GLASS BLOWING

Objectives

State the various types of glass

Explain the glassblowing technology
Explain the characteristic of a given type of glass
Make simple glass apparatus
Describe the use and maintenance of a given glassblowing tool and equipment
Historical background

The glass articles were being made by pouring molten glass in successive layers over a core, until
sufficient thickness and rigidity had been attained in the product, which was a cup-shaped vessel. This
pouring technique was used until around 200B.C when simple tools were developed, e.g. the blowpipe
that revolutionized the glass working.

The glassblowing was first accomplished in Babylon and later by Romans.

It was performed using an Iron tube, several feet long, with a mouthpiece on one end and a fixture for
holding the molten glass on the other.

A blob of molten glass in the initial required shape and viscosity was attached to the end of the iron
tube, and then blown into shape by an artisan, either freely in the air or onto a mold cavity, other simple
tools were used to add the stem and/or base to the object.

The art of glassblowing is still practiced to date.

Tools and equipment of glassblowing technology

Bunsen burner

This includes flame spreader and fish-tail; they provide heat or flame to the glass being acted on.

Annealing oven or lehr

Used for annealing newly made glass items or products

Diamond glass-cutter

Used to cut glass tubes, rods and plates or sheets the glasses should have a diameter of 15mm or less.

Cane

Is a cross-section of glass made by pulling and stretching molten glass from both ends. Cold-working

Any work, grinding, surfacing or drilling that is done on the glass

That has been finished after annealing process is completed.

Jack

A tool shaped like a huge tweezers used to manipulate hot glass.

Lear/lehr

A gigantic oven that is computer controlled used to relieve stress from glass during annealing process.

Marver

A flat steel plate or slab that is used for shaping of molten glass on the end of blowpipe by a rolling
action

Necking

Reducing an end of blown glass to form a bottle neck

Parison

The first small bubble of molten glass at the end of the of blowpipe

Sodium flare

Is the bright light that is given off due to the reaction of O2which flame and the sodium of glass

in a kiln. This flare can damage the workers eyes

Lathe

Used to cut glass tubes whose diameter is more 15mm

Flaring tool and carbon rod

Is used for widening the diameter of one end of glass tube

Triangular file

Used to cut tubes whose diameter is 10mm and below

Carbon plate and asbestos plate

Used for flattening and smothering hot glass items

Goggles

Used when working and looking directly at the glass being heated.

Requirements for glassblowing room

The walls should be painted green or some other suitable color, which enables the burner flame to be
seen easily

The room should have a high ceiling; this will assist in ventilation and allows heat, water vapor and gases
produced by burners to escape.

The ventilators should be placed high up.

Enough light should be available but direct sunlight rays into the room should be avoided

The windows should be arranged such that the glassblower does not face them directly.

Light through the windows in relation to the operator should enter from behind or at right angle

Overall illumination intensity in the room should not be too high, as it will mask the burner flame.

A fume chamber should be designed and fitted in the room to permit the use of hydrofluoric acid.

Artificial light is required and fluorescent lighting is best.

A metallic rubbish box raised off the floor level is necessary to allow hot pieces of glass be discarded
easily.

The floor should be of wooden blocks

Adequate electrical socket should be provided for drills cutters and grinders.

Enough supply of fuel gas a supply of O2 cylinders and compressed air is necessary.

GLASS

It is an inorganic product of fusion that has cooled into a rigid condition without crystallization.

It is an amorphous solid having a structure of a liquid. All glasses contain at least 50% silica, also known
as a glass former. The composition and properties except their strength can be altered by the addition of
oxides of Aluminum, Calcium,Sodium,Barium ,Boron, Magnesium, Titanium, Lithium, Lead and
potassium.

Depending on their function, these oxides are known as intermediate or modifiers

Glasses are generally resistant to chemical attack. They are ranked according to corrosion by acid, alkalis
or water.

Silica is the best glass former, it transforms into a solid state upon cooling from the liquid i.e.it does not
crystallize upon solidification.

