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IET ENERGY ENGINEERING 147

Distribution Systems
Analysis and Automation
Other volumes in this series:

Volume 1 Power Circuit Breaker Theory and Design C.H. Flurscheim (Editor)
Volume 4 Industrial Microwave Heating A.C. Metaxas and R.J. Meredith
Volume 7 Insulators for High Voltages J.S.T. Looms
Volume 8 Variable Frequency AC Motor Drive Systems D. Finney
Volume 10 SF6 Switchgear H.M. Ryan and G.R. Jones
Volume 11 Conduction and Induction Heating E.J. Davies
Volume 13 Statistical Techniques for High Voltage Engineering W. Hauschild and
W. Mosch
Volume 14 Uninterruptible Power Supplies J. Platts and J.D. St Aubyn (Editors)
Volume 15 Digital Protection for Power Systems A.T. Johns and S.K. Salman
Volume 16 Electricity Economics and Planning T.W. Berrie
Volume 18 Vacuum Switchgear A. Greenwood
Volume 19 Electrical Safety: A guide to causes and prevention of hazards
J. Maxwell Adams
Volume 21 Electricity Distribution Network Design, 2nd Edition E. Lakervi and
E.J. Holmes
Volume 22 Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Power Systems K. Warwick, A.O. Ekwue
and R. Aggarwal (Editors)
Volume 24 Power System Commissioning and Maintenance Practice K. Harker
Volume 25 Engineers’ Handbook of Industrial Microwave Heating R.J. Meredith
Volume 26 Small Electric Motors H. Moczala et al.
Volume 27 AC–DC Power System Analysis J. Arrillaga and B.C. Smith
Volume 29 High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, 2nd Edition J. Arrillaga
Volume 30 Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Y.-H. Song (Editor)
Volume 31 Embedded Generation N. Jenkins et al.
Volume 32 High Voltage Engineering and Testing, 2nd Edition H.M. Ryan (Editor)
Volume 33 Overvoltage Protection of Low-Voltage Systems, Revised Edition P. Hasse
Volume 36 Voltage Quality in Electrical Power Systems J. Schlabbach et al.
Volume 37 Electrical Steels for Rotating Machines P. Beckley
Volume 38 The Electric Car: Development and future of battery, hybrid and fuel-cell
cars M. Westbrook
Volume 39 Power Systems Electromagnetic Transients Simulation J. Arrillaga and
N. Watson
Volume 40 Advances in High Voltage Engineering M. Haddad and D. Warne
Volume 41 Electrical Operation of Electrostatic Precipitators K. Parker
Volume 43 Thermal Power Plant Simulation and Control D. Flynn
Volume 44 Economic Evaluation of Projects in the Electricity Supply Industry
H. Khatib
Volume 45 Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles J. Miller
Volume 46 Distribution Switchgear S. Stewart
Volume 47 Protection of Electricity Distribution Networks, 2nd Edition J. Gers and
E. Holmes
Volume 48 Wood Pole Overhead Lines B. Wareing
Volume 49 Electric Fuses, 3rd Edition A. Wright and G. Newbery
Volume 50 Wind Power Integration: Connection and system operational aspects
B. Fox et al.
Volume 51 Short Circuit Currents J. Schlabbach
Volume 52 Nuclear Power J. Wood
Volume 53 Condition Assessment of High Voltage Insulation in Power System
Equipment R.E. James and Q. Su
Volume 55 Local Energy: Distributed generation of heat and power J. Wood
Volume 56 Condition Monitoring of Rotating Electrical Machines P. Tavner, L. Ran,
J. Penman and H. Sedding
Volume 57 The Control Techniques Drives and Controls Handbook, 2nd Edition
B. Drury
Volume 58 Lightning Protection V. Cooray (Editor)
Volume 59 Ultracapacitor Applications J.M. Miller
Volume 62 Lightning Electromagnetics V. Cooray
Volume 63 Energy Storage for Power Systems, 2nd Edition A. Ter-Gazarian
Volume 65 Protection of Electricity Distribution Networks, 3rd Edition J. Gers
Volume 66 High Voltage Engineering Testing, 3rd Edition H. Ryan (Editor)
Volume 67 Multicore Simulation of Power System Transients F.M. Uriate
Volume 68 Distribution System Analysis and Automation J. Gers
Volume 69 The Lightening Flash, 2nd Edition V. Cooray (Editor)
Volume 70 Economic Evaluation of Projects in the Electricity Supply Industry,
3rd Edition H. Khatib
Volume 72 Control Circuits in Power Electronics: Practical issues in design and
implementation M. Castilla (Editor)
Volume 73 Wide Area Monitoring, Protection and Control Systems: The enabler for
smarter grids A. Vaccaro and A. Zobaa (Editors)
Volume 74 Power Electronic Converters and Systems: Frontiers and applications A.M.
Trzynadlowski (Editor)
Volume 75 Power Distribution Automation B. Das (Editor)
Volume 76 Power System Stability: Modelling, analysis and control Abdelhay A.
Sallam and Om P. Malik
Volume 78 Numerical Analysis of Power System Transients and Dynamics A. Ametani
(Editor)
Volume 79 Vehicle-to-Grid: Linking electric vehicles to the smart grid J. Lu and
J. Hossain (Editors)
Volume 81 Cyber-Physical-Social Systems and Constructs in Electric Power
Engineering S. Suryanarayanan, R. Roche and T.M. Hansen (Editors)
Volume 82 Periodic Control of Power Electronic Converters F. Blaabjerg, K. Zhou,
D. Wang and Y. Yang
Volume 86 Advances in Power System Modelling, Control and Stability Analysis
F. Milano (Editor)
Volume 87 Cogeneration: Technologies, optimisation and implementation C.A.
Frangopoulos (Editor)
Volume 88 Smarter Energy: From smart metering to the smart grid H. Sun, N.
Hatziargyriou, H.V. Poor, L. Carpanini and M.A. Sánchez Fornié (Editors)
Volume 89 Hydrogen Production, Separation and Purification for Energy A. Basile,
F. Dalena, J. Tong and T.N. Veziroğlu (Editors)
Volume 90 Clean Energy Microgrids S. Obara and J. Morel (Editors)
Volume 91 Fuzzy Logic Control in Energy Systems with Design Applications
in MATLAB‡/Simulink‡ İ.H. Altaş
Volume 92 Power Quality in Future Electrical Power Systems A.F. Zobaa and S.H.E.A.
Aleem (Editors)
Volume 93 Cogeneration and District Energy Systems: Modelling, analysis and
optimization M.A. Rosen and S. Koohi-Fayegh
Volume 94 Introduction to the Smart Grid: Concepts, technologies and evolution
S.K. Salman
Volume 95 Communication, Control and Security Challenges for the Smart Grid S.M.
Muyeen and S. Rahman (Editors)
Volume 96 Industrial Power Systems with Distributed and Embedded
Generation R Belu
Volume 97 Synchronized Phasor Measurements for Smart Grids M.J.B. Reddy and D.K.
Mohanta (Editors)
Volume 98 Large Scale Grid Integration of Renewable Energy Sources A. Moreno-
Munoz (Editor)
Volume 100 Modeling and Dynamic Behaviour of Hydropower Plants N. Kishor and
J. Fraile-Ardanuy (Editors)
Volume 101 Methane and Hydrogen for Energy Storage R. Carriveau and D.S.-K. Ting
Volume 104 Power Transformer Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis A. Abu-Siada
(Editor)
Volume 106 Surface Passivation of Industrial Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells J. John
(Editor)
Volume 107 Bifacial Photovoltaics: Technology, applications and economics J. Libal
and R. Kopecek (Editors)
Volume 108 Fault Diagnosis of Induction Motors J. Faiz, V. Ghorbanian, and G. Joksimović
Volume 110 High Voltage Power Network Construction K. Harker
Volume 111 Energy Storage at Different Voltage Levels: Technology, integration, and
market aspects A.F. Zobaa, P.F. Ribeiro, S.H.A. Aleem, and S.N. Afifi (Editors)
Volume 112 Wireless Power Transfer: Theory, technology and application N. Shinohara
Volume 115 DC Distribution Systems and Microgrids T. Dragičević, F. Blaabjerg, and
P. Wheeler
Volume 117 Structural Control and Fault Detection of Wind Turbine Systems H.
R. Karimi
Volume 119 Thermal Power Plant Control and Instrumentation: The control of boilers
and HRSGs, 2nd Edition D. Lindsley, J. Grist, and D. Parker
Volume 120 Fault Diagnosis for Robust Inverter Power Drives A. Ginart (Editor)
Volume 123 Power Systems Electromagnetic Transients Simulation, 2nd Edition
N. Watson and J. Arrillaga
Volume 124 Power Market Transformation B. Murray
Volume 125 Wind Energy Modeling and Simulation Volume 1: Atmosphere and plant
P. Veers (Editor)
Volume 126 Diagnosis and Fault Tolerance of Electrical Machines, Power Electronics
and Drives A.J.M. Cardoso
Volume 128 Characterization of Wide Bandgap Power Semiconductor Devices F. Wang,
Z. Zhang, and E.A. Jones
Volume 129 Renewable Energy from the Oceans: From wave, tidal and gradient
systems to offshore wind and solar D. Coiro and T. Sant (Editors)
Volume 130 Wind and Solar Based Energy Systems for Communities R. Carriveau and
D.S.-K. Ting (Editors)
Volume 131 Metaheuristic Optimization in Power Engineering J. Radosavljević
Volume 132 Power Line Communication Systems for Smart Grids I.R.S Casella and
A. Anpalagan
Volume 139 Variability, Scalability and Stability of Microgrids S.M. Muyeen, S.M. Islam,
and F. Blaabjerg (Editors)
Volume 145 Condition Monitoring of Rotating Electrical Machines P. Tavner, L. Ran, and
C. Crabtree
Volume 146 Energy Storage for Power Systems, 3rd Edition A.G. Ter-Gazarian
Volume 155 Energy Generation and Efficiency Technologies for Green Residential
Buildings D. Ting and R. Carriveau (Editors)
Volume 157 Electrical Steels, 2 Volumes A. Moses, K. Jenkins, P. Anderson, and H. Stanbury
Volume 172 Lighting interaction with Power Systems, 2 Volumes A. Piantini (Editor)
Volume 905 Power System Protection, 4 Volumes
Distribution Systems
Analysis and Automation
2nd Edition

