programme should include issues related to personal, food and environmental
hygiene. Instructions and training material should be specifically related to the catering
industry. To make it interesting, posters on hygiene should be distributed free of cost
to all employees.

For a training programme to be really effective, it must be carefully planned, well

executed, continually monitored and evaluated.
Let us list down the steps in planning and implementing a training programme.

459
Entrepreneurship and Food Steps in Planning and Implementing a Training Programme
Service Management
The training programme should be planned after
1) listing the objectives of the programme,
2) preparing the content,
3) identifying the group,
4) selecting the trainer,
5) preparing or procuring training material,
6) planning the training schedule,
7) conducting the training,
8) motivating the trainees, and
9) evaluating the programme through written tests and actual performance.
Training workers in safe food practices will cost the management both time and
money, as workers and trainers will stay away from work for some time; learning
resources like films slides, posters and handouts have to be procured and a professional
trainer may also be needed. However, in the long run, this training is beneficial as it
helps cut down on:
1) losses incurred due to visibly spoiled food
2) loss of reputation on account of:
a) outbreak of food borne illness,
b) presence of hair, insect dropping or body parts or any other filth in food
served,
c) unhygienic service of food, and
d) dirty toilets.
3) financial loss if licence is suspended.
Most workers belong to the lower socioeconomic group and may have studied till
primary school only. They may have language problems and difficulties in reading and
writing. They usually have no formal training and for them chances of promotion are
bleak. Because of this ground, they do not understand the importance of sanitation.

Because of low chances of promotion, low pay scales, inconvenient long work hours,
working break shift or on holidays and the temporary nature of some jobs, the
employee turnover is high. There is a frequent need to train new employees about their
job. Training in sanitation should thus go on side by side and should begin as soon
as an employee joins duty.

An ideal situation would be one where it is mandatory for every food handler to
complete a course in sanitary food handling. This programme should be a continuous
one. But this may not always be feasible as some proprietors may object for a training
programme to be really effective; it must be carefully planned, well executed, continually
monitored and evaluated.

The managers should maintain a separate file for every employee and regularly record
performance, appearance, absenteeism, etc. Good records should be recognizes and
appreciated. If such systems are followed, it will encourage employees to practice good
work habits.
The next sub-section focuses on employment practices.

19.3.4 Employment Practice

For any employment, a certificate indicating state of general health, past medical
history and sometimes, result of medical examination is required by the management
prior to appointment. Employees handling food or working in the kitchen or dishwashing
460 area need to furnish additional information.
The information on past illness should be filled in by the health authority and the Issue in Worker Safety
questionnaire should be signed by the employee. Apart from the other information and Security
required, the questionnaire should record past history of typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery,
diarrhoea and tuberculosis. Any regarding boils, skin rash or discharge from eyes or
nose, etc, is to be noted. Place and date of visit abroad should also be noted.

The employee should be given to understand that this information is needed not only
to safeguard the customer but also to check whether the employee needs any special
treatment for his or her own protection. It should also be explained that rejection on
medical grounds is quite uncommon. After they are recruited, they will be medically
examined every six months.

Next, let us study about HACCP – a food safety control system that is used by many
food industries, you may be already aware of it. Let us read the following and refresh
our memory.

19.4 HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL

POINT (HACCP)
The provision of safe food to the customer is the responsibility of the management.
In order to ensure that food served is safe, it is necessary to establish a food safety
control system. The HACCP approach is one management technique that may be
useful to caterers. It is mainly used to guarantee microbiology safety of foods. A
detail review on HACCP– a food safety control system is already presented in the
Food Microbiology and Safety Course (MFN-003). Look up Unit 13 of the course
now.

You would recall studying that hazard analysis is the identification of all ingredients,
stages in process, environmental features and human factors that can lead to hazards
for the customer. The risks and likelihood of them occurring is estimated.

Critical control points (CCP) are the points at which control is essential to guarantee
that potential hazards do not become actual hazards. HACCP is a location, a practice,
procedure or a process which, if not controlled, could result in an unacceptable safety
risk. The term CCP draws attention to the fact that not all hazards are necessarily
critical to the safety of the end product.
Lets have a look at some of the examples of CCPs. Examples of CCPs include:
1) Inspection of goods on delivery and before use include temperature checks where
applicable.
2) Separate storage and handling of ingredients and the finished product.
3) Correct temperature ranges for refrigerated and frozen goods.
4) Cleaning procedures for equipment and utensils.
5) Cross contamination with other menu items in process.
6) Personnel hygiene and health standards.
Let us specifically learn about the use of HACCP in food service and/or catering.
Use of HACCP in Catering
The most important aspects to be considered are:
1) handling and storage procedures from delivery to service of the menu items,
2) holding times and temperature,
3) cooling times, and
4) personnel training.
461
Entrepreneurship and Food Now that we have refreshed our memories about food safety and control points, let
Service Management us discuss few aspects about work place safety.

19.5 WORK PLACE SAFETY

Food service establishments should be safe to work in. A safe and clean establishment
increases productivity and profits. Not only should customers be protected from food
borne illnesses, but in the interest of both customer and employees, premises should
be safe and it is the foremost duty of the management to ensure safety at the work
place.

Prevention of accidents and sanitation are closely related in the sense that accidents
may result in food contamination. The food service manager should realize that
accidents do not just happen, they are caused. They can very often be prevented from
happening by practicing proper work habits.

An accident can thus be defined as is an unintended event which results in injury,

loss or damage. It may or may not result from human error.

