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WATER-RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Third Edition

ww David A. Chin
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chin, David A.
Water-resources engineering / David A. Chin. – 3rd ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-283321-9 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-13-283321-2 (alk. paper)
1. Hydraulics. 2. Hydrology. 3. Waterworks. 4. Water resources
development. I. Title.
TC160.C52 2014
627–dc23 2012018911

Vice President and Editorial Director, ECS: Marcia J. Horton

Executive Editor: Holly Stark
Editorial Assistant: Carlin Heinle
Executive Marketing Manager: Tim Galligan

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Marketing Assistant: Jon Bryant
Permissions Project Manager: Karen Sanatar
Senior Managing Editor: Scott Disanno

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Production Project Manager / Editorial Production Manager: Greg Dulles
Cover Photo: United States Bureau of Reclamation

© 2013, 2010, 2006, 2000 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without

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permission in writing from the publisher.
Pearson Prentice Hall™ is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc.

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The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These efforts include the
development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The author and
publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation

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contained in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential
damages in connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs.

Printed in the United States of America.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ing
ISBN: 0-13-283321-2

Pearson Education Ltd., London

Pearson Education Australia Pty. Ltd., Sydney
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Pearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd.
Pearson Education North Asia Ltd., Hong Kong
Pearson Education Canada, Inc., Toronto
Pearson Educación de Mexico, S.A. de C.V.
Pearson Education—Japan, Tokyo
Pearson Education Malaysia, Pte. Ltd.
Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

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ww To Andrew and Stephanie.

“But those who hope in the Lord will renew their strength. They will soar on

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wings like eagles; they will run and not grow weary, they will walk and not be
faint.”

Isaiah 40:31
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Contents
Preface xv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Water-Resources Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Design of Water-Resource Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Water-Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Water-Use Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Supporting Federal Agencies in the United States . . . . . . . . . . 7
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

ww 2 Fundamentals of Flow in Closed Conduits

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9

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2.2 Single Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Steady-State Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Steady-State Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3 Steady-State Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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[Link] Energy and hydraulic grade lines . . .
[Link] Velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Head losses in transitions and fittings
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[Link] Head losses in noncircular conduits .
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2.2.4 Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Pipe Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Nodal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.3.2 Loop Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Application of Computer Programs . . . . . . .
2.4 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.4.1 Affinity Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Pump Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ing .
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[Link] Commercially available pumps . . . .
[Link] System characteristics . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Limits on pump location . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Multiple-Pump Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Variable-Speed Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3 Design of Water-Distribution Systems 70

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2 Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.1 Per-Capita Forecast Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
[Link] Estimation of per-capita demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
[Link] Estimation of population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2.2 Temporal Variations in Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.3 Fire Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.4 Design Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3 Components of Water-Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.1 Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
[Link] Minimum size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
[Link] Service lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
[Link] Pipe materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

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3.3.2 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.3 Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.4 Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.5 Fire Hydrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.6 Water-Storage Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4 Performance Criteria for Water-Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.1 Service Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.2 Allowable Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.3 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.4 Network Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.5 Building Water-Supply Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5.1 Specification of Design Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5.2 Specification of Minimum Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5.3 Determination of Pipe Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

ww 4 Fundamentals of Flow in Open Channels

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.2.2 Steady-State Momentum Equation . .
[Link] Darcy–Weisbach equation . .
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[Link] Manning equation . . . . . .
[Link] Other equations . . . . . . .
[Link] Velocity distribution . . . . .
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4.2.3 Steady-State Energy Equation . . . . .
[Link] Energy grade line . . . . . .
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[Link] Specific energy . . . . . . . .
4.3 Water-Surface Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Profile Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.3.4 Computation of Water-Surface Profiles eer

4.3.2 Classification of Water-Surface Profiles
4.3.3 Hydraulic Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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[Link] Direct-integration method .
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[Link] Standard-step method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
[Link] Practical considerations . . .
[Link] Profiles across bridges . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 Design of Drainage Channels 166

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.2 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2.1 Best Hydraulic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2.2 Boundary Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.2.3 Cohesive versus Noncohesive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.2.4 Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.2.5 Channel Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.2.6 Freeboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.3 Design of Channels with Rigid Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.4 Design of Channels with Flexible Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.4.1 General Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.4.2 Vegetative Linings and Bare Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.4.3 RECP Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.4.4 Riprap, Cobble, and Gravel Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.4.5 Gabions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

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5.5 Composite Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

6 Design of Sanitary Sewers 211

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2 Quantity of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2.1 Residential Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2.2 Nonresidential Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.2.3 Inflow and Infiltration (I/I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.2.4 Peaking Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.3 Hydraulics of Sewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.3.1 Manning Equation with Constant n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.3.2 Manning Equation with Variable n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.3.3 Self-Cleansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.3.4 Scour Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

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6.3.5 Design Computations for Diameter and Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.3.6 Hydraulics of Manholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.4 System Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.4.1 System Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

w.E 6.4.2 Pipe Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4.3 Depth of Sanitary Sewer . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.4 Diameter and Slope of Pipes . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.4.5 Hydraulic Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.6 Manholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.7 Pump Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.4.8 Force Mains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.9 Hydrogen-Sulfide Control . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.4.10 Combined Sewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Design Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 Design Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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[Link] Manning’s n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Minimum slope for self-cleansing . .
6.5.2 Procedure for System Design . . . . . . . . . .
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

7 Design of Hydraulic Structures

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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[Link] Submerged entrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
[Link] Unsubmerged entrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
7.2.2 Design Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.2.3 Sizing Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
[Link] Fixed-headwater method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
[Link] Fixed-flow method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
[Link] Minimum-performance method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.2.4 Roadway Overtopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.2.5 Riprap/Outlet Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.3 Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.3.1 Free Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.3.2 Submerged Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.3.3 Empirical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.4 Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.4.1 Sharp-Crested Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
[Link] Rectangular weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
[Link] V-notch weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

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[Link] Compound weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

[Link] Other types of sharp-crested weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
7.4.2 Broad-Crested Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
[Link] Rectangular weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
[Link] Compound weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
[Link] Gabion weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
7.5 Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
7.5.1 Uncontrolled Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
7.5.2 Controlled (Gated) Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
[Link] Gates seated on the spillway crest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
[Link] Gates seated downstream of the spillway crest . . . . . . . 309
7.6 Stilling Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.6.1 Type Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.6.2 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
7.7 Dams and Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.7.1 Types of Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

ww 7.7.2 Reservoir Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

[Link] Sediment accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Determination of storage requirements . . . .
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w.E 7.7.3 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

[Link] Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Turbine performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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335

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8 Probability and Statistics in Water-Resources Engineering
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
344
344

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8.2 Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 Discrete Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Continuous Probability Distributions . . . . . . . .
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8.2.3 Mathematical Expectation and Moments . . . . .
8.2.4 Return Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8.2.5 Common Probability Functions . . . . . . . . . . .