Juan M. Gers

The Institution of Engineering and Technology

Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom
The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England &
Wales (no. 211014) and Scotland (no. SC038698).
† The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2020
First published 2013

Second Edition published 2020

This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright
Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research
or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in
the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued
by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those
terms should be sent to the publisher at the undermentioned address:
The Institution of Engineering and Technology
Michael Faraday House
Six Hills Way, Stevenage
Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom

www.theiet.org
While the author and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this
work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making
use of them. Neither the author nor publisher assumes any liability to anyone for any
loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an error or
omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such liability is
disclaimed.
The moral rights of the author to be identified as author of this work have been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78561-871-0 (hardback)

ISBN 978-1-78561-872-7 (PDF)

Typeset in India by MPS Limited

Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon
To the loving memory of my late father Jose Gers and my
brothers Jose Alejandro and Carlos Mauricio.
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

List of figures xv
List of tables xxv
About the author xxvii
Preface xxix

1 Smart Grid overview 1

1.1 Smart Grid for distribution systems 1
1.2 Definitions of Smart Grid 3
1.3 Benefits of the Smart Grid on distribution systems 5
1.3.1 Enhancing reliability 6
1.3.2 Improving system efficiency 6
1.3.3 Distributed energy resources 6
1.3.4 Optimizing asset utilization and efficient operation 6
1.4 Maturity Models for Smart Grid applications 6
1.4.1 Smart Grid Maturity Model 7
1.4.2 Benefits of using a Smart Grid Maturity Model 7
1.4.3 Genesis and components of an SGMM 8
1.4.4 Development process of an SGMM 8
1.4.5 Levels and domains of the SGMM 10
1.4.6 Results and analysis obtained by SGMM 13
1.4.7 Example case 14
1.5 Prioritization in Smart Grid projects 18
1.6 Cost–benefit analysis 21
1.6.1 Definition of benefits 21
1.6.2 Cost–benefit analysis methodologies 21
Reference 23
Further reading 23