19.5.1 Why Accidents should be Prevented?

Accidents have a direct or indirect effect on individual and the establishment. Let us
have a look at what these effects are,
A) Direct effect of accidents
1) Injury: Accidents result in injury which can cause much pain and absenteeism
from work. Unattended wounds may become a source of infection. For the
uninjured workers and customers it creates tension and anxiety.
2) Expenditure: Accidents are expensive. Workers must be covered by medical
insurance through Employees State Insurance Scheme (ESIS) and disability
compensation is required for employees injured on the job.
Frequent accidents will result in additional expenditure to the management.
B) Indirect effect of accidents
1) Damaged or broken material.
2) Reduced efficiency, if area is accident-prone, workers try to avoid accidents
work slowly; other staff will be engaged in attending to the injured, cleaning
up the mess, doctors visits and investigations.
3) Work schedule and routine is upset: work is completed in hurry and hygienic
aspect tends to get overlooked in an attempt to just complete the job.
4) Injured workers may have to stay away from work and need to be replaced,
resulting in training of new employees or being staffed.
5) Accidents lower morale: frequent accidents indicate that management is not
concerned about the customers and employees welfare.
6) Accidents spoil reputation.
7) Accidents can result in fines or imprisonment: under the Occupational Safety
and Health Act, the food service operator may face legal action.
Next, let us find out how accidents take place.

19.5.2 How Accidents Take Place?

The Human Factor (The Careless, Negligent and Slack Food Handler) is the prime
suspect.

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In a vast majority of cases, it has been noticed that people are responsible for most Issue in Worker Safety
of the accidents as they are the ones who create unsafe conditions. They ignore wiring and Security
where insulation has worn off, leave cupboard doors and drawers open, block passages
with equipment, are not particular about protective clothing, leave spills on the floor
unmopped, and do not remove accumulated grease on filters.
They may be careless, for example:
1) Pick up broken glass with bare hands
2) Ignore operating instructions on equipment
3) Lift very heavy loads alone
4) Do not use safety devices on grinders and slicers
They may be inattentive, for example,
1) bump into other people,
2) drop heavy items or spill hot liquids on their own feet,
3) close doors and drawers on their own fingers and squash them,
4) rush with arms full and minds elsewhere on wet greasy floors,
Besides the human factor the work place may be unsafe as highlighted next.

The Unsafe Work Place

The layout be badly planned or conditions in the kitchen may be conducive to
unnecessary accidents. The unsafe work place may also be created by negligence on
part of the employees.
Unsafe surrounding are created by the following:
1) steep, narrow, dark stairways,
2) unnecessary steps,
3) clogged floor drains,
4) narrow aisles caused by furniture equipment wrongly arranged in heavy traffic
areas,
5) ladders to short to reach uppermost shelves so boxes are used instead,
6) unprotected meat slicer blades,
7) doors opening onto corridors,
8) knives left lying around, and
9) handles of pots and pans protruding onwards.
What are the types of accidents that might occur in food service establishments? Let
us have a look at them.

19.5.3 Types of Accidents

Accidents occurring in food service establishments are classified into the following
categories:
1) Cuts and lacerations
2) Burns and scalds
3) Falls and collisions
4) Fires
5) Electrical shock
6) Back strain
Let us discuss each of these briefly.
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Entrepreneurship and Food 1) Cuts and Lacerations: Cuts and lacerations are skin breaks caused by: (a) careless
Service Management handling of knives, food slicers, choppers, mixers, broken glass, etc. by untrained
employees during the rush hour, (b) by sharp edges of badly designed equipment,
and (c) by following incorrect practices such as catching knives as they fall,
leaving them in the dishwater, in sinks or washing them in the dishwashing
machine or using blunt knives which need a lot of pressure to cut with.

2) Burns and Scalds: Burns and scalds are the second most common accidents in
the kitchen. They results in injury of varying degrees of severity. They are caused
by contact with: (a) hot surfaces of grills, ovens, griddles, burners, etc. (b) hot
water or steam from boilers and steamers, (c) spillage or splashes from hot food
or drink, (d) hot fat from frying pans, woks, deep fat fryers and (e) by using
defective equipment like loose handles on utensils, faulty tongs. etc.

3) Fall and Collision: Workers are generally in a hurry during peak hours of
business, carrying things to and fro and items which can obstruct vision.

Workers may (a) slip and fall on floors made of slippery material – floors can be made
slippery because of grease, fruit and vegetables peels and water on the floor- or
workers footwear may have slippery soles, (b) fall from a height while trying to reach
for things – they may climb on unsafe boxes, chairs, shelves and rickety ladders (c)
collide with other people, equipment furniture, etc. damaging it, as well as, hurting
themselves or (d) trip and fall if shoe gets stuck in torn carpets or matting, fall over
a loose tile or hole in the floor, miss an unseen step, trip over trailing power cables.

Objects (a) stacked at a height or stored on a rickety shelf in a dangerous position

on the shelf may land on someone’s head, (b) objects precariously placed can be
dropped by clumsy people, or (c) objects placed in passageways may make people
trip and fall.

Falls and collisions result in bruises, bumps, sprains or fractures.

4) Fires: Maximum numbers of fires are reported from the food industry. They
damage buildings, equipment and provisions and result in death or injury to
people. Of all the fires occurring, one-third are of electrical origin caused by faulty
wiring, operation and placement of equipment, overloaded circuits, old worn-out
wiring, overheating and burning of motors due to insufficient ventilation.

Hot fat in deep fat-fryers reaches its flash point and bursts into flames. Grease
accumulated in filter traps on walls catches fire very fast.