The additional ingredients are contained in a solid solution with SiO2 and each has a function

Acting as a flux, promoting fusionduring e.g. Na2CO2, Lime & Borax

Increasing fluidity in the molten glass for processing e.g. Na2CO3

Reducing thermal expansion in the final product e.g.borax

Retarding devitrification i.e tendency to of molten glass to crystallize from glassy state on

cooling

Improving the chemical resistance against attack by acids, alkali and water e.g boric oxide B2O3

Adding colour to glass

Altering the refractive index for optical appreciation in lensese.g addition of boric oxide

Causes of devitrification in glasses

Devitrification is commonly known as devit. It is caused by:

 Holding the glass at high temperature for too long which causes nucleation of crystals

 The presence of foreign residues e.g. dust on the surface of glass

 High lime content

 Slow cooling of hot glass

Techniques of avoiding devitrification

 Cleaning of glass surface of dust or unwanted residues

 Allowing rapid cooling once the glass reaches the desired temperature, until the

temperature reaches the annealing temperature

 Apply the devit spray to the surface of glass before firing

To remove devit on the surface of glass

 Apply the devit spray and refire the glass item

 Sand blasting the glass surface

 Soaking the glass in acid bath

 Polish the surface to a pumice stone

 Use a rotary brush to brush the glass surface

Bloom
This is the formation of oxides during the heating of glass. This oxide includes Sodium or

Calcium carbonates. The oxides may be formed of the glass surface and can be removed by

wiping out, hence referred to as temporal bloom. The oxides maybe formed within the glass

material and cannot be removed hence referred to as permanent bloom.

TYPES OF GLASSES

This includes:

 Soft glass

 Hard glass

This classification is based on the thermal property rather than mechanical property, a soft glass

softens at a lower temperature than a hard glass e.g. soda-lime and lead alkali are soft glasses

while borosilicate is a hard glass. Laboratory glass is usually made from hard glass.

Categories of glasses

 Soda-lime glass

 Lead- alkali

 Borosilicate

 Aluminosilicate

 98% silica glass

 Fused silica glass

Glasses can also be classified as coloured,opaque,optical,photochromatic and photosensitive

Soda-lime glass

It constitutes 98% of all manufactured glass. It is used for containers of all kinds, it melts at

relatively low temperature, they are sufficiently viscous, that they do not devitrify and yet they

are not too viscous to be workable at reasonable temperature.

Addition of highcontent of alumina and lime and reducing the alkali (soda) content produces a

glass with high melting temperature and one which is more chemically resistant.
Lead alkali

It contains 18-40% lead II oxide, is made by substituting lead oxide with CaO in glass.

The glass is used for optical work because of high refractive index and dispersion of light

This glass is also good for shielding from nuclear radiation and X-rays.

They are used to make light bulbs neon signs tubing e.t.c

Addition of lead oxide to glass raises its refractive index and lowers its working temperature and

viscosity

The high atomic number of lead also raises the density of the material

Lead glasses also have high electrical resistance twice that of soda-lime glass, hence leadcontent

glass is frequently used in light fixtures.

Borosilicate glass

This glass has the following properties;

 A low coefficient of thermal expansion

 High resistance to shock

 Excellent chemical resistance

 High electrical resistance

The borosilicate glass is used in;

 For laboratory ware

 High tension insulators

 Telescopic lenses

 Disposal of radioactive material

The laboratory ware is classified into three main types

 Soda glass

 Borosilicate glass

 Resistant glass or aluminosilicate glass

Fused silica glass

It is made by high temperature pyrosis (thermal decomposition or melting)of silicon tetrachloride

or fusion of pure sand which consists of quartz crystals.

This glass has low expansion i.e a near zero coefficient of expansion and has a high softening

temperature which gives it a high thermal resistance. This allows it to be used beyond the

temperature ranges of other glasses.

The glass is also very transparent to ultraviolet radiation than any other glass material.

Application

 UV-quality quartz glass component

 High temperature applications

 Quartz glass cover slips

 UV measurement technology

 Quartz glass microscope slides

 Space technology

RAW MATERIAL, PREPARATION & MELTING OF GLASS

The major component in all glasses in silica which is obtained from quartz in sand. The sand is

washed and classified; washing removes impurities such as clay and other minerals that would

cause colouring of the glass.

Classification of sand means grouping the sand according to the grain size. The most appropriate

particle size for glass making is in the the range of 0.1-0.6mm.

The other component such as soda, lime aluminum oxide potash K2O and minerals are added in

the correct proportion to achieve the desired composition.

Mixing is usually done in batches; in amounts that are in compatible with capacity of the melting

furnace Recycled glass is usually added to the mixture. This facilitates the melting. The batch for

starting materials to be melted is known as charge and the method of it into the furnace is termed
as charging the furnace.

Glass furnaces can be categorized into four types.

Pot furnaces

This is a ceramic pot of limited capacity in which melting occurs by heating the walls of the pot.

Day tank

These are large capacity a vessel, hence heating is done by burning the fuels above the charge.