2 Distribution automation functions 25

2.1 Electrical system automation 26
2.2 EMS functional scope 27
2.3 DMS functional scope 28
2.4 Functionality of DMS 28
2.4.1 Steady-state performance improvement 29
2.4.2 Dynamic performance improvement 30
2.5 Outage management systems 33
2.6 Geographic information systems 35
x Distribution systems analysis and automation, 2nd edition

2.6.1 AM/FM functions 37

2.6.2 Database management 37
2.7 Communication options 37
2.8 Supervisory control and data acquisition 37
2.8.1 SCADA functions 38
2.8.2 System architecture 42
2.9 Synchrophasors and its application in power systems 46
2.9.1 Definition 46
2.9.2 Application of PMUs 47
Further reading 53

3 Fundamentals of distribution system analysis 55

3.1 Electrical circuit laws 55
3.1.1 Ohm’s law 55
3.1.2 Kirchhoff’s voltage law 55
3.1.3 Kirchhoff’s current law 55
3.2 Circuit theorems 56
3.2.1 Thévenin’s theorem 56
3.2.2 Star/Delta transform 56
3.2.3 Superposition theorem 57
3.3 Power AC circuits 57
3.4 PU normalization 62
3.5 Load flow 66
3.5.1 Formulation of the load flow problem 67
3.5.2 Newton–Raphson method 68
3.5.3 Type of buses 71
3.5.4 Application of the Newton–Raphson method to solve
load flows 71
3.5.5 Decoupling method 74
3.6 Radial load flow concepts 86
3.6.1 Theoretical background 89
3.6.2 Distribution network models 96
3.6.3 Nodes and branches identification 96
3.6.4 Illustration of nodes and branches identification 97
3.6.5 Algorithm to develop radial load flow 98
3.7 Power system analysis tool 99
3.7.1 New tendencies in PSAT applications 102
3.7.2 Advanced simulations in PSATs based on load
flow concept 103
3.8 Proposed exercises 110
Further reading 113

4 Short circuit calculation 115

4.1 Nature of short circuit currents 115
4.2 Calculation of fault duty values 122
 Contents xi

4.3 Fault calculation for symmetrical faults 125

4.4 Symmetrical components 126
4.4.1 Importance and construction of sequence networks 130
4.4.2 Calculation of asymmetrical faults using symmetrical
components 132
4.4.3 Equivalent impedances for a power system 134
4.4.4 Supplying the current and voltage signals to
protection systems 134
4.5 Proposed exercises 142
References 145
Further reading 145

5 Reliability of distribution systems 147

5.1 Network modeling 147
5.2 Network reduction 151
5.3 Quality indices 152
5.4 Proposed exercises 156
References 159
Further reading 160

6 Reconfiguration and restoration of distribution systems 161

6.1 Optimal topology 161
6.2 Location of switches controlled remotely 169
6.2.1 Considerations to increase reliability 169
6.2.2 Considerations to increase flexibility 172
6.3 Feeder reconfiguration for improving operating conditions 181
6.4 Feeder reconfiguration for service restoration 181
6.4.1 Fault location, isolation, and service restoration 182
6.4.2 Manual restoration vs. FLISR 184
6.4.3 Restrictions on restoration 185
6.4.4 FLISR central intelligence 187
6.4.5 FLISR-distributed intelligence 189
6.4.6 FLISR local intelligence 193
References 196
Further reading 196

7 Voltage/VAR control 199

7.1 Definition of voltage regulation 201
7.2 Options to improve voltage regulation 201
7.3 Voltage regulators 202
7.4 Capacitor application in distribution systems 204
7.4.1 Feeder model 209
7.4.2 Capacitor location and sizing 210
7.4.3 Reduction in power losses with one capacitor bank 211
7.4.4 Reduction in power losses with two capacitor banks 212
xii Distribution systems analysis and automation, 2nd edition

7.4.5 Losses reduction with three capacitor banks 213

7.4.6 Consideration of several capacitor banks 214
7.4.7 Capacitor sizing and location using software 215
7.5 Modeling of distribution feeders, including VVC equipment 217
7.6 Voltage/VAR control considering SCADA 218
7.7 Requirements for Volt/VAR control 223
7.8 Integrated Volt/VAR control 225
7.9 Proposed exercises 227
References 228
Further reading 228

8 Harmonic analysis 231

8.1 General considerations about harmonics 231
8.2 Mathematical background 234
8.3 Verification of harmonic values 235
8.4 Parallel resonance 235
8.5 Series resonance 237
8.6 Validation of harmonic values 238
8.6.1 Harmonic limits 238
8.6.2 Voltage distortion limits 238
8.6.3 Current distortion limits 238
8.7 Verification of harmonic values 239
8.8 Resizing and relocation of capacitor banks 240
8.9 Models 241
8.9.1 Harmonic sources 243
8.9.2 System model 243
8.9.3 Load model 243
8.9.4 Branch model 243
8.10 Derating transformers 249
Further reading 251

9 Modern protection of distribution systems 253

9.1 Fundamentals of overcurrent protection 253
9.1.1 Protection coordination principles 253
9.1.2 Criteria for setting instantaneous units 254
9.1.3 Setting time-delay relays 255
9.1.4 Setting overcurrent relays using software techniques 258
9.2 Coordination across Dy transformers 258
9.3 Protection equipment installed along the feeders 263
9.3.1 Reclosers 266
9.3.2 Sectionalizers 272
9.3.3 Fuses 275
9.4 Setting criteria 280
9.4.1 Fuse–fuse coordination 281
9.4.2 Recloser–fuse coordination 282
 Contents xiii