Burning cigarette butts discard carelessly in trash or near inflammable material may
smolder unnoticed for hours before bursting into flames. A leak in the gas pipeline or
cylinder can cause serious fires. The severity of a fire is increased by:
1) inadequate fire protection equipment like extinguishers, blankets, alarms,
2) outdated fire extinguishers,
3) employees not trained in their use,
4) poor housekeeping practices,
5) over crowding, and
6) exits not clearly marked.
A large number of electrical gadgets are used nowadays. If these are not handled
carefully, they can seriously shock unwary users. Figure 19.1 depicts the various kinds
of fire and the relevant extinguisher that must be used.

464
 Issue in Worker Safety
KIND OF FIRE APPROVED TYPE OF EXTINGUISHER
and Security
Match up proper extinguisher with class of fire shown at left

A
A A A
B A

B
A
B B
C

B
C

Source: Adapted from National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health Chart

Figure 19.1: Approved type of extinguishers

Electrical appliances pose a hazard, if:

1) they are poorly maintained, wires are exposed, plugs are missing, etc.,
2) improperly earthed,
3) placed in damp or wet areas near the sink, on the drain board or handled with
wet hands, and
4) operator stand in a pool of water or without footwear.
Lifting heavy, awkward items alone or in a faulty position can injure the muscles of
the back and the spinal cord.

A vast majority of all accidents in food service establishments can be avoided by

practicing good habits and keen foresight on the part of all employees.

The food service managers should plan out work to be done to reduce haste. A well-
planned layout eliminates physical hazards. The entrance and exit should be clearly
marked and doors should be kept shut. The management should ensure that fire
extinguishers are provided in all areas where fires can occur and a well stocked first
aid box is available in an accessible area. At least some employees should be trained
in giving first aid.

Workers should be trained in good safety habits and constant supervision should be
provided to ensure safe working conditions and to eliminate faulty practices. Safe
working and good work habits go hand in hand. 465
Entrepreneurship and Food Some safe work habits are highlighted herewith.
Service Management
Safe working habits
1) Keep all surfaces clean and dry.
2) Mop up spills immediately.
3) Use protective clothing.
4) Follow operational instructions on equipment.
5) Keep appliances in good condition.
6) Check for earthing, cover glass bulbs with shields.
7) Avoid shortcuts to save time.
8) Work in well lit, well ventilated rooms.
9) Keep drawers and cupboards shut.
10) Report illness immediately.
11) Clean, treat and dress wounds with protective water poof dressing.
12) Practice personal hygiene.
Let us next move on to precautions that must be followed to prevent outbreak of
accidents.

19.5.4 Precautions to Prevent Accidents

To prevent accidents from happening, the following precautions should be taken:
1) Cuts and lacerations
a) While carrying a knife, hold the point down and keep the sharp edge away
from the body.
b) When cutting, use a chopping board, hold material correctly and cut away
from the body.
c) Sharpen knives when they become blunt. Blunt knives are more dangerous
as material slips away while cutting or more pressure needs to be used.
d) Do not catch a falling knife, move away, let it fall and then pick it up.
e) Knives should not be washed in the dishwasher or left soaking in detergent
solution in the dishwashing sink.
f) While chopping meat, do not rest your left/free hand on the meat block but
place hand behind the knife.
g) Do not cut frozen meat; the knife blade may slip.
h) Concentrate on your work and follow instructions while operating appliances.
i) Handle broken glassware with care.
j) Open tin cans with a cutter only, to prevent jagged edges. Do not open bottle
caps by putting it in the mouth.
k) Use proper shears for opening packets/boxes and not teeth or hands.
l) Use safety guards. For example if coconut scraper attached to wet masala
grinder is not in use, keep it covered.
m) Smoothen out and seal all sharp edges or rough corners on equipment.
n) Keep fingers out of mincing machine when in use.
2) Burns and scalds
a) Store highly inflammable material carefully.
b) Place equipment on a non-combustible base.
c) Do not bend over open flames.
d) Use protective clothing made of cotton or fire resistant material.
e) Use padded gloves or dry dusters to pick up hot items as wet or damp clothes
transmit heat faster and cause burns.
466
 f) Do not put frozen, wet items in the deep fat fryer. Issue in Worker Safety
and Security
g) Keep level of fat-in deep fat fryer not more than two-thirds full.
h) Check taps of all burns and boilers.
i) Train all employees on use of fire extinguishers, through fire drills.
j) Ensure that steam condenser pipes are kept free to prevent hot steam build-
up in equipment.
3) Falls and collisions
a) Provide adequate lighting.
b) Keep floors clean, dry and grease-free.
c) Mop up spills at once.
d) When mopping or polishing floors, put up sign boards.
e) On wet floors, use duckboards or non-skid mats.
f) Floors, flooring and stairs should be well maintained. Torn carpets, loose tiles,
broken floors, loose steps, loose electrical wires, or any other obstruction
should be attended to at once.
g) Matting and carpeting should be well laid.
h) Use a step-ladder which is tall enough to reach for material kept at a height.
i) Arrange all material to be stored at a height, safely on a sturdy shelf.
j) Keep traffic lines clean, dry and free from obstruction.
k) While carrying large items, do not let it block your view.
l) Have self-closing doors with transparent glass at eye level.
m) Take care of your head and prevent bad bumps while bending down and
getting again.
4) Shock
a) Place electrical appliances in a safe place.
b) Check earthing of all equipments.
c) Ensure proper wiring and installation. Change old, frayed wiring.
d) Use all safety devices provided.
e) Do not change blades of the mixer without switching off electricity.
f) Do not clean electrical appliances unless plug is removed from the socket.
g) Do not misuse appliances, follow the instructions given.
h) Allow skilled workers to operate complicated machinery.
i) Long loose hair or flowing clothing can get caught in equipment.
It is thus quite obvious that accidents occur because of two main reasons: (a) unsafe
conditions already existing in the surrounding which can be greatly minimized, and (b)
unsafe conditions created by the food handlers through ignorance, carelessness,
negligence and faulty habits which can be corrected through continuous supervision
and training.
Now in the last section of this unit we shall review sanitation regulations and standards.
But before that let us recapitulate what we have learnt so far. Answer the questions
included in the check your progress exercise 1.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) It is necessary for the employer to ensure good health and safe working
conditions for all employees. What measures should the employer observe for
the same?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
467
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management 2) All employees at the food service operation need good personal hygiene.
Elaborate on the statement giving examples.
...............................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) In the industry today, special attention needs to be focused on training all
employees. Discuss the significance of training workers.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