Continuous tank furnace

These are long furnaces in whichraw material are feed in at one end and melted as they move at

the other end, where the molten glass is drawn out to make glass articles.

Electric furnace

There are varies designs for a wide range of production rates. It is an emission free method of

melting glass. It has the lowest CO2 emission on site.

Glass melting is usually carried out at temperatures of between 15000

c- 16000

c.

The melting cycle for typical charge takes about 24-48 hours. This is thetime required for all the

sand grains to become clear liquid and the molten glass to be refined and cooled to the

appropriate temperature for working.

Molten glass appear as a red-hot viscous syrup, since the shaping operations follows immediately

the melting cycles, the temperature at which the glass is tapped from the furnace depends on the

viscosity required for the subsequent processes.

Glass products

Soda-lime glass (window glass)

Is made by mixing soda (Na2O), lime (CaO), with silica (SiO2) as the major ingredients.

The mixing of ingredients is done in such a way in order to achieve a balance between avoiding
crystallization during cooling and achieving chemical durability of the final product.

Magnesia is added to reduce devitrification.

Container glass

The proportion of lime and soda differ from that of window glass. Lime improves fluidity but it

increases devitrification but since cooling is rapid today, this effect is not as important as in

olden day when processing techniques during cooling was slower.

Reducing soda increases chemical stability and reduces solubility of the containers glass.

Light bulb glass

Is high in soda and lower in lime, it contains small amounts of MgO and alumina Al2O3

Laboratory glassware

This includes flasks, beakers, glass tubing e.t.c the glass must be resistant to chemical attack and thermal
shock. Glass that is high in silica is suitable because of its low thermal expansion. This product is very
insoluble in water and acids.

The addition of boric acid (B2 O3) hence borosilicateglass produces a glass with low coefficient of
thermal expansion.

Further addition of alumina hence aluminoborosilicate glass reduces further the coefficient of thermal
expansion and chemical resistance.

Processes used in glass making

Blowing process is used to make hollow thin walled glass items such as bottles and flasks.

Blown air expands a hollow gob of heated glass against the walls of the mold. The molds are usually
coated with a parting agent such as oil or emulsion, to prevent the glass from sticking to the mold.

Pressing

A glob of molten glass is placed into mold and pressed into shape with the use of a plunger. After being
pressed the solidifying glass acquires the shape of the plunger-mold cavity. The products are relatively
flat e.g dishes. The products have a higher dimensional accuracy than those obtained by blowing
Centrifugal casting or spinning. Here the centrifugal force pushes the molten glass against the wall of the
mold where it solidifies forming a funnel shaped components e.g T.V picture tubes and computer
monitors. A gob of molten glass is dropped onto a conical mold made of steel. The mold is rotated so
that the centrifugal force causes the glass to flow upwards and spread itself on the mold surface.

Sagging process
It is used to make shallow dish-shaped glass parts e.g. sunglasses lenses and telescopic mirrors.

A sheet of glass is placed over a mold and heated; the glass sags by its own weight and takes the shape
of a mold.

Heat treatment and finishing

Glass products have undesirable internal stresses after forming which reduces their strength.

Strain and stress are internal tensions that occur within the glass material. Annealing is done to relieve
these stresses.

Annealing is done in an annealing oven called LEHR. A lehr consists of a heated chamber in which the
rate of cooling can be controlled.

Depending on the size, thickness and type of glass, annealing time vary from a few minutes to as long as
ten months, as in the case of the 600 mm telescopic mirrors.

Annealing involves heating the glass to elevated temperatures and holding it to a certain period to
eliminate the stress and temperature gradient, then cooling the glass to suppress stress formation,
followed by a more rapid cooling to room temperature. The common annealing temperature is around
5000c. The length of time the product is held at the temperature as well as cooling and heating rates
during the cycles depends on the thickness of glass. The rule is that; there required annealing time
varies with the square of the thickness.

N/B annealing involves two operations

 Holding the glass above a certain critical temperature long enough to reduce internal

strain by plastic flow, to less than a pre-determined maximum

 Cooling the glass to room temperature slowly enough to hold the strain below this

temperature

Tempered glass

Thermal tempering

Abeneficial stress pattern can be developed in glass products by a heat treatment known as

tempering. The insulating material is known as tempered glass. The process involves heating the

glass to a temperature above the annealing temperature and into the plastic range, followed by

quenching the surface with air jets. When the surface cools, they contract and harden, while in

the interior is still plastic and compliant.

As the internal glass slowly cools it contracts, thus pulling the hard surfaces in compression. This
tempered glass is more resistant to scratching and breaking.