9.4.3 Recloser–sectionalizer coordination 285

9.4.4 Recloser–sectionalizer–fuse coordination 286
9.4.5 Recloser–recloser coordination 288
9.4.6 Recloser–relay coordination 288
9.5 Protection considerations when distributed generation
is available 290
9.5.1 Short circuit levels 290
9.5.2 Synchronization 290
9.5.3 Overcurrent protection 290
9.5.4 Adaptive protection 290
9.6 Proposed exercises 291
Further reading 294

10 Distributed generation and energy storage systems 297

10.1 Current situation of renewable generation 297
10.2 Solar plants 297
10.2.1 PV cell model 298
10.2.2 Inverters 301
10.2.3 Grid-connected and stand-alone systems 303
10.3 Wind generation 313
10.3.1 Drag and lift blades 316
10.3.2 Rotor axis orientation 317
10.3.3 Number of blades 317
10.3.4 Speed of rotation 318
10.3.5 Generator types 318
10.3.6 Control systems 322
10.3.7 Wind farms 323
10.4 Small hydroelectric plants 325
10.5 Energy storage systems 326
10.5.1 Electromechanical storage 329
10.5.2 Electrochemical storage 329
10.6 Proposed exercises 331
References 333

11 Fundamentals on microgrid technology 337

11.1 Introduction to microgrids 337
11.2 Microgrid components 338
11.3 Classification of microgrids 339
11.3.1 Classification by configuration 339
11.3.2 Classification by AC/DC type 339
11.3.3 Classification by modes of operation 340
11.3.4 Classification by feeder location 340
11.4 Microgrid control 341
11.4.1 Centralized control 342
11.4.2 Decentralized control 343
xiv Distribution systems analysis and automation, 2nd edition

11.5 Microgrid protection 343

11.6 Benefits of microgrids 346
11.6.1 Economic benefits of a microgrid 347
11.6.2 Technical benefits of a microgrid 348
11.6.3 Environmental and social benefits of a microgrid 350
11.7 Proposed exercises 353
References 357

12 Communications in Smart Grids 359

12.1 ISO–OSI model 359
12.2 Communication solutions for the power system world 361
12.2.1 Communication solutions in AMI 362
12.2.2 Distribution network communications 362
12.3 Transmission mediums 364
12.3.1 Wired and electric mediums 364
12.3.2 Wireless mediums 364
12.3.3 Optical mediums 365
12.4 Information security as the crucial element in smart networks 365
12.5 Cybersecurity 366
12.6 IEC 61850 overview 366
12.6.1 Standard documents and features of IEC 61850 370
12.6.2 System configuration language (SCL) 375
12.6.3 Configuration and verification of GOOSE messages 377
12.6.4 Configuration of the system 380
12.6.5 System verification test 380
12.6.6 Substation IT network 380
12.6.7 Process bus 381
12.6.8 Communications redundancy networks IEC 618590 382
References 383
Further reading 384

13 Interoperability concepts in power electric systems 387

13.1 Elements required for interoperability 388
13.2 Information exchange processes 388
13.3 Data models and international standards 390
13.4 Implementation of common information models 396
References 398
Further reading 399

Index 401
 List of figures

1.1 Power system as envisaged in 1982 (from “Automated power

distribution,” published by IEEE Spectrum, April 1982) 2
1.2 Smart Grid concept 5
1.3 Smart Grid components 5
1.4 Some organizations that use the SGMM (taken from the
Carnegie Mellon Software Engineering Institute) 9
1.5 Example of results obtained from the SGMM (taken from
the Carnegie Mellon Software Engineering Institute) 13
1.6 Example of results in Grid Operations (GO) domain 15
1.7 Graphical example of results after applying the SGMM 17
1.8 Definition of the Smart Grid benefits, by the SGCT 22
2.1 Typical installation of a switch on an overhead
distribution feeder 25
2.2 Main benefits of distribution automation 26
2.3 Power system automation components 27
2.4 Network management EMS/DMS 27
2.5 Screenshots of typical EMS 28
2.6 Screenshots of a typical DMS 29
2.7 Illustration of power line communication (PLC) 30
2.8 (a) Modulation for the outbound signal and
(b) modulation for the inbound signal 30
2.9 Comparison of restoration time with and without DA 31
2.10 Trouble call system 32
2.11 Work order illustration 33
2.12 DMS/OMS integration 35
2.13 Outage management system report 36
2.14 OMS trouble call ticket 36
2.15 Example of a GIS 37
2.16 Typical communication methods 38
2.17 SCADA illustration 39
2.18 SCADA functions: supervisory control 40
2.19 SCADA functions: data acquisition 40
xvi Distribution systems analysis and automation, 2nd edition

2.20 Relationship of SCADA with databases 41

2.21 Control center general scheme 43
2.22 Single master station, multiple RTU, radial circuit 45
2.23 Single master station, data concentrator, or gateway 45
2.24 Multiple master stations, LAN/WAN substation
connection using routers 45
2.25 Sinusoidal waveform from its phasorial representation 47
2.26 PMU’s integration with the current communication system 48
2.27 Transmission line model 49
2.28 Transferred power through a line 51
2.29 Integration of a distributed generation source using PMUs 53
3.1 (a) Circuit before using Thévenin’s theorem and
(b) circuit after using the Thévenin’s theorem 56
3.2 Star/Delta equivalent 57
3.3 (a) Circuit complete and (b) solution using
superposition theorem 57
3.4 Relationship of current, voltage, and power in
electrical circuits 58
3.5 System for Example 3.1 59
3.6 Power losses for different voltage angles 61
3.7 System for Example 3.2 61
3.8 Power losses for different voltage angles 63
3.9 Electrical system for Example 3.3 65
3.10 Illustration of a power system board simulator 66
3.11 Representation of a three-node system with current sources 67
3.12 Illustration of the Newton–Raphson concept 69
3.13 Illustration of types of buses for load flow analysis 72
3.14 Flow chart for load flow analysis using NR algorithm 74
3.15 Two-bus system with load at the end bus 74
3.16 Illustration of the relationship between P and q 75
3.17 Illustration of the relationship between Q and V 75
3.18 Power system for Example 3.6 77
3.19 Load flow results in pu for the system of Example 3.6 83
3.20 Load flow results in real magnitudes for the
system of Example 3.6 84
3.21 Single-line diagram for Example 3.7 85
3.22 Portion of the power system of Example 3.7 91
3.23 Bus voltage results considering a capacitor bank
at 13.2 kV Willow bus 92
3.24 Bus voltage results of Example 3.7 considering tap
changer operation 93
 List of figures xvii