19.6 SANITATION REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS

Food quality, as you would have realized by now, is a major determinant of ensuring
patronage of any food service organization. A safe, wholesome food of excellent
quality ensures clientele and customer satisfaction providing maximum profits. In this
section, we shall look at the various standards that have been outlined to make sure
quality food is being served to customers. Also we shall look into the aspect of
adulteration what is it? How does it affect us? What are the laws and standards that
have been enforced to prevent malpractice of adulteration? You may recall reading
about the food regulations and standard in the Food Microbiology and Safety Course,
(MFN-003) in Unit 14. The concept of adulteration has also been covered in Unit 8
in the same course. It would be a good idea to supplement the information given here
in this unit with the detail review provided in Unit 8 and 14 of the MFN-003 course.
Let us then begin our study now.

19.6.1 Control of Food Quality

In our discussion so far we have focused on the personal hygiene, sanitary practices
and work place safety to ensure safe food to the customers. The next issue which
is important for food service operators is to have a good sound knowledge of all
legislations and regulations at the national and international level to ensure food safety.
Let us get to know about them. We begin with the food standards.

Food Standards
To protect people from health hazards because of adulteration, it is necessary to
impose control and check over the quality of food available to consumers. Standards
are yardsticks established by an authority for measuring quantity, weight or quality.
This system ensures that each food stuff is what it proposes to be or what its label
claims it to be and assures uniformity. National standards are set to safeguard the
consumers health and ensure fair food trade practices. In 1963, the FAO and WHO
established a commission for setting up international food standards.

Codex alimentarius are International standards set by FAO and WHO for all the
principal foods whether processed, semi-processed or raw. It includes standards
regarding food hygiene, food additives, pesticide residues, contaminants, labeling and
presentation and methods of analysis and sampling.

A codex standard may be accepted by a country entirely or with more stringent

requirements for trade and distribution of food within its territory. The Indian standards
are described herewith.
468
Indian Standards Issue in Worker Safety
and Security
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has been established
under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which is a consolidated statue related
to food safety and regulation in India. This act repealed all the other food acts/orders
existed in the system. You may recall reading about the following orders/acts:
• Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA), 1954
• Fruit Products Order, 1955
• Meat Food Products Order, 1973
• Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947
• Edible Oil Packaging (Regulation Order, 1988
• Solvent Extracted Oil, De-Oiled Meal and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967
• Milk and Milk Products order, 1992.
Now, FSSAI has laid down regulations known as Food Safety and Standards Regulations,
2011, that summed up all the food laws in a single boundary and has been called as
ONE NATION ONE FOOD LAW. These are enumerated herwith;
1) Food Safety and Standards (Food Products Standards and Food Additives)
Regulations, 2011: Different food product standards have been established under
this regulation for different parameters according to locality. For example, raw
buffalo’s milk in Delhi should contain 6% and 9% (minimum percent) milk fat
and milk solids not fat respectively. Likewise, different food products with
different designations (milk; raw, pasteurized, boiled, flavored, sterilized) have
been standardized. Also, the lowest possible levels of food additives in different
food products have been defined and all the food business operators shall confine
to these limits.

2) Food Safety and Standard (Packaging) Regulations, 2018: Whole list of type
of packaging material for different food products have been mentioned. Packaging
material should be hygienic, free from cuts, marks, pinholes etc. Newspaper or
any such material should not be used for food wrapping or storing. They have
also standardized the printing inks as it shall conform to IS: 15495 (Indian
Standard Printing Ink for Food Packaging)

3) Food Safety and Standards (Fortification of Foods) Regulations, 2018: Adding

micronutrients to the food can serve the purpose of improving food quality or
nutritional status by correcting or reducing one or more deficiency state of
population of a specific group. FSSAI has made it mandatory that every
manufacturer who is fortifying any food item shall give an undertaking of quality
assurance of that particular food along with steps followed in fortification. The
authority has also laid down all the parameters and limits for specific nutrients
to be added in a food product.

For example, levels and source of nutrients for fortified salt, fortified oils, fortified
milk, fortified wheat flour, fortified refined flour and fortified rice is given in
document which you may refer for further information from the link given at the
end of this section. You may also refer to Unit 12 MFN-006; Public Nutrition;
for food fortification.