This is because of the compressive stresses on its surface. The compressive surface stresses improve or
increases the strength of the glass.

The application of this tempered glass include safety glasses, all glass doors e.t.c

When tempered glass fails, it does so by shattering into numerous small fragments, which are

less likely to cut someone, than annealed window glass.

Chemical tempering

In this process the glass is heated in a bath of molten KNO3, K3SO3 or NaNO3, depending on the

type of glass.

Ion exchange takes place with the larger atoms replacing the smaller ones in the glass surface.

As results, compressive stresses are developed on the surface. This condition is similar to that

created by forcing a wedge between the two bricks on the wall.

The time required for chemical tempering is about 1hour, longer than that for thermal tempering.

It may be done at various temperatures.

FINISHING
All types of annealed glass must undergo certain finishing operations, which though relatively

simple, are very important.

This includes; cleaning, cutting, drilling, grinding, sandblasting and polishing, although all these

are not required for every glass object, one or more is necessary.

 Shapes edges and corners can be smothered by grinding. This effects is done to glass tops

e.g. for desks benches and shelves.

 Fire polishing is done to glass edges. This method rounds the edges by localized

softening and by surface tension. It is done by holding torch or flame against the sharps

edges.

 In continuous glass working processes in which glass plate and tubes are produced, the
continuous sections must be cut into smaller section or pieces.

 Decorative and surface processes are performed in certain glassware products this includes
mechanical cutting and polishing operations. Sandblasting, chemical etching with hydrofluoric acid
combined with other chemicals and coating e.g. coating a glass plate with aluminium or silver to
produce mirrors.

Cutting glass tube and rods

For a diameter less than 10mm, a notch at 90oc to the length of the tube is made using a glass

cutter e.g. a triangular file or the hack-saw

Place the glass tubing or the rod on a flat bench and make the scratch where you want to cut.

Roll the tube on the bench while scoring around it. Protects your hands with a cloth, the scored

tube can then be broken by applying pressure behind the nick on the opposite side of the

tubingwith the thumbs at the same time exerting an outward pull.

With small diameter tubing, is not necessary to score all the way round. A nick on one side will

do. If long lengths are to be cut, make sure that the far ends do not knock over apparatus.

When cutting a short piece from a long length, it is safe to hold the long end under the armpit for

greater control as the two pieces separate.

Glass tubing of over 10mm in diameter is not easy to cut by scoring and pulling. Large diameter

glass tubes are best cut by scoring all round with a glass knife then broken by any of the

following methods:

 A resistance wire is fastened around the scratch and the wire is electrically heated with a

PDof 12- 24 volts. The heat causes the glass to break along the scoreline. If the glass is so

thick, more than one application of the heated wire may be necessary.

 The glass tubing is gently warmed at the scratch, and then a drop of cold water from a

teat pipette is released onto the warm scratch area. Abrupt contraction of glass causes the

glass to break along the scratch.

 The scratch is touched at various places with a hot glass rod. The heat from the glass rod

is enough to initiate a local crack. This is done for large diameter glass tubing. Repeated
procedure of this produces a clean crack which runs around the scoreline.

 Note that for any clean cut to occur, the scratch should be done once along the uniform

path, not at several places. This can best be achieved by holding the glass tubing or rod

firmly on the bench close to the mark. The cutter is then rested on the block of wood and

the glass is then rotated around it.

Cutting a measuring cylinder

The following methods are used;

Make a scratch round the item that you want to cut, and then fill the glass with engine oil up to

the mark (scoreline) a red hot rod is then plunged at the surface of the oil, the glass cuts cleanly

at the oil level.

Clump the resistance wire loop round the cylinder or the bottle at the scratch level; adjust the

length of the wire so that it fits with about 1/16th of an inch gap between the terminals to prevent

a short circuit, turn on the current for about 20 sec then shut it off and quickly immerse the bottle

in cold water, the sudden chilling should crack the bottle cleanly.

Drilling a hole through a glass plate

A hole can be cut through glass with an abrasive drill, but not with an ordinary drill use a short

length of brass or copper tubing of same outside diameter as the diameter of the desired hole, cut

a slot on one end of the of the metal drill with a hack saw about 1/6th inch deep to make it easier

to keep the abrasive cutting.

Insert the drill into the drilling machine and set it to the slowest speed. Place a soft board pad

under the glass and place clay around the area where the hole is to be made, in this clay, put

silicon carbide grit and about 5ml of water.

Use enough pressure to keep the drill cutting, but too much pressure will crack the glass. Feed

the drill with abrasive grit with a small paint brush. Patience is needed as glass cuts slowly.