3.25 Bus voltage results of Example 3.7 considering a new line 94

3.26 Two node systems 95
3.27 Two-feeder system with numbers and letters nomenclature 97
3.28 Two-feeder identification for the example system 98
3.29 Load flow for radial systems 100
3.30 Grounded Wye–Grounded Wye step-down
transformer with balanced load 101
3.31 Distribution network without optimal capacitor placement 104
3.32 Distribution network with optimal capacitor
placement simulation 105
3.33 Losses on the network without optimal topology analysis 106
3.34 Losses on the network with optimal topology analysis 107
3.35 Load flow results without optimal power flow 109
3.36 Load flow results with optimal power flow 111
3.37 Element names on the network 112
4.1 L–R circuit 115
4.2 Impedance components 117
4.3 Variation of fault current due to the DC component
when (a) a
q ¼ 0; (b) a
q ¼
p 2 118
4.4 Results for Example 4.1 120
4.5 Transient SC current at generator terminals 121
4.6 Variation of current with time during a fault at
generator terminals 121
4.7 Variation of generator reactance during a fault 122
4.8 Multiplying factors for 3 Ph and L–L ground faults 123
4.9 Short circuit total current 125
4.10 System for Example 4.3 126
4.11 Short circuit variation for Example 4.3 127
4.12 Excerpt of the famous paper by C.L. Fortescue 128
4.13 Illustration of symmetrical components 129
4.14 Magnitudes of the positive sequence network 129
4.15 Symmetrical components of an unbalanced three-phase system 131
4.16 Representation of sequence impedances: (a) 3-phase
positive-sequence; (b) single phase positive-sequence
equivalent; (c) 3-phase negative-sequence; (d) single phase
negative-sequence equivalent; (e) 3-phase zero-sequence;
and (f) single phase zero-sequence equivalent 133
4.17 Representation of sequence networks for (a) Line-to-earth
fault; (b) Line-to-line fault; and (c) Line-to-line-to-earth fault 135
4.18 Sequence currents and voltages for different types of faults 136
4.19 Single line diagram for Example 4.4 137
xviii Distribution systems analysis and automation, 2nd edition

4.20 Positive sequence diagram for Example 4.4 138

4.21 Sequence network connection for a single-phase
fault of Example 4.4 139
4.22 Solution of Example 4.4 by using a PSAT for
a three-phase fault 140
4.23 Reduced diagrams for the fault analysis in Example 4.5 141
4.24 Impedance diagram for the three-phase fault in node
The Ridges 115 kV 142
4.25 Solution of Example 4.5 by using a software package 143
4.26 Diagram for exercise 2 144
4.27 Diagram for exercise 3 144
4.28 Diagram for exercise 4 145
5.1 Repairable components in series—both must work
for success 148
5.2 Repairable components in parallel—one or both
must work for success 149
5.3 Diagram system for Example 5.1 149
5.4 Diagram system results for the first part of Example 5.1 150
5.5 Diagram system results for the second part of Example 5.1 151
5.6 An example of network reduction 152
5.7 Minimal cut sets of a simple system 152
5.8 Representation of events used in calculating indices 156
5.9 Elements of exercise: (a) case a and (b) case b 159
6.1 Three feeder-distribution system 162
6.2 Radial distribution network with normally closed
and open switches 163
6.3 Basic algorithm for the reconfiguration of distribution
networks 164
6.4 Two-feeder system showing location of potential
opening points 165
6.5 Initial topology of case study 168
6.6 Optimal topology considering loss reduction 169
6.7 System diagram for Example 6.2 171
6.8 Results for scenario (a) of Example 6.2 173
6.9 Results for scenario (b) of Example 6.2 174
6.10 Results for scenario (c) of Example 6.2 175
6.11 Results for scenario (d) of Example 6.2 176
6.12 Results for scenario (e) of Example 6.2 177
6.13 Location of switches in distribution systems 178
6.14 Two-feeder system showing location of switches
controlled remotely 179
 List of figures xix

6.15 Three-feeder system illustrating switch location for service

restoration with no tie switches (a) and tie switches (b) 180
6.16 Distribution system illustrating loss reduction 182
6.17 Normal configuration 183
6.18 Fault clearing by relay at B1—Step 1 184
6.19 Fault isolation by opening corresponding switches—Step 2 185
6.20 Reclosing B1—Step 3 (upstream restoration) 186
6.21 Reconfiguration by operating switches NO and
NC—Step 4 (downstream restoration) 187
6.22 Three-feeder system illustrating switch location
for service restoration 188
6.23 Time to fix faults for typical systems 188
6.24 Loading for normal condition 189
6.25 Loading after reconfiguration 190
6.26 Detection of a fault in an FLISR with central intelligence.
Reproduced by permission of ALSTOM 191
6.27 Fault isolation by opening corresponding feeder.
Reproduced by permission of ALSTOM 191
6.28 Upstream restoration. Reproduced by permission of ALSTOM 192
6.29 Possible downstream restoration plan with FLISR.
Reproduced by permission of ALSTOM 192
6.30 Selection of the best option for restoration. Reproduced by
permission of ALSTOM 193
6.31 Downstream restoration of healthy distributed system section.
Reproduced by permission of ALSTOM 193
6.32 Example of an FLISR-distributed intelligence solution
sequence: (a) normal configuration; (b) Fault in Team 6;
(c) Fault is detected and initiates opening of switches;
and (d) Service is restored to all the unfaulted segments 194
6.33 Example of a distribution system with FLISR local
intelligence 195
6.34 Fault between R03 and R04 195
6.35 Final topology after local intelligence operation 196
7.1 Rated voltages specified for the United States 200
7.2 Voltage regulation limits in the United States 200
7.3 Schematic of a single-phase 32-step voltage regulator 203
7.4 Voltage profile with step-type voltage regulators 203
7.5 Diagrams for Example 7.1: (a) system diagram and
(b) equivalent circuit 205
7.6 Voltage and current vector diagram for the base case 206
7.7 Power diagram for the base case 207
xx Distribution systems analysis and automation, 2nd edition