4) Food Safety and Standards (Organic food) Regulations, 2017: A manufacturer

cannot manufacture, sale, offer for sale, pack, sell, market or import any organic
food product without following the requirements laid down in this regulation.
According to FSSAI, all the organic food products advanced for sale shall follow
all the applicable provisions of any of the systems/programmes made for organic
food products notified by food authority from time to time. Some examples of
such programmes are National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) and
469
Entrepreneurship and Food Participatory Guarantee System for India (PGS-India). Apart from this labeling
Service Management of organic foods shall carry a certification mark of any of above mentioned
system along with organic logo of Food Safety and Standard Authority.

5) Food Safety and Standards (Food or Health Supplements, Nutraceuticals,

Food for Special Dietary Purpose, Functional Food and Novel Food)
Regulation, 2016: This regulation has specified all the rules, provisions or limits
of specific product need to be taken care of in manufacturing health supplements,
nutraceuticals or functional foods. It is mentioned that all the capsules, tablets or
syrups shall comply with the quality standards and requirements as specified in
Indian Pharmacopoeia, British Pharmacopoeia or United States Pharmacopoeia.
(A Pharmacopoeia is an official published catalogue that contains list of medicinal
drugs along with their effects and directions of use). Apart from this, an important
consideration is whatever the quantity of nutrient is added to the food should be
in accordance to recommended dietary allowances given by Indian Council of
Medical Research, if not specified by international food standards body; Codex
Alimentarius Commission.

6) Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition and Restriction of sale) Regulation,

2011: FSSAI has prohibited or restricted some food articles which can pose
adverse health effects for the benefit of the population. For example, they have
put a restriction on the sale of Khesari Dal or Lathyrus sativus and their
products. It has also prohibited the sale of skimmed milk as only “milk”, curd
or dahi which is not prepared from boiled, pasteurized or sterilized milk, milk with
added water, turmeric containing any added foreign substance, mixture of two or
more edible oils as “an edible oil” and many more.
7) Food Safety and Standards (Contaminants, toxins and residues) Regulation,
2011: According to this regulation, FSSAI has explained the limits of all the toxins,
residues, metal contaminants and insecticides/pesticides to be used for specific
food product. For example, arsenic (metal contaminant) should not exceed by 0.1
parts per million (ppm) by weight in milk; aflatoxin (a crop contaminant) should
have a limit of 30µg/kg in any food article; and tolerance limit of D.D.T.
(insecticide) in carbonated water is 0.001 mg/kg.ppm.
8) Food Safety and Standards (Import) Regulation, 2017: There are so many
food products which are imported to India and it is important to check these
products thoroughly to prevent any health hazards. Therefore, no person shall
import any food article without import license from central licensing authority.
Refer to Unit 2, section 2.5.2 for details of central licensing authority. Shelf life
of products should be at least 60% at the time of import.
9) Food Safety and Standards (Alcoholic Beverages) Regulation, 2018: FSSAI
has recommended the limits of alcohol content in different types of alcoholic
beverages as whiskey, rum, fenny, perry, fruit wine, beer, brandy etc.
10) Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and Registration of Food Business)
Regulation, 2011: All the small scale food business operators have to register
themselves and all large scale food business operators need to obtain a valid
license under FSSAI, according to this regulation. Details of this regulation have
already been discussed in Unit 2, section 2.5 of this book. You may refer to these
regulations.
In addition to above mentioned regulations, there are some more regulations for
laboratory and sampling analysis, food recall procedure, approval for non-specified
food and food ingredient, food safety auditing, advertising and claims and lastly,
recognition and notification of laboratories. You may refer to link https://www.fssai.gov.in/
cms/food-safety-and-standards-regulations.php or visit FSSAI official website for more
detailed information of all the regulations.
470
Now that we have studied “Regulations laid down by FSSAI”, let us move towards Issue in Worker Safety
the voluntary standards. and Security

b) Voluntary Standards
Under voluntary standards too, we have a set of food standards. These include BIS
and AGMARK, you surely would have heard about them or perhaps even learnt about
them. Let us look at them.
1) Bureau of India Standards(BIS): The BIS has formulated Indian standards for
processed foods with respect to raw material, hygiene, packing and labeling.
Manufacturers who comply with the standards laid down by BIS can obtain Indian
Standards Institute (ISI) mark. However, certain items like additives, food colours,
vanaspati, milk powder, condensed milk and packaging containers need compulsory
certification.
2) Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marketing) Act 1937 (Agmark): Agmark
provides standards for grading and marking agriculture commodities. The consumer
is assured of the quality as per standards laid down. The standards/grades are
based on physical and chemical characteristics, intrinsic and acquired during
processing or otherwise. Agricultural and allied commodities are graded 1,2,3, and
4 or Special, Good, Fair and Ordinary.
Manufacturers who comply with the standards laid down by Directorate of
Marketing and Inspection, put an Agmark label on their product. Complying with
these standards is not compulsory.
Let us briefly review what do we mean by adulteration and misbranding and what are
its economic and health related implication on consumers.