[Link] Geometric distribution . . . . . . . . . .ing

[Link] Binomial distribution . . . . . . . . . . .
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[Link] Poisson distribution . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Exponential distribution . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Gamma/Pearson Type III distribution . .
[Link] Normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . .
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[Link] Log-normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
[Link] Uniform distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
[Link] Extreme-value distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
[Link] Chi-square distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.3 Analysis of Hydrologic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.3.1 Estimation of Population Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
[Link] Probability distribution of observed data . . . . . . . . . . 372
[Link] Hypothesis tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
[Link] Model selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.3.2 Estimation of Population Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
[Link] Method of moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
[Link] Maximum-likelihood method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
[Link] Method of L-moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
8.3.3 Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
[Link] Normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
[Link] Log-normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
[Link] Gamma/Pearson Type III distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

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[Link] Log-Pearson Type III distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

[Link] Extreme-value Type I distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
[Link] General extreme-value (GEV) distribution . . . . . . . . . 394
8.4 Uncertainty Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

9 Fundamentals of Surface-Water Hydrology I: Rainfall and Abstractions 401

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.2 Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.2.1 Measurement of Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
9.2.2 Statistics of Rainfall Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
[Link] Rainfall statistics in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
[Link] Secondary estimation of IDF curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.2.3 Spatial Averaging and Interpolation of Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
9.2.4 Design Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

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[Link] Return period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
[Link] Rainfall duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
[Link] Rainfall depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
[Link] Temporal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

w.E [Link] Spatial distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2.5 Extreme Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Rational estimation method . . . . . . . . . . . .
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430

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[Link] Statistical estimation method . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] World-record precipitation amounts . . . . . . . .
[Link] Probable maximum storm . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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432
432

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9.3 Rainfall Abstractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1 Interception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.3.2 Depression Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3 Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] The infiltration process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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[Link] Horton model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Green–Ampt model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] NRCS curve-number model . . . . . . . . . . . .
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453

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[Link] Comparison of infiltration models . . . . . . . . .
9.3.4 Rainfall Excess on Composite Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.4 Baseflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Fundamentals of Surface-Water Hydrology II: Runoff

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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10.2 Mechanisms of Surface Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
10.3 Time of Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
10.3.1 Overland Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
[Link] Kinematic-wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
[Link] NRCS method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
[Link] Kirpich equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
[Link] Izzard equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
[Link] Kerby equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
10.3.2 Channel Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
10.3.3 Accuracy of Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
10.4 Peak-Runoff Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
10.4.1 The Rational Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
10.4.2 NRCS-TR55 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
10.5 Continuous-Runoff Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
10.5.1 Unit-Hydrograph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
10.5.2 Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

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10.5.3 Unit-Hydrograph Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

[Link] Snyder unit-hydrograph model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
[Link] NRCS dimensionless unit hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
[Link] Accuracy of unit-hydrograph models . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
10.5.4 Time-Area Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
10.5.5 Kinematic-Wave Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
10.5.6 Nonlinear-Reservoir Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
10.5.7 Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
10.5.8 Extreme Runoff Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
10.6 Routing Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
10.6.1 Hydrologic Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
[Link] Modified Puls method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
[Link] Muskingum method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
10.6.2 Hydraulic Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
10.7 Water-Quality Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
10.7.1 Event-Mean Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

ww 10.7.2 Regression Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

[Link] USGS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] EPA model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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535
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537

[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11 Design of Stormwater-Collection Systems

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545

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11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Street Gutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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545
545
549

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11.3.1 Curb Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2 Grate Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11.3.3 Combination Inlets . . . . . . . . .
11.3.4 Slotted Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Roadside and Median Channels . . . . . .
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11.5 Storm Sewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.1 Calculation of Design Flow Rates .
11.5.2 Pipe Sizing and Selection . . . . . .eer .
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11.5.3 Manholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.4 Determination of Impervious Area
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11.5.5 System-Design Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
11.5.6 Other Design Considerations . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12 Design of Stormwater-Management Systems

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12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2 Performance Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2.1 Quantity Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2.2 Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.3 Design of Stormwater Control Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
12.3.1 Storage Impoundments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
[Link] Detention basins—Design parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
[Link] Wet detention basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
[Link] Dry detention basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
[Link] Design of outlet structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
[Link] Design for flood control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
12.3.2 Infiltration Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
12.3.3 Swales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
[Link] Retention swales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
[Link] Biofiltration swales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
12.3.4 Vegetated Filter Strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

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12.3.5 Bioretention Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

12.3.6 Exfiltration Trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
[Link] General design guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
[Link] Design for flood control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
[Link] Design for water-quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
12.3.7 Subsurface Exfiltration Galleries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
12.4 Selection of SCMs for Water-Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
12.4.1 Nonstructural SCMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
12.4.2 Structural SCMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
12.4.3 Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
12.5 Major Drainage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

13 Estimation of Evapotranspiration 624

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

ww
13.2 Penman–Monteith Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
13.2.1 Aerodynamic Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
13.2.2 Surface Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
13.2.3 Net Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

w.E [Link] Shortwave radiation . . .