FIRE POLISHING
A freshly cut tube or glass sometimes has jagged edges and this must be removed. First hold the

tube in the left hand and hold a piece of wire gauze with the right hand. Sharply strike the gauze

across the edges of the tube. This will remove the sharp pieces of glass.

Hold the tube in the hot blue part of a Bunsen burner while rotating it in the fingers all the time

until it becomes very hot.

This will smoothen the edges of the cut part of the tube or rod and prevent it from being too

sharp to cut fingers.

Glass bending

Using a Bunsen burner fitted with a flame spreader or a fish tail burner, adjust it to give a blue

non-luminous flame. Holding the tube or rod in both hands in the flame, rotate it constantly

slowly using the thumb and the fingers. It is important that the tube rotates just over 180o on

each rolling in order to heat the glass evenly. After a while the tube will be hot enough to bend

under its own weight. Remove it from the flame and allow it to bend itself to the desired angle.

Do not bend it or force it into position for this will cause the tube to fold and not bend in a

smooth curve. When the tube has bend sufficiently anneal it by holding it in a luminous flame

until it is coated with soot, this reduces the internal strain in the glass.

If the bend is to be greater than 90o, the tube will tend to be flatten at the vertex of the bend this

is prevented by rolling the bend along the heated part of the tube several times before the glass

cools down.

When making a U-tube, allow it to hang down vertically and roll the bend by raising and

lowering each arm alternatively.

Making a hole on a boiling tube

Clamp the boiling tube horizontally then fit a stopper in the in the mouth of the tube firmly such

that there is no air that passes either inside or outwards. Heat continuously at the point where you

want to make a hole with the top of the blue flame

The principle is the fact that when the trapped air is heated, it will expand and tries to escape,

and this is through the weak heated part of the tube which melts.

A hole will just blow off the burner through the point where it is being heated.

Sealing tubes

Draw out the tube slowly until the waist is of smaller diameter, then reheat the narrow portion

very strongly while rotating the tube in the fingers. This will separate the two portions of tubing

and seal the ends at the same time.Blow gently into the tube while it is still soft, this will remove

any lump at the end of the tube. If the tube shows any tendency to bend at the sealed end, it

should be softened again and then rotated slowly in a vertical position away from the flame until

it hardens.

Making bulbs in tubing

If a bulb is to be made at the middle of the length of the tubing, seal or plug one end of the tube

first.

If the bulb is to be made at the end of the tube, seal the tube as described above, then soften 2cm

of the sealed end. Remove the tube from the flame and then blow the bulb with a quick but

gentle puff.

If a layer bulb is required, heat the next 2cm of the tubing and puff it out, then still rotating the

tube, reheat the waist and blow gently with the tubing held vertically and rotate until a spherical

bulb is formed.

Making a hole in glass tubing

Plug or seal one end of the tube.

Use a blowpipe with the Bunsen burner or a needle flame from a propane blazing torch to heat a

small spot on the wall of the tube. When the glass is soft, blow firmly to produce a thin-walled

bubble of glass, break-off the bubble with a tool.

Re-heat the edges to smoothen the hole, remove the plug or cut the sealed end.
Making a T-Joint

Make a hole as described above, seal or plug both ends of the tube heat the two pieces of glass to

be joined until both are soft as you rotate them continuously. Bring them together, and then

gently blow into the open tube to straighten and clear the joint. Anneal in the Smokey flame

Sealing wires into tubing

If nichrome or platinum is placed in capillary tubing and the end heated, the joint made will be

very weak. The correct method is to draw out a piece of tubing slightly, and then insert a wire

with a small collar of tubing. Heat the collar and the tube to form a bed and this will join the wire

to the tube, always use pyrex tubing.

Making a glass stirring rod

Cut a suitable length of glass rod, heat one end strongly until soft, press this end vertically onto a

flat metal surface or a tile to produce a head, then heat about 1cm of the other end until very soft.

Lay the softened end on a tile and press the end flat with a file to form the stirring blade. Anneal

the end in a luminous flame until covered with soot.

Annealing using a Bunsen burner

The glass must be allowed to cool slowly to remove tension brought about by the process of

heating or bending. This should be carried out in the LEHR but in practice it can be done by

turning the air supply to the burner flame down, until the flame is luminous i.e. no blue flame,

and then move the bend or heated area and about 4 cm of tubing, either side of the heated area,

through the flame until carbon soot begin to deposit on the tube. Then place the sheet of asbestos

or ceramic tile to cool.