19.6.2 Adulteration and Misbranding

Adulteration of food consist of a large number of practices such as mixing other food
or non-food items, substitution, extraction, concealing the quality, selling decomposed
food, misbranding or giving false information on the labels and addition of poisonous
or toxic substances to food.
Food adulteration has an economic significance and with increasing prices, the
unscrupulous traders indulge in adulteration to exploit people. Some forms of adulteration
are injurious to health, for example, addition of argemone oil to mustard oil. The
consumer looks for dealers who supply food at a lower rate, ignorant of the fact that
the cheaper substitute may be adulterated. The consumer may be attracted by apparent
improvements in colour, taste and aroma caused by using compounds which are
banned by law. Consumption of adulterated food leads to ill health and food poisoning.
A food is said to be adulterated if it has any ingredient which is injurious to health.
A food is said to be adulterated if :
1) It contains any poisonous or deleterious substance which may render it injurious
to health (unless naturally present in less than harmful level).
2) It bears or contains any added poisonous or added deleterious substance which
is unsafe.
3) It contains in while or in part any filthy, putrid or decomposed substance, or if
it is otherwise unfit for consumption.
4) It has been prepared, packed or held under unsanitary conditions.
5) It is, in whole or in part, the product of a diseased animal or of an animal which
has died otherwise than by slaughter.
6) If its container is composed, in while or in part, of any poisonous or deleterious
substance which may render the contents injurious to health.
471
Entrepreneurship and Food Some simple tests for detecting common adulterants in food are summarized in
Service Management Table 19.2.
Table 19.2: Some simple tests for detecting common adulterants in food
Sl. Food Stuff Adulterant Test
No.
1) Asafoetida Scented and coloured Pure asafoetida dissolves in water to
resin or gum form a milky white solution.
2) Bajra Grains infested with Infested grains will have an off taste
ergot fungus and will float on water.
3) Betelnut power Saw dust and artificial Saw dust will float in water and added
(supari) colour colour will dissolve in water.
4) Bura sugar Washing soda Gives effervescence with hydrochloric
acid if washing soda is present; if
dissolved in water, soda will turn red
litmus blue.
5) Cardamom Essential oil is Talcum can be rubbed off the pods; on
removed and pods tasting, if there is hardly any aromatic
are coated with flavour, it indicates removal of
talcum power essential oil.
6) Chilli powder Saw dust and Saw dust will float in water and added
artificial colour colour will dissolve in water.
7. Cinnamon Cassia bark Thick bark with less aroma than pure
cinnamon, which is thin, shows
adulteration.
8. Cloves Oil may be removed If oil is removed, cloves appear
shrunken in appearance.
9. Coconut Any other oil Refrigerate oil in a bottle. Pure
coconut oil solidifies leaving the
adulterant as a separate layer.
10) Coffee Chicory Shake a small sample in cold water,
coffee will float while chicory will
sink and stain the water brownish.
11) Coriander power Powdered horse dung When powder is soaked in water, horse
dung will flat.
12) Cumin seeds Grass seeds coloured If rubbed in hands, finger will turn
with charcoal dust black.
13) Edible oil Argemone A reddish brown precipitate is formed
when oil and hydrochloric acid are
gently mixed with ferric chloride
solution if argemone is present.
14) Ghee (pure) Vanaspati Dissolve a large pinch of cane sugar
in 10 ml concentrated hydrochloric
acid. Add 10 ml of melted ghee and
shake thoroughly for two minutes.
Allow it to stand for 10 minutes. If
vanaspati is present, aqueous layer will
turn red.
15) Groundnut Oil Cotton seed oil Mix 2.5 ml of oil/fat with 2.5 ml
Halphens reagent. Lightly screw cap
and heat in boiling water for 30
minutes. The test is positive if a rose
colour is obtained.
16) Mustard seeds Argemone seeds Visual examination, small black seeds
resembling mustard but not uniformly
smooth or round are visible under a
472 magnifying glass.
 Issue in Worker Safety
17) Peppercorns Dried papaya seeds Visual examination and Security
18) Pulses (whole) Insects, larvae Grains float on water and unpleasant
odour and taste is seen.
19) Pulses (split Kesari dal and metanil Visual examination reveals wedge
and dehusked) yellow shaped dal and on addition of
concentrated hydrochloric acid, yellow
dal turns magenta red.
20) Saffron Dried, coloured and Genuine saffron is tough. Maize fibres
scented maize fibres break easily and dissolve in water
giving instant aroma of saffron.
21) Sago Sand and talcum Gritty feel in mouth; pure sago swells
on burning leaving very little ash.
22) Semolina Iron filings Pass magnet through semolina. Iron
filings will cling to it.
23) Tea dust Used tea leaves which Sprinkle dust on wet white filter paper.
have been dried Spots of yellow; pink and red appearing
powdered and coloured on paper
indicate artificial colouring.
24) Turmeric powder Metanil yellow If metanil yellow is present, a magenta
colouring colour develops when conc. HCl is
added to a solution of turmeric powder.

Apart from this, Food Safety and Standards (Food Product Standards and Food
additives) Regulations, 2011, gave a whole list of amount of desired moisture, milk
fat, solids not fat, micronutrients in infant formulas, along with their recommended
sources, according to locality. Regulations have also mentioned the following criteria:
• What should be the texture of a food article?
• How a food article should be packed?
• What should be the source of a particular nutrient?
• Definitions of food articles, example srikhand.
• Designations of a food article, for example: full fat milk, skimmed milk, toned
milk, double toned milk.
Now, can you suggest what measures can we adopt to prevent food adulteration.
Prepare a list and tally your responses with the list presented herewith.
Prevention of Food Adulteration
1) Purchase food from authorized dealers only. Children should be discouraged from
purchasing sweets, kulfis and ice creams from hawkers as they are likely to
contain harmful colour and artificial sweeteners.
2) Before purchasing processed food items like masala powders, canned foods,
bottled preserves, etc. check the expiry date and Agmark/ISI mark/ FPO licence.
3) Always ask for a cash or credit memo for all purchase. It helps the consumer
in filing a complaint, if necessary.
4) Destroy labels on empty tins, cartons and bottles before selling them to scrap
dealers as they are likely to be misused for repacking spurious and adulterated
food stuffs.
5) Keep drugs, preservatives and detergents away from food stuffs to prevent
accidental adulteration.
6) Always purchase food articles in sealed, intact packages.
7) Insist on Agmark, ISI mark or FPO licence.
473
Entrepreneurship and Food In our discussion so far we have reviewed adulteration and specified the measures
Service Management which can be adopted to prevent adulteration. Now let us also understand what we
mean by the term misbranding.