[Link] Longwave radiation . . .
13.2.4 Soil Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . .
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630

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13.2.5 Latent Heat of Vaporization . . . .
13.2.6 Psychrometric Constant . . . . . .
13.2.7 Saturation Vapor Pressure . . . . .
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631
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13.2.8 Vapor-Pressure Gradient . . . . . .
13.2.9 Actual Vapor Pressure . . . . . . .
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632
632

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13.2.10 Air Density . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Application of the PM Equation . . . . . .
13.4 Potential Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . .
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633
634
637
13.5 Reference Evapotranspiration . . . . . . .
13.5.1 FAO56-Penman–Monteith Method
13.5.2 ASCE Penman–Monteith Method eer .
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638
639
643
13.5.3 Evaporation Pans . . . . . . . . . .
13.5.4 Empirical Methods . . . . . . . . .
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644
648

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13.6 Actual Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
13.6.1 Index-of-Dryness Method . . . . .
13.6.2 Crop-Coefficient Method . . . . .
13.6.3 Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . .
13.7 Selection of ET Estimation Method . . . .
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651
653
653
654
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654

14 Fundamentals of Groundwater Hydrology I: Governing Equations 656

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
14.2 Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
14.2.1 Hydraulic Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
[Link] Empirical formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
[Link] Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
[Link] Anisotropic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
[Link] Stochastic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
14.3 General Flow Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
14.4 Two-Dimensional Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
14.4.1 Unconfined Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
14.4.2 Confined Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
14.5 Flow in the Unsaturated Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696

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xii Contents

15 Fundamentals of Groundwater Hydrology II: Applications 700

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
15.2 Steady-State Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
15.2.1 Unconfined Flow Between Two Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
15.2.2 Well in a Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
15.2.3 Well in an Unconfined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
15.2.4 Well in a Leaky Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
15.2.5 Well in an Unconfined Aquifer with Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
15.2.6 Partially Penetrating Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
15.3 Unsteady-State Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
15.3.1 Well in a Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
15.3.2 Well in an Unconfined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
15.3.3 Well in a Leaky Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
15.3.4 Other Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
15.4 Principle of Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
15.4.1 Multiple Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742

ww 15.4.2 Well in Uniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.5 Method of Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.5.1 Constant-Head Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . .
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746

w.E 15.5.2 Impermeable Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.5.3 Other Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.6 Saltwater Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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750
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761

16 Design of Groundwater Systems 771

En
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 Design of Wellfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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771
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16.3 Wellhead Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3.1 Delineation of Wellhead Protection Areas
16.3.2 Time-of-Travel Approach . . . . . . . . .
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16.4 Design and Construction of Water-Supply Wells .
16.4.1 Types of Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2 Design of Well Components . . . . . . . .
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[Link] Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Screen intake . . . . . . . . . . . ing
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[Link] Gravel pack . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Link] Other considerations . . . . . . .
16.4.3 Performance Assessment . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.4 Well Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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784
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16.5 Design of Aquifer Pumping Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
16.5.1 Pumping Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
16.5.2 Observation Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
16.5.3 Field Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
16.6 Design of Slug Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
16.7 Design of Exfiltration Trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
16.8 Seepage Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809

17 Water-Resources Planning 815

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
17.2 Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
17.3 Economic Feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
17.3.1 Compound-Interest Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
[Link] Single-payment factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
[Link] Uniform-series factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

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Contents xiii

[Link] Arithmetic-gradient factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

[Link] Geometric-gradient factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
17.3.2 Evaluating Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
[Link] Present-worth analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
[Link] Annual-worth analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
[Link] Rate-of-return analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
[Link] Benefit–cost analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

A Units and Conversion Factors 831

A.1 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
A.2 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832

B Fluid Properties 834

B.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834

ww B.2 Organic Compounds Found in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B.3 Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
834
836

w.E
C Statistical Tables
C.1 Areas Under Standard Normal Curve . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.2 Frequency Factors for Pearson Type III Distribution . . .
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837
837
839

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C.3 Critical Values of the Chi-Square Distribution . . . . . . .
C.4 Critical Values for the Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test Statistic
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841
842

D Special Functions
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D.1 Error Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
843
843

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D.2 Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.2.2 Evaluation of Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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844
844

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D.2.2.1 Bessel function of the first kind of order n . . . . . . . .
D.2.2.2 Bessel function of the second kind of order n . . . . . .
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844
845

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D.2.2.3 Modified Bessel function of the first kind of order n . .
D.2.2.4 Modified Bessel function of the second kind of order n
D.2.2.5 Tabulated values of useful Bessel functions . . . . . . .
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845
845

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D.3 Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.4 Exponential Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E Pipe Specifications
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849

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E.1 PVC Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
E.2 Ductile-Iron Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
E.3 Concrete Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
E.4 Physical Properties of Common Pipe Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851

F Unified Soil Classification System 852

F.1 Definition of Soil Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
F.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853