7.8 Current profiles for feeders with uniformly distributed loads 210
7.9 Distribution feeder with one capacitor bank 211
7.10 Distribution feeder with two capacitor banks 213
7.11 Distribution system to illustrate application of capacitors 215
7.12 Feeder used for the illustration 216
7.13 Layout of the feeder used in the modeling 217
7.14 Typical voltage regulator modeling input data 218
7.15 Load flow run for the system used with VVC 219
7.16 Components of a VVC assisted with SCADA 220
7.17 System for Example 7.2 221
7.18 VAR dispatch processor control module for Example 7.2 221
7.19 VAR dispatch processor control module for all capacitor
banks in Example 7.2 222
7.20 Voltage-control processor module for Example 7.2 222
7.21 Voltage-control processor results comparison for Example 7.2 223
7.22 Volt/VAR modules applied for Example 7.2 224
7.23 Integrated Volt/VAR control, including DG 226
7.24 Context diagram for centralized integrated Volt/VAR control 226
7.25 Context diagram for decentralized integrated Volt/VAR control 227
7.26 Diagrams of list item 2 in Section 7.9 228
8.1 Connection of equipment producing parallel resonance 236
8.2 Connection of equipment producing series resonance 237
8.3 Z versus W in series resonance filters 238
8.4 General flow of harmonic currents in radial power system:
(a) without power capacitor and (b) with power capacitor 240
8.5 System example for illustrate harmonic evaluation
procedure: (a) Feeder with harmonic sources and
(b) Two-node system equivalent 242
8.6 Simplified diagram of the system 244
8.7 (a) Model for fundamental frequency and (b) model
for harmonic h 245
8.8 Circuit for fundamental frequency 246
8.9 Circuit for fifth harmonic 246
9.1 Time–current operating characteristics of overcurrent relays:
(a) Definite current; (b) Definite time; (c) Inverse time;
and (d) Inverse time with instantaneous unit 253
9.2 Overcurrent relay coordination procedure in a
distribution system 254
9.3 Overcurrent inverse-time relay curves associated
with the two breakers on the same feeder 255
9.4 Typical ANSI/IEEE and IEC overcurrent relay curves 257
 List of figures xxi

9.5 Coordination of overcurrent relays for a Dy transformer 259

9.6 Power system of Example 9.1 259
9.7 Specifications of relay Beckwith M-7651.
Reproduced by permission of Beckwith Electric 260
9.8 Relay coordination curves for Example 9.1 263
9.9 Remote supervisory PMH models. Reproduced by
permission of S&C 264
9.10 PME Pad-Mounted Gear. Reproduced by permission of S&C 265
9.11 Time–current curves for reclosers 267
9.12 Typical sequence for recloser operation 267
9.13 Types of single-phase reclosers: (a) NOJA OSM;
(b) COOPER NOVA; and (c) COOPER D 269
9.14 Types of three-phase reclosers: (a) G&W Viper-LT;
(b) SCHNEIDER U; (c) ABB OVR; and (d) Hawker
Siddeley Switchgear GVR 269
9.15 COOPER Kyle type VSA20A 270
9.16 Option to locate reclosers 271
9.17 Types of sectionalizers: (a) COOPER GH; (b) Hawker
Siddeley Switchgear; and (c) COOPER GN3VE 273
9.18 Untanked view of a sectionalizer 274
9.19 Sectionalizers application where two feeders of system
are protected 275
9.20 Sectionalizers application where one branch system
is protected 276
9.21 Sectionalizers application where one branch system
is protected 279
9.22 Characteristics of typical fuse links: (a) 200K fuse
link and (b) 200T fuse link 279
9.23 Criteria for fuse–fuse coordination 281
9.24 Time–current characteristics for fuse–fuse coordination 282
9.25 Criteria for source-side fuse and recloser coordination 284
9.26 Criteria for load-side fuse and recloser coordination 286
9.27 Coordination of one recloser with three sectionalizers 286
9.28 Portion of a distribution feeder 287
9.29 Phase–current curves 289
9.30 Example of adaptive protection setting with a RTU device 291
9.31 Single-line diagram for exercise 1 292
9.32 Single-line diagram for exercise 2 293
10.1 A typical PV cell 298
10.2 I–V characteristic of a PV cell 299
10.3 P–V characteristic of a PV cell 300
xxii Distribution systems analysis and automation, 2nd edition