Misbranding: A food is misbranded if its labeling is false or misleading in any

particular. A food is deemed to be misbranded if it contains a chemical preservative,
which is not stated on the label. The term chemical preservative means any chemical
which, when added to food, tends to prevent or retard deterioration but does not
include common salt, sugar, vinegar, spices or oils extracted from spices or substances
added by wood smoke.
With this we end our study of issues in worker safety and security.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) What do the following abbreviations stand for:
a) UHTS: ..................................................................................................
b) HACCP: ................................................................................................
c) FSSAI: ..................................................................................................
2) Design an effective training programme for cooks and service personnel
working in a A grade restaurant.
................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Differentiate between adulteration and misbranding giving examples.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

19.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learnt about the issues linked to worker safety and security. We learnt
that personal hygiene and good sanitary practices are necessary for everybody but
more so for the food handler because the health and well-being of hundreds of people
is in her/his hand. In this context, therefore, the various hygiene and sanitary measures
to be adopted by the workers were enumerated. The role of safe work place was
further highlighted. The presence of pests, their body parts or droppings in food served
will not only result in contamination and spread in disease but can ruin the reputation
of any catering establishment. This aspect was emphasized in the discussion on pest
control.

Further the unit focused on sanitation training and education. It is the duty of the
management to train all employees, directly or indirectly concerned with food, in safe
food practices. It should keep a check on training is implemented. All programmes
must be monitored and evaluated.

To control food quality, and to prevent adulteration and misbranding of food various
standards have been laid down for different commodities. This was finally presented
in the unit. The legislation that most directly affects the food handler is the PFA Act
1954 and Rules 1955 which have been modified and updated from time to time.

474
 Issue in Worker Safety
19.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS and Security
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Refer to sub-section 19.2.2, which presents the measures necessary for the
employer to ensure good health and safe working conditions for all employees.
Read the measures carefully and write the answer on your own.
2) All employees at the food service operation need good personal hygiene. Personal
hygiene refers to all conditions and measures necessary to ensure the cleanliness
of a person’s clothes and body. These measures are elaborated in sub-section
19.2.2. Read these measures and write the answer in your own words giving
examples.
3) Training of workers is necessary for the following reasons:
• The incidence of food borne illness is on the rise.
• It is the legal responsibility of the management to serve clean, wholesome
food.
• Most of the employees have no formal training either before or at the time
of recruitment and have picked up the job from an older worker to whom
they have been assigned.
• In this industry, the labour turnover rate, as well as, job change rate is very
high.
• Very few establishments have an inbuilt, well-structured sanitation programme.
• Professionally trained food service personnel are not available or do not have
the time in their job.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) a) Food Product Order
b) Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
c) Food Safety and Standard Authority of India
2) Answer the question based on your understanding of the topic.
3) Adulteration of food consist of a large number of practices such as mixing other
food or non-food items., substitution, extraction, concealing the quality, selling
decomposed food, misbranding or giving false information on the labels and
addition of poisonous or toxic substances to food. A food is misbranded if its
labeling is false or misleading in any particular aspect.

475
Entrepreneurship and Food
Service Management SUGGESTED READINGS
Athreya M.(2002). Be a team player for high total productivity. Productivity News.
Jan-April.
Bhat, Ramesh V. and Rao, Nageswara. Food Safety.Bangalore Printing and Publishing
Co., Bangalore. 1997.
Borgstrom, Georg. Principles of Food Science. Vol.2. The Macmillan Co. New York.
1968.
Cichy, Ronald F. Quality Sanitation and Management. Educational Institute of the
American Hotel and Motel Association. USA. 1994.
Davis, Keith. Human Behavior at Work, 4th ed. McGraw – Hill; New York. 1972.
Drucker, Peter F. ThePractice of Management. Harper and Brothers: New York. 1954.
Fiedler, A. Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. In Koontz et al. p. 435.
Ghiselli, E.E. Managerial Talent. In Koontz et al. p 425.
Katz D. and Kahn R.H. (1975). The Social Psychology of Organizations. John Wiley,
New York.
Kumar, Niraj. Management Communication Today. Classical Publishing Company:
New Delhi. 1998.
Koontz, H., O’Donnel, C. and Weihrich, H. Essentials of Management. 3rd ed. Tata
McGraw Hill Publishers: New Delhi. 1982.
Lal, J. Leadership styles and decision making. Indian Management. December, 1983.
Likert, R. Human Organisation. McGraw –Hill : New York. 1967.
McGregor, D. (1960). The Human side of Enterprise. McGraw Hill, New York.
Sethi M. and Malhan S. (1993). Catering Management- an integrated approach. 2nd
Ed. New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
Sethi M. (2004). Institutional Food Management. New Age International Publishers,
New Delhi.
Stogdill, R.M. Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research. The Free
Press: New York. 1974.
Terry G. R. (1972). Principles of Management. 6th Ed. Irwin Dorsey International,
London.
Journal.
Clean and Hygiene Review.