Bibliography 854

Index 912

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Exploring the Variety of Random
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canvas of two other vessels rising over the fog bank, in the same
direction.
They were evidently men-of-war, and heavy ships; and were at
once reported to the Captain. That prompt, cool, and decided officer
did not hesitate an instant as to the course he was to take. He knew
very well that the ships were probably English; and that they would
disregard the neutrality of any port that had not force enough to
resist them, or which did not belong to a nation they were bound to
respect.
He immediately ordered the Constitution’s cable cut, and got
underway, at the same time making signal for his prizes to follow his
motions.
In ten minutes after the order had been given, and in fourteen
minutes after the first ship had been seen, the American frigate was
standing out of the road, under her three top-sails. The cool and
officer-like manner in which sail was made and the ship cast has
been much extolled; not an instant having been lost by hurry or
confusion. Her prizes followed her with like promptitude.
The harbor is to leeward of the island, and the northeast trades
prevail there, and the three vessels passed out to sea hugging the
easterly point; and being then about a gunshot to windward of the
strange squadron. As soon as she was clear of the east point the
Constitution crossed top-gallant-yards, boarded her tacks, and set all
light sail that would draw. The English prisoners who had been sent
on shore at once took possession of a Portugese battery, and fired at
the frigate as she passed out, thus drawing the attention of the
incoming ships.
As soon as the Constitution and her prizes had gained the weather
beam of the enemy, the latter tacked, and the six ships stood off to
the southward and eastward, with a ten-knot breeze, and carrying
everything that would draw.
The fog bank still lay so thick upon the water as to conceal the
hulls of the strange ships; but they were supposed to be two line of
battle-ships and a large frigate; the vessel most astern and to
leeward being the Commodore. The strange frigate weathered upon
all the American ships, and gained upon the Cyane and Levant, but
fell astern of the Constitution; while the larger vessels on that
frigate’s lee quarter held way with her. As soon as she was clear of
the land the Constitution cut adrift two of her boats, which were
towing astern, the enemy pressing her too hard to allow of their
being hoisted in.
The Cyane gradually dropped astern and to leeward, rendering it
certain that, if she stood on, the most weatherly of the pursuing
vessels would soon be alongside of her; so, at about one p. m.
Captain Stewart made signal for her to tack. This order the Prize
Master, Lieutenant Hoffman, at once obeyed, and it was expected
that one of the chasing vessels would go about, and follow her, but
this hope was disappointed.
The Cyane, finding that she was not pursued, stood on until she
was lost in the fog, when Mr. Hoffman tacked again, supposing that
the enemy might chase him to leeward. This officer very prudently
improved his advantage by keeping long enough on that tack to
allow the enemy to pass ahead, should they pursue him, and then he
squared away for America, and arrived safely, in New York, on the
10th of April.
The three ships still continued to chase the Constitution and the
Levant; and although, as they left the land the fog lessened, it still lay
so low and dense as to put in doubt the exact force of the strange
vessels.
The English officers who were prisoners on board the Constitution
affirmed that the ship which was getting into her wake was the
Acasta, 40, Captain Kerr, a ship which carried 24-pounders; and it
was thought that the three composed a squadron that was known to
be cruising for the American ships President, Peacock, and Hornet;
consisting of the Leander, 50, Sir George Collier; Newcastle, 50,
Lord George Stuart; and the Acasta. They subsequently proved to
be those very ships.
The vessel on the lee quarter of the Constitution was the
Newcastle, and by half-past two the fog had got so low that her
officers were seen standing on the hammock cloths, though the line
of her ports was not visible.
She now began to fire by divisions, and some opinion of her
armament could be formed as her guns flashed through the fog. Her
shot struck the water quite close to the American ship, but did not
rise again.
By three in the afternoon the Levant had fallen so far astern that
she was in the same danger as the Cyane had been, and Captain
Stewart made her signal to tack.
Mr. Ballard, her prize-master, immediately did so, and a few
minutes later the three English ships tacked, by signal, and chased
the prize, leaving the Constitution steering in an opposite direction,
and going eleven knots.
Lieutenant Ballard, finding the enemy bent upon following the
Levant, and that the Acasta was to windward of her wake, ran back
into Porto Praya, where he anchored at about four in the afternoon,
within one hundred and fifty yards of the shore, and under a strong
battery. The enemy’s ships followed her in, having commenced firing
as soon as it was seen that she would gain the anchorage, and, after
bearing their fire for some time, her colors were hauled down. The
English prisoners who had seized the shore battery also fired upon
her; but little injury was done, as Mr. Ballard caused his men to lie
down on deck as soon as the anchor was let go.
Sir George Collier was much criticised for the course he pursued
on this occasion. It was certainly a mistake on his part to call off
more than one ship to chase the Levant, although it may be said that
the position of the Leander, in the fog, and so far to leeward and
astern, did not give the senior officer the best opportunity for
observing the true condition of affairs. There was certainly every
prospect of the Acasta’s bringing the Constitution to action in the
course of the night, if she had kept up the pursuit.
The result would, of course, have been very doubtful, as her
consorts would have been far astern by that time; but she could
probably have sufficiently disabled the American frigate as to render
her ultimate capture certain.
Whatever may be thought of the conduct of the enemy, there could
be but one opinion in regard to that of Captain Stewart.
His promptitude in deciding upon his course when the enemy were
first sighted, the good judgment with which he ordered the prizes to
vary their courses, and the general steadiness of conduct on board
the Constitution, advanced to an exalted position a professional
reputation which was already very high.
This action and the subsequent chase terminated the exploits of
the favorite ship which he commanded—as far as that war was
concerned.
Stewart, after landing his prisoners at Maranham, went to Porto
Rico, where he learned that peace was proclaimed; and he at once
carried the ship to New York.
In the course of two years and nine months the Constitution had
been in three actions; had been twice critically chased, and had
captured five vessels of war, two of which were frigates, and one
frigate built.
In all her service, as well before Tripoli as in this war, her good
fortune was remarkable. She was never dismasted; never got on
shore; and suffered scarcely any of the usual accidents of the sea.
Though so often in action, no serious slaughter ever took place on
board of her. One of her Commanders was wounded, and four of her
Lieutenants had been killed, two on her decks, and two in the
Intrepid. But, on the whole, she was what is usually called a “lucky
ship.” This was probably due to the fact that she had always been
ably commanded; and in her last two cruises had as fine a crew as
ever manned a ship. They were mostly New England men, and it has
been said that they were almost qualified to fight the ship without her
officers.
 MERRIMAC AND MONITOR. MARCH 9th, 1862.