10.4 Real PV cell equivalent circuit 301

10.5 Power inverter operation scheme 301
10.6 One-phase square wave inverter 301
10.7 Three-phase sine wave PWM inverter: (a) equivalent circuit,
(b) resultant waveform, and (c) fundamental wave modulation 302
10.8 Inverter system for a PV module as a DG unit: (a) PV module,
(b) MPPT, (c) energy storage, (d) DC:DC converter,
(e) DC:AC converter, (f) isolation, and (g) output filter 302
10.9 Centralized and decentralized PV systems 303
10.10 Grid-connected PV system example 304
10.11 Load flow of the PV system through 1 day 305
10.12 Daily solar radiation per month for Example 10.2 307
10.13 Variation of series and parallel modules with temperature 310
10.14 PV arrangement for Example 10.2 314
10.15 Air parcel interacting with a wind turbine rotor 314
10.16 Power coefficient as a function of the TSR 316
10.17 Mechanical structure of a HAWT 317
10.18 Single-bladed, two-bladed, three-bladed, and multibladed
wind turbines 318
10.19 Torque-speed characteristic of an FSWT 319
10.20 Equivalent circuit of a Type 1 generator 319
10.21 Circuit diagram of a Type 1 generator 320
10.22 Equivalent circuit of a Type 2 generator 320
10.23 Circuit diagram of a Type 2 generator 321
10.24 Equivalent circuit of a Type 3 generator 321
10.25 Circuit diagram of a Type 3 generator 321
10.26 Circuit diagram of a Type 4 generator 322
10.27 Phases of wind power generation 323
10.28 Wind farm layout 324
10.29 Small-scale hydropower plant 325
10.30 Schematic diagram of a hydroelectric power plant
with water reservoir 326
10.31 Integration of a PV system with energy storage
in the power system 327
10.32 Example of a load flow profile through one typical day 328
10.33 NiMH battery state of charge operation 330
10.34 I–V curve for exercise 2 331
10.35 Curve for exercise 3 332
10.36 CP vs TSR curve for exercise 7 333
11.1 A general scheme of a microgrid 338
11.2 Typical distribution system management structure 341
 List of figures xxiii

11.3 Centralized control structure 342

11.4 Protection system features 344
11.5 Microgrid for Example 11.1 345
11.6 Short circuit analysis for three different scenarios
for Example 11.1 346
11.7 Short circuit analysis for three different scenarios
for the PV and wind turbine nodes for Example 11.1 346
11.8 Microgrid operation strategies 347
11.9 Two-feeder microgrid for Example 11.2 349
11.10 Reconfigured microgrid for Example 11.2 351
11.11 Lines whose ends have to change their status 352
11.12 Radial distribution system for exercise 1 353
11.13 Microgrid for exercise 2 354
11.14 Load and generation profiles for exercise 2 355
11.15 Microgrid for exercise 4 356
12.1 OSI model 360
12.2 TCP/IP link applying OSI model 360
12.3 Communication options in the Smart Grids 361
12.4 Message communication OSI-7 stack 363
12.5 Virtual and real world 371
12.6 Physical and logical device 372
12.7 Substation engineering process using SCL language 376
12.8 System single line diagram 378
12.9 Logic of breaker failure scheme 378
12.10 Proprietary configuration tools used for the configuration
of IEDs 379
12.11 Test connections used for standalone IEC 61850–based IED 381
12.12 Substation network—process bus and station bus 382
13.1 Information exchange between two application elements 390
13.2 Example circuit (a) as a line diagram; (b) with CIM mappings 391
13.3 Transformer class diagram 393
13.4 Example of (a) power system representation and
(b) CIM/XML representation 394
13.5 Elements for implementing interoperability in information
systems 396
13.6 Stages in a CIM implementation 397
This page intentionally left blank
 List of tables

1.1 Example of results after applying the SGMM 17

1.2 Criteria for prioritizing Smart Grid projects by using the AHP 18
1.3 Subcriteria for prioritizing Smart Grid projects 19
1.4 Alternatives proposed for reaching the objectives
of Smart Grid projects 19
1.5 Summary of different approaches to estimate the
Smart Grid cost–benefits 22
2.1 Traditional and DMS-based DA applications 34
3.1 Values for Example 3.5 71
3.2 Values of voltages for Example 3.6 77
3.3 Values of impedances for Example 3.6 77
3.4 Initial input data for Example 3.6 78
3.5 Rated bus voltages for Example 3.7 86
3.6 HV transformer data for power system of Example 3.7 87
3.7 MV transformer data for power system of Example 3.7 88
3.8 Generator data for power system of Example 3.7 89
3.9 Bus data for power system of Example 3.7 89
3.10 Line data for power system of Example 3.7 90
3.11 Losses on the network without optimal topology analysis 107
3.12 Losses on the network with optimal topology analysis 108
3.13 Total results on the network without optimal power flow 110
3.14 Total results on the network with optimal power flow 112
3.15 Contingency N-1, results for elements with limit violations 112
3.16 Contingency N-2, results for L1-L2 contingency 112
4.1 Short circuit currents nomenclature for standards
ANSI/IEEE and IEC 125
5.1 Example of outage data 154
5.2 Planned and unplanned SAIDI, without exceptional events 157
5.3 Planned and unplanned SAIFI, without exceptional events 158
5.4 Database for exercise 3 159
6.1 Data of feeders encompassed within the prototype 166
6.2 Result of reconfiguration analysis 167
6.3 Options where the highest losses reductions are obtained 168
6.4 Load data for Example 6.2 172
6.5 Line data for Example 6.2 172
6.6 Comparison of reliability data for node N11 under
different scenarios 178
xxvi Distribution systems analysis and automation, 2nd edition

6.7 Reconfiguration options for the previous system 181

6.8 Reconfiguration options for system of Example 6.3 187
6.9 Loading values of Example 6.4 190
7.1 Results comparison for Example 7.1 208
7.2 Comparison between shunt capacitor and series capacitor 209
7.3 Results of software simulation 216
8.1 Summary of power quality variation categories.
Reproduced by permission of Dranetz 232
8.2 Categories and typical characteristics of power system
electromagnetic phenomena. Taken from IEEE Std. 1159-2009 233
8.3 Harmonic voltage distortion limits in % of nominal fundamental
frequency voltage. Taken from IEEE Std. 519-2014 239
8.4 Current distortion limits. Taken from IEEE Std. 519-2014 239
8.5 Summary of results Example 8.1 248
8.6 Currents for different harmonic orders 251
9.1 IEEE and IEC constants for standards, overcurrent relays 257
9.2 Summary of fault conditions 258
9.3 Short circuit calculation for power system of Example 9.1 261
9.4 Summary of relay settings for Example 9.1 262
9.5 Maximum fault current in amperes, rms S&C
Standard Speed Fuse Links 283
9.6 K factor for the source side fuse link 284
9.7 K factor for the load side fuse link 285
10.1 Basic home appliances and typical power consumption
for Example 10.2 306
10.2 Energy demand per home appliance for Example 10.2 306
10.3 Demand/irradiation ratio per month for Example 10.2 308
10.4 Typical PV module datasheet for Example 10.2 308
10.5 Charge regulator datasheet for Example 10.2 312
10.6 Inverter datasheet for Example 10.2 313
11.1 Microgrid control methods comparison 344
11.2 Total losses for the given system in Example 11.2 350
11.3 Element losses for the given system in Example 11.2 350
11.4 Total losses for the new topology for Example 11.2 351
11.5 Line losses for the new topology for Example 11.2 351
11.6 Total losses comparison for the given system, the new
topology, and mesh configuration for Example 11.2 352
11.7 Load and generation profiles data for exercise 3 356
11.8 Switches operation sequence for exercise 4 357
12.1 Requirements for cybersecurity 367
12.2 Protection logical nodes defined by IEC 61850-7-4 Ed. 2 373
12.3 Protection logical nodes defined by IEC 61850-5 Ed. 2 374
13.1 Architecture of the principles of interoperability 389
 About the author