476
 Annexure-1 Issue in Worker Safety
and Security

Form ‘A’

Application for Registration/Renewal of Registration under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006

Kind of business:
Permanent/Temporary Stall holder
Hawker (Itinerant/Mobile Food Vendor))
Home based canteens/dabba wallas
Petty Retailer of snacks/tea shops
Photograph of
the Applicant Manufacturer/Processor
Re Packer
Food stalls/arrangements in Religious gatherings, fairs etc.
Milk producers (who are not member of dairy co-operative society)/milk vendor
Dhaba
Fish/meat/poultry shop/seller
Other(s), please specify: ...............................................................................................
a) Name of the Applicant/Company: ……………………………….......................................................................
b) Designation
Individual
Partner
Proprietor
Secretary of dairy co-operative society
Others (Please specify)
c) Proof of Identity of application ...............................................................................................................................
[Note: Please submit a copy fo photo ID like Driving License, Passport, Ration Card or Election ID card]
d) Correspondence address : ..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................
Tel.No ................................................. Mobile No. ....................................................................................................
Fax No.: .............................................. Email : ..........................................................................................................
[Note: In case the number(s) are a PP or common number(s), please specify the name of the contact person as well]
e) Area of Location where food business is to be conducted/Address of the premises ..........................................
...........................................................................................................................................................................................
f) Description of the food items proposed to be Manufactured or sold:
...........................................................................................................................................................................................

S.No. Name of Food category Quanity in Kg per day or M.T. per annum

Please attach separate sheet if required

477
g) Total Annual turnover from the food business, if existing alongwith any supporting
document(s) showing proof of income (*In case of renewal) .........................................

.................................................................................................................................................

h) In case of new business - intended date of start : ..........................................................

i) In case of seasonal business, state the opening and closing period of the year: .........

j) Source of water supply

Public supply Private supply Any other source

k) Whether any electric power is used in manufacturing of the food items:

Yes

No
If yes, please state the exact HP used or sanctioned Electricity load: …………………

l) I/We have forwarded a sum of Rs. .................................. towards registration fees

according to the provision of the Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and Registration)
Regulation, 2011 vide:

Demand Draft No. (Payable to ............................................)

Cash

(Signature of the Applicant)

 Annexure-2

Form ‘B’
Application for License/Renewal of license under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006
Kind of business (Please tick more than one, if applicable):
Manufacturing/Processing including sorting, grading etc.
Milk Collection/chilling
Slaughter House
Solvent extracting unit
Solvent extracting plant equipped with pre cleaning of oil seeds or pre expelling of oil
Solvent extracting and oil refining plant.
Packaging
Relabeling (manufactured by third party under own packing and labeling)
Importing
Storage/Warehouse/Cold Storage
Retail Trade
Wholesale Trade
Distributor/Supplier
Transporter of food
Catering
Dhabha or any other food vending establishment
Club/canteen
Hotel
Restaurant
Other(s), please specify: ....................................................................................................................
1. Name of the Company/Organization: ...................................................................................................
2. Registered Office Address : ....................................................................................................................
3. Address of Premise for which license is being applied .......................................................................
4. Name and/or designation, qualification and address of technically qualified person in charge of
operations as required under Regulation ..................................................................................................
Name :
Qualification:
Address:
Telepnone Number(s)
Mobile No.:
Email:
Photo Identy card no and expiry date :
5. Name and/or designation, address and contact details of person responsible for complying with
conditions of license (if different from 4 above).
Name:
Address:
Telephone Number(s)
Mobile No.
Email:
Photo Identity card no and expiry dae
6- Correspondence address (if different from 3 above)
7 Tel.No ................................................. Mobile No. ...................................................................
Fax No.: .............................................. Email : ..........................................................................
8. Food items proposed to be manufactured:

S.No. Name of Food item Quantity in Kg per day or M.T. per annum

If required attach separate sheet

If already having valid license-mention annual quantity of each food category manufactured during last
three years
9. Installed Capacity food product wise (per day) ……………………………..
10. For Dairy units
i) Location and installed capacity of Milk Chilling Centers (MCC)/Bulk Milk Cooling Centers (BMCs)/
Milk Processing Unit/Milk Packaging Unit in litres owned or managed by the applicant.

S.No. Name of Food Item Quantity in Kg per day or M.T. Per annum

If required attach separate sheet

ii) Average Quantity of milk per day to be used/handled in
a. In lean season …………………………………………
b. In flush season ……………………………………………………..
iii) Milk products to be manufactured and their manufacturing capacity (tones/year)
1) …………………………………..
2) ………………………………..
3) …………………………………
11. For Solvent Extracted Oil, De oiled meal and Edible Flour
i) Details of proposed business
Name of From seed Solvent-Extracted Oil, De oiled meal and Edible Flour Vegetable
Oil bearing or nut or Crude Neutralized Neutrilized Refined De Oiled Edible Oil
material cake & Bleached Meal Flour

If already having valid license-mention annual quantity of each product manufactured during last three years
ii) Name and address of factory or factories used by the miller or solvent extractor for processing oil bearing
material produced or procured by him, or for refining solvent extracted oil produced by him.
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
12. Sanctioned electricity load or HP to be used ...................................................................................................
13. Whether unit is equipped with an analytical laboratory ..................................................................................
If yes the details thereof: ....................................................................................................................................
14. In case of renewal or transfer of license granted under other laws as per provision to Regulation 5(1)*
– period for which license required (1 to 5 years): .....................
15. I/We have forwarded a sum of Rs. .................................................... towards License fees according to the
provision of the Food Safety and Standards Regulations, 2011 vide.
Demand Draft No. (payable to …………………………………..)
(Signature of the application/authorized signatory)
*Refer to FSSAI website for regulation 5(1)