he United States Navy Department had been

informed that the Confederate authorities had
raised the hull of the fine frigate Merrimac, which
had been burned at the Navy Yard at Norfolk, at
the breaking out of the civil war, and had erected a
huge iron casemate upon her.
With her engines in good working order, it was
confidently expected by the Confederates that this
novel and formidable craft would be able to capture
or destroy the Union fleet, in Hampton Roads, raise
the blockade at the Capes of Virginia, and proceed
to Washington, when the Capitol would be at the
mercy of her powerful battery. This battery
consisted of ten heavy rifled guns.
In those days nothing was known about ironclads, and as week
after week passed, and the monster, so often spoken of by the
Norfolk papers, which was to clear out Hampton Roads, and to brush
away the “insolent frigates” which were blockading the James River
at Newport News did not appear, people began to regard her as a
bugbear. At any rate, the Union frigates were very sure that, if they
could once get her under their broadsides, they would soon send her
to the bottom.
About the 1st of March, 1862, a Norfolk newspaper contained a
violent attack upon the Confederate authorities for their bad
management in regard to the Merrimac, or “Virginia,” as they had re-
christened her. The paper declared that her plating was a failure, that
her machinery was defective, and that she very nearly sank when
brought out of dock. This was all a ruse, for she was then making
trials of machinery, and had her officers and crew on board and
under drill.
The Navy Department was better informed than those in the
immediate vicinity, and hurried up the means it had created to meet
the ironclad.
In Hampton Roads, at that time, were the Minnesota, a fine steam-
frigate, the Roanoke, of the same size, but crippled in machinery,
and several other vessels of much less power, together with
numerous transports, coal-ships, and others.
A few miles above, at Newport News, lay the Congress, a sailing
frigate of 50 guns, and the Cumberland, a heavy sloop of 24 guns.
These were the “insolent frigates” which, during many preceding
months, had entirely prevented the Confederates from using the
water communication between Richmond and Norfolk. The danger in
leaving these vessels, without steam, in such a position, was fully
recognized, and they were to be replaced by others about the middle
of March.
On shore, at Newport News, was a camp of about four thousand
men; and the Congress and Cumberland lay just off this camp, in the
fair way of the channel, and about a quarter of a mile apart; the
Cumberland being the furthest up the James river.
On Saturday, the 8th of March, the Merrimac at last appeared,
accompanied by two or three tugs armed with rifled guns, and joined,
eventually, by two armed merchant steamers from up the James.
The Merrimac moved with great deliberation, and was seen from the
vessels at Newport News, coming down the channel from Norfolk,
towards Sewell’s point, at about half-past twelve. She could not then
be seen from Hampton Roads, but when she did at last show herself
clear of the point, there was great commotion there. But she turned
up, at a right angle, and came up the channel toward Newport News.
It is said by some that she came by a channel not generally known,
or, at least, not commonly used.
The tide had just turned ebb, and the time selected was the best
for the iron-clad, and the worst for the vessels at Newport News, for
their sterns were down stream, and they could not be sprung round.
The Merrimac approached these ships with ominous silence and
deliberation. The officers were gathered on the poops of the vessels,
hazarding all sorts of conjectures in regard to the strange craft, and,
when it was plain she was coming to attack them, or to force the
passage, the drum beat to quarters. By about two o’clock the strange
monster was close enough to make out her ports and plating, and
the Congress fired at her from a stern gun. The projectile, a 32-
pound shot, bounced off the casemate as a pebble would.
The ironclad threw open her forward ports, and answered with
grape, killing and wounding quite a number on board the Congress.
Then she steamed up past that frigate, at a distance of less than two
hundred yards, receiving a broadside, and giving one in return. The
shot of the Congress had no effect upon the Merrimac; but the
broadside of the latter, upon the wooden frigate, had created great
destruction. One of her shells dismounted an 8-inch gun, and either
killed or wounded every one of the gun’s crew. The slaughter at
other guns was fearful. There were comparatively few wounded, the
shells killing, as a general rule.
After this broadside the Merrimac passed up the stream, and the
Congress’ men, supposing she had had enough of it, began to
cheer; and for many of them it was the last cheer they were ever to
give. The iron-clad went up stream far enough to turn at right angles,
and ran into the Cumberland with her ram. The Cumberland began
to fill, at once, and in a few minutes sank, her flag flying, and having
kept up her fire as long as her gun-deck was above water. Her
mizzen-top remained out of water, but it was deeper under her
forward part, and her fore and main top went under. A small freight
boat, of the quartermaster’s department, and some tugs and row-
boats put off from the wharf at the camp, to save the lives of her
crew. These were fired at by the Rebel gun-boats, and the boiler of
the freight boat was pierced, and the wharf itself damaged, but the
greater part of those in the water were saved.
The Cumberland lost one hundred and seventeen out of three
hundred on board. Buchanan, the Captain of the Merrimac, hailed
Morris, the First Lieutenant of the Cumberland, and temporarily in
command, saying, “Do you surrender?” “No, Sir!” shouted back
Morris, whose ship was then sinking. The last gun was fired by
acting Master Randall, now in the navy, but retired. The ship heeled
suddenly as she sank, and the ladders were either thrown down, or
became almost perpendicular, so as to render it difficult to get on
deck. The Chaplain was drowned, on this account. One of the
gunners’ mates got up safely, however, all the way from the
magazine, and swam to the mizzen-top. The marine drummer boy
was pushed and hoisted up by some of the men, holding fast to his
drum, which he saved, and creating laughter, even at that terrible
moment, by the way in which he clung to it.

ENGAGEMENT BETWEEN THE MONITOR AND MERRIMAC, IN HAMPTON

ROADS.

When the survivors of the Cumberland reached the shore they

were enthusiastically received by the soldiers, and flasks of whisky,
plugs of tobacco, and other soldiers’ and sailors’ luxuries, forced
upon them. Captain Radford, of the Cumberland, now Admiral
Radford, was at Hampton Roads, sitting on a court-martial, when the
Merrimac ran out. He went on shore, got a horse, and rode madly, in
hopes of reaching Newport News in time; but he only got there to
see his pendant waving from the truck, and sweeping the water
which had swallowed up so many of his fine crew.
In ramming the Cumberland the Merrimac had twisted her prow or
beak, but the leak it occasioned was not noticed at once. She then
turned down stream, to renew her attack upon the Congress. The
latter ship had been set on fire by the shell of the first broadside, and
one of the seats of fire was aft, near the after magazine; this was
never extinguished, and was the eventual cause of her destruction.
 Seeing the fate of the Cumberland, which sank in deep water, the
Congress slipped her chains, set the top-sails and jib, and with the
help of the tug Zouave, ran on the flat which makes off from Newport
News point. Here she heeled over, as the tide continued to fall,
leaving only two 32-pounders which could be fought, and these were
in the stern ports, on the gun-deck.
The Minnesota and one or two other vessels had started up to the
relief of the Congress and Cumberland, but they got on shore before
they had achieved half the distance. It turned out to be well, for they
would otherwise probably have shared the fate of the Cumberland, in
which case the lives of their crews would have been uselessly
jeopardized.
It was about half-past two when the Merrimac came to attack the
Congress once more. She took up a position about one hundred and
fifty yards astern of her, and deliberately raked her with rifled shells,
while the small steamers all concentrated their guns upon the same
devoted ship. A great many were now killed on board the Congress,
including two officers. The ship kept up a fire from her two stern
guns, having the crews swept away from them repeatedly. At last
they were both dismounted. Nearly all the men in the powder
division, below, were killed by this raking fire. This division was in
charge of Paymaster Buchanan, who was a brother of the Captain of
the Merrimac. Those now fared best whose duty kept them on the
spar-deck. Even the wounded in the cockpit were killed, and the
shells were momentarily setting fire to new places, rendering it
necessary to drench the quarters of the wounded with ice-cold water.
The commanding officer, Lieutenant Joseph B. Smith, was killed by a
shell at this time.
The Congress had now borne this fire for nearly an hour, and had
no prospect of assistance from any quarter, and was unable to fire a
shot in return.
Under these circumstances there was nothing to do but to haul
down the flag. A small gun-boat came alongside, the commanding
officer of which said he had orders to take the people out, and burn
the vessel. But before many could get on board the steamer she was
driven off by the sharp-shooters of a regiment on shore. They now all
opened on the Congress again, although she had a white flag flying,
and could not be responsible for the actions of the soldiers on shore.
After about fifteen minutes more, however, they all went down to
attack the Minnesota, which ship was hard and fast aground.
Fortunately they could not approach very near her, on account of the
state of the tide, and night now drawing on, the whole flotilla
withdrew, and proceeded up the Norfolk channel.
It was now necessary for the survivors of the Congress to get on
shore as soon as possible, and this was done, by about dark, by
means of the two boats which had the fewest shot-holes in them.
These made repeated trips, taking the wounded first, and the officers
last, and the wearied and exhausted people were hospitably
received in the camp.
The poor old ship, deserted by all but the dead, who were left lying
just as they fell, burned till about midnight, when she blew up, with a
report that was heard for many miles.
The next morning was fine, but hazy, but it soon became clear, as
if to afford an uninterrupted view of the first ironclad fight.
The camp was early astir; the regiments drawn up in line of battle,
while the survivors of the two ships’ companies manned the
howitzers and field pieces in the earthworks to the west of the camp.
For it was certain the Merrimac would return that morning, to
complete her work, while information had been received that General
Magruder, with a large force, was marching over from Yorktown, to
take the camp in the rear, and thus, in conjunction with the ironclad,
force a surrender.
About six o’clock the Merrimac was seen, through the haze,
coming down again, apparently intending to attack the Minnesota,
which ship was still aground. Her proceedings were watched with
breathless interest by thousands, on all sides of the broad sheet of
water, which formed an amphitheatre, so to speak, on the southern
side of which the spectators were filled with hope and confidence,
while to the north well-grounded apprehension was felt. Passing up
the James River channel again, the Merrimac opened fire upon the
Minnesota with her bow guns, hulling her once or twice, when,
suddenly, there darted out from under the shadows of the huge
frigate a little raft-like vessel, almost flush with the water, and bearing
on her deck a round, black turret.
 At first no one in the camp seemed to know what it was, or how it
came there, but at last it was conceded that it must be the strange,
new ironclad, which was said to be building in New York, by
Ericsson.
It was indeed the “Monitor,” and although too late to prevent a
terrible loss, she was in the nick of time to prevent much more
serious disaster.
And now for a few words about this remarkable vessel, whose
exploits were the cause of a revolution in the building of ships-of-war,
throughout the world.
And first, as to her name. Ericsson proposed to call her Monitor,
because she would prove a warning to the leaders of the Southern
rebellion, as well as to the authorities of other countries who should
be inclined to break our blockade, or otherwise interfere in our
affairs.
Captain Ericsson was a native of Sweden, and in his youth had
served in both the army and navy of that country. Thence he went to
England, to pursue his profession as an engineer, and came out to
America, to superintend the construction of the United States screw
steamer Princeton, in 1839. Here he remained, dying in 1895, far
advanced in years. In 1854 he planned a shot-proof iron-plated
vessel, the drawings for which he forwarded to Louis Napoleon,
saying, among other things, that his invention would place an entire
fleet of wooden vessels at its mercy, in calms and light winds. Louis
Napoleon politely declined to accept his proposition to build such a
vessel for the French Navy.
When it became evident that a long and arduous struggle was
before us, at the opening of the Civil War, certain gentlemen entered
into a contract to build such a vessel for our Government, on
Ericsson’s plans, and under his superintendence. The ironclad was
contracted for in October, 1861, to be ready in the shortest possible
space of time. The contract price paid for her hull was seven and a
half cents a pound, and Ericsson and his backers were to forfeit
payment for the whole, unless she was found to work in a
satisfactory manner.
His plans were only partly drawn, and it is said that he frequently
made his drawings, to overcome difficulties, the same day they were
to be worked from.
The hull was built by Rowland, at Green Point, Long Island; the
turret at the Novelty Works, New York; the machinery and
mechanism of the turret at Delamater’s, in New York; while the
massive port-stoppers, which swung down by machinery, as the
guns fired and the turret revolved, were forged in Buffalo.
Wonderful to relate, this entirely novel structure was finished in
one hundred days from the time the plates for her keel were laid.
She was launched on the 30th of January, 1862, having large
wooden tanks under her stern, to prevent her from running under
water, as she went off the ways.
She was delivered to the naval authorities, at the New York Navy-
yard, on the 19th of February, following. After two trial trips it was
found to be necessary to hurry this novel and almost untried piece of
complicated machinery down to Hampton Roads, to meet the
formidable ironclad whose doings we have just been relating.
The officers and crew were in circumstances entirely new to them.
“Calmly and terribly heroic,” says Dorr, “was the act of manning this
coffin-like ship,” in which the crew was, as it were, hermetically
sealed.
Lieutenant John L. Worden, of the Navy, having been ordered to
the command, proceeded to select a crew from the receiving ships
North Carolina and Sabine. He stated fairly to the men the difficulties
and dangers which they might expect to encounter, and yet many
more volunteered to go than were required. The officers were
ordered in the usual way, except the First Lieutenant, S. D. Greene,
who was a volunteer. Chief Engineer Stimers, of the navy, who had
been employed as an inspector of some of the work, and who was
interested in the performance of the vessel, went down in her as a
passenger, and took part, as a volunteer, in her first action.
The Monitor’s orders to Hampton Roads were issued on the 20th
of February, but necessary work detained her; and on March 4th
Admiral Paulding, the Commandant at New York, directed Worden to
proceed the moment the weather would permit; and informed him
that a tug would be sent to tow him, and two small steamers would
attend.
 On the afternoon of March 6th the Monitor left Sandy Hook, with a
moderate westerly wind, and a smooth sea. The “Seth Low” was
hired to tug her, and the Currituck and Sachem formed the escort. At
midday of the 7th she was off the Capes of the Delaware, with a
strong breeze and a rough sea. Water came freely in at the hawse-
pipes, around the base of the turret, and in other places. At 4 p. m.,
the wind still increasing, the water broke over the smoke and blower
pipes, which were six and four feet high, respectively. This wet the
blower bands, which slipped and broke. A failure in the machinery to
supply air must soon be fatal, in such a craft, to all on board. The
blowers being stopped there was no draft for the furnaces, and the
fire and engine rooms soon filled with gas.
The engineer in charge, Isaac Newton, U. S. N., met the
emergency promptly, but his department was soon prostrated by
inhaling the gas, and they had to be taken up into the turret, to be
revived.
The water was coming in rapidly, and the hand-pumps could not
discharge it fast enough. Matters looked very gloomy, and the tug
was hailed, and directed to head for the land. This she did at once,
but made slow progress against wind and sea; but by evening she
had got the Monitor into much smoother water; repairs were made,
the gas had escaped, and at 8 o’clock she was on her course again.
At midnight fears of disaster were again aroused by very rough
water, in passing over the Chincoteague Shoals; and, to add to their
troubles, the wheel-ropes jammed, and the vessel yawed so that the
towing hawser was in danger of parting.
These difficulties were in turn overcome by the stout hearts and
skillful hands on board; and at four in the afternoon of the 8th of
March she passed Cape Henry. Heavy firing was now heard to the
westward, which Worden at once conjectured to be the Merrimac
fighting the vessels in the Roads. He at once prepared the Monitor
for action, and keyed up the turret. A pilot boat which came out to
meet them soon put them in possession of the news, and of the
damage done to the ships at Newport News, as well as the position
of the Minnesota. Reporting to the senior officer in Hampton Roads,
Worden’s first care was to find a pilot for that place. None being
found, acting Master Howard, who had a knowledge of the locality,
volunteered to act as pilot.
The Monitor then went up, and anchored near the Minnesota, at
one o’clock on Sunday morning. Worden went to see Captain Van
Brunt, and informed himself, as well as he could, of the state of
affairs, and then returned to the Monitor, after assuring the Captain
that he would develop all the qualities of that vessel, both for offence
and defence.
We now return to the moment when the Merrimac came down
again, and the Monitor went out to meet her, Worden’s object being
to draw her away from the Minnesota. The contrast between the
opposing ironclads was most striking, the Monitor seeming a
veritable pigmy by the side of the Merrimac. The two vessels met on
parallel courses, with their bows looking in opposite directions. They
then exchanged fire. Worden and the engineers had been very
anxious about the effect of heavy shot striking the turret, and causing
it to jam. The heavy shot of the Merrimac, did strike the turret, and,
to their great relief, it continued to revolve without difficulty. Thus one
great source of anxiety was removed. Moreover, it was plainly to be
seen that the 11-inch solid shot of the Monitor made a very
considerable impression upon the Merrimac’s plating. The Monitor,
though slow, steered well, and was much more agile than her long
and heavy opponent, and she now ran across the Merrimac’s stem,
close to her, in the hopes of damaging her propeller or rudder, but in
this she did not succeed.
After passing up on her port side, she crossed the Merrimac’s
bow, to get between her and the Minnesota again. The Merrimac put
on steam, and made for the Monitor, to ram her. Finding that she
would strike her, Worden put his helm hard-a-port, and gave his
vessel a sheer, so that the blow glanced off from the quarter. The
Monitor was now obliged to haul off for a few minutes, to do some
repair or other, and the Merrimac turned her attention to the
Minnesota, hulling her, and exploding the boiler of a steam-tug lying
alongside of her. The Minnesota’s battery was brought to bear, and
her 8-inch shot must have hit the Merrimac more than fifty times, but
glanced from her sloping roof without inflicting damage.
 The gallant little Monitor now came up again, and interposed
between the two. Her shot soon caused the Merrimac to shift her
position, and in doing so she grounded for a few minutes, but was
soon afloat again. The fight had now lasted for a long time, and just
before noon, when within ten yards of the Merrimac, one of her
shells struck the pilot-house, just over the lookout hole or slit.
Worden had just withdrawn his face, which had been pressed
against it. If he had been touching it he would probably have been
killed. As it was, he was stunned, and blinded by the explosion, and
bears the indelible marks of powder blast in his face to this day.
The concussion partly lifted the top of the pilot-house, and the
helm was put a starboard, and the Monitor sheered off. Greene was
sent for, from the turret, to take the command, but just at that time it
became evident that the Merrimac had had enough of it; and, after a
few more shots on each side she withdrew, and slowly and sullenly
went up to an anchorage above Craney Island. Greene did not follow
her very far, and was considered to have acted with good judgment;
it not being necessary to enter into the reasons for his action here.
He returned, and anchored near the Minnesota, where he remained
until that vessel was extricated from her unpleasant predicament, on
the following night.
It is probable that the Monitor would, in firing at such close
quarters, have completely broken up the Merrimac’s armor plates, if
a knowledge had existed of the endurance of the Dahlgren gun. The
fear of bursting the 11-inch guns, in the small turret, caused the use
of the service charge of fifteen pounds of powder. After that time
thirty pounds were often used. Then we must remember that the
crew had only been exercised at the guns a few times, and that the
gun and turret gear were rusty, from having been kept wet during her
late passage from New York.
The Monitor was 124 feet long, and 34 feet wide in the hull. The
armor raft was 174 feet long, and 41 feet wide. Her stern overhung
34 feet, and her bow 15 feet. Her side armor was of five one-inch
plates, backed by twenty-seven inches of oak. Her deck armor
consisted of two half-inch plates, over seven inches of plank. The
turret was twenty feet in inside diameter, covered with eight one-inch
plates, and was nine feet high. The top of the turret was of railroad
bars, with holes for ventilation. The pilot-house was built of bars
eight inches square, and built up log-house fashion, with the corners
notched. She was very primitive in all her arrangements, compared
with the monitors Ericsson afterwards produced.
She carried two 11-inch guns, which threw spherical cast-iron
shot, weighing 168 pounds. The charge of powder has been
mentioned.
In this engagement she was struck twenty-one times; eight times
on the side armor; twice on the pilot-house; seven times on the
turret, and four times on deck.
The Merrimac carried ten heavy guns; sixty-eight-pounders, rifled.
One of these was broken by a shot from the Cumberland, which shot
entered her casemate, and killed seven men. Captain Buchanan was
wounded on the first day, by a musket-ball, it is said; and the
Merrimac was commanded, in her fight with the Monitor, by
Lieutenant Catesby Jones, formerly of the United States Navy, as
were, indeed, all her other officers. On the second day the Monitor
injured many of her plates, and crushed in some of her casemate
timbers.
From the day she retired before the Monitor to the 11th of May,
when she was blown up by her own people, the formidable Merrimac
never did anything more of note. There was, indeed, a plan
concocted to capture the Monitor, as she lay on guard, in the Roads,
by engaging her with the Merrimac, while men from two small
steamers boarded her, and wedged her turret. Then the crew were to
be driven out, by throwing balls of stinking combustibles below, by
her ventilators. But nothing came of it.
The end of the Monitor must be told. After doing good service up
the James River, during the eventful summer of 1862, she was sent
down to Beaufort, South Carolina. On the night of the 30th of
December, when off Hatteras, she suddenly foundered. About half of
her officers and crew went down in her; the rest making their escape
to her escort. The cause of her sinking was never known; but it was
conjectured that the oak timbers which were fitted on the top rim of
her iron hull had shrunk under the hot summer sun of the James
River, and when she once more got into a rough sea, admitted the
water in torrents.
 Before we quit the subject of the Merrimac and Monitor, it may be
of interest to mention that just about the time the Merrimac retired
from the contest the head of Magruder’s column appeared on the
river bank. But the camp at Newport News was too strong and well
entrenched to be attacked without aid from the water. Magruder was
just a day too late, and had to march back again. His troops were the
same which, a few weeks later, were opposed to McClellan, in the
earthworks at Yorktown.
 FARRAGUT AT NEW ORLEANS.

bout the close of the gloomy and disastrous year

1861, the Government of the United States
determined to regain control of the Mississippi,
the greater part of which, from Memphis to the
Gulf, was held by the Confederates, who were
thus enabled to transport immense supplies from
the southwest to the seat of war. Moreover, the
Rebels, as they were then called, had, at New
Orleans, a constantly increasing force of rams
and armored vessels, under able officers of the
old Navy, with which to defend the approaches
from the Gulf, as well as from up the river.
After long consideration, Farragut was chosen
as the naval officer to command in the Gulf. The story of his
southern birth, and of his steadfast loyalty to his flag, is too well
known to be here repeated.
His formal orders put him in command of the “Western Gulf
Blockading Squadron,” and these were issued in January, 1862. But
confidential instructions were also given him, by which he was
especially charged with the “reduction of the defences guarding the
approaches to New Orleans, and the taking possession of that city.”
He was to be assisted by a mortar-fleet of schooners, under
Commander D. D. Porter.
Farragut had long before expressed a belief that he could take
New Orleans, and he had little confidence in a mortar-fleet, and
would rather have dispensed with it; but since Porter had already
been ordered to prepare it, when he was detailed for the command,
he acquiesced in the arrangement.
He turned out to be right, as he generally was in such matters.
On February 2d, 1862, Farragut sailed for the Gulf, in the sloop-of-
war Hartford, which was so long to bear his flag, successfully,
through manifold dangers.
 The Hartford was a wooden screw-steamer, full ship-rigged, and of
nineteen hundred tons burthen. She was of comparatively light
draught, and, therefore, well suited to the service she was called
upon to perform.
She then carried a battery of twenty-two nine-inch, smooth-bore
guns, two 20-pounder Parrotts, and her fore and main-tops had
howitzers, with a protection of boiler iron, a suggestion of Farragut’s.
This battery was afterwards increased by a rifled gun upon the
forecastle. Like Napoleon, Farragut believed in plenty of guns.
The Hartford arrived at her rendezvous, Ship Island, one hundred
miles north-northeast of the mouths of the Mississippi, on February
20th.
A military force, to co-operate with Farragut’s fleet, was sent out,
under General B. F. Butler, and arrived at Ship Island on March 25th.
Butler’s plan was to follow Farragut, and secure, by occupation,
whatever the guns of the fleet should subdue.
Let us now see a little about the scene of action.
Farragut’s son, in the “Life of Farragut,” from which we principally
quote in this article, says (quoting another person), that the Delta of
the Mississippi has been aptly described as “a long, watery arm,
gauntleted in swamps and mud, spread out into a grasping hand,” of
which the fingers are the five passes, or mouths.
At that time the mud brought down by the great river formed bars
at each pass, which bars are always shifting, and require good pilots
to keep account of their condition. In peace times the pilots are
always at work, sounding and buoying, and the chances are that all
the efforts of the “Delta Doctors” will only end in transferring the bars
further out into the Gulf.
New Orleans, on the left bank of the river, is about one hundred
miles from its mouth, and was by far the wealthiest and most
important city of the Confederacy. Loyall Farragut states that, in
1860, it had about 170,000 inhabitants; while Charleston had but
about 40,000; Richmond even a smaller population; and Mobile but
29,000 people.
Just before the war New Orleans had the largest export trade of
any city in the world; and this fact, together with the importance of its
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