Juan M. Gers obtained his undergraduate degree as Electrical Engineer from the
Universidad del Valle in Cali, Colombia in 1977. In 1981, he finished a master’s
degree in Power Systems Studies at the University of Salford in England, and his
doctorate with research in distribution systems and automatization at the University
of Strathclyde in Scotland in 1998. He was a professor at the Universidad del Valle
in Colombia for more than 20 years and has been working as adjunct instructor at
the Gonzaga University for more than 10 years. Dr. Gers served as the Vice
Minister of Mines and Energy of Colombia in 2002. He is the author of Protection
of Electricity Distribution Networks, is a Chartered Engineer of the IET and
participates in several groups of the Power System Relaying and Control
Committee of the IEEE.
This page intentionally left blank
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Crystal Circe
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Title: The Crystal Circe

Author: Henry Kuttner

Illustrator: John B. Musacchia

Release date: August 11, 2022 [eBook #68726]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Fictioneers, Inc, 1942

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

CRYSTAL CIRCE ***
THE CRYSTAL CIRCE
 By Henry Kuttner

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

Astonishing Stories, June 1942.
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
 Prologue
The stratoship from Cairo was late, and I was wondering whether the
newsreel theatre or a couple of drinks would make time pass faster. It
was early dusk. Through the immense, curved wall-window of the
Manhattan Port Room I could see the landing field, with a silvery ship
being rolled over the tarmac, and the skyscrapers of New York
beyond.
Then I saw Arnsen.
It was Steve Arnsen, of course. No doubt about that. No other man
had his great breadth of shoulders, his Herculean build. Ten years
ago we had been classmates at Midwestern. I remembered rakehell,
laughing, handsome Steve Arnsen very well, with his penchant for
getting into trouble and out of it again, usually dragging Douglas
O'Brien, his room-mate, along with him like the helpless tail of a kite.
Poor Doug! He was the antithesis of Arnsen, a thoughtful, studious
boy with the shadow of a dream lurking always in his dark eyes. An
idealist was Douglas O'Brien, as his Celtic ancestors had been.
Strong friendship had existed between the two men—the mental
communion of laughter and a dream.
Arnsen was looking up into the darkening sky, a queer tensity in his
posture. He turned abruptly, came to a table near me, and sat down.
From his pocket he took a small box. It snapped open. His gaze
probed into the unknown thing that was hidden by his cupped hands.
I picked up my drink and went to Arnsen's table. All I could see was
the back of his sleek, massive head. Then he looked up—
If ever I saw hell in a man's face, I saw it in Arnsen's then. There was
a dreadful longing, and an equally horrible hopelessness, the
expression one might see on the face of a damned soul looking up
from the pit at the shining gates forever beyond his reach.
And Arnsen's face had been—ravaged.
The searing mark of some experience lay there, branded into his
furrowed cheeks, his tightened lips, into his eyes where a sickness
dwelt. No—this was not Steve Arnsen, the boy I had known at
Midwestern. Youth had left him, and hope as well.
"Vail!" he said, smiling crookedly. "Good Lord, of all people! Sit down
and have a drink. What are you doing here?"
I sought for words as I dropped into a chair. Arnsen watched me for a
moment, and then shrugged. "You might as well say it. I've changed.
Yeah—I know that."
"What happened?" There was no need to fence.
His gaze went beyond me, to the dark sky above the landing field.
"What happened? Why don't you ask where Doug is? We always
stuck together, didn't we? Surprising to see me alone—"

He lit a cigarette and crushed it out with an impatient gesture. "You

know, Vail, I've been hoping I'd run into you. This thing that's been
boiling inside of me—I haven't been able to tell a soul. No one would
have believed me. You may. The three of us kicked around together a
lot, in the old days."
"In trouble?" I asked. "Can I help?"
"You can listen," he said. "I came back to Earth thinking I might be
able to forget. It hasn't worked. I'm waiting for the airliner to take me
to Kansas Spaceport. I'm going to Callisto—Mars—somewhere. Earth
isn't the right place any more. But I'm glad we ran into each other,
Vail. I want to talk. I want you to answer a question that's been driving
me almost insane."
I signalled the waiter and got more drinks. Arnsen was silent till we
were alone once more. Then he opened his cupped hands and
showed me a small shagreen box. It clicked open. Nestling in blue
velvet was a crystal, not large, but lovelier than any gem I had ever
seen before.
Light drifted from it like the flow of slow water. The dim shining pulsed
and waned. In the heart of the jewel was—
I tore my eyes away, staring at Arnsen. "What is it? Where did you
get the thing? Not on Earth!"
He was watching the jewel, sick hopelessness on his face. "No—not
on Earth. It came from a little asteroid out there—somewhere." He
waved vaguely toward the sky. "It isn't charted. I took no reckonings.
So I can never go back. Not that I want to, now. Poor Doug!"
"He's dead, isn't he?" I asked.
Arnsen looked at me strangely as he closed the box and slipped it
back into his pocket. "Dead? I wonder. Wait till you know the story,
Vail. About Doug's lucky charm, and the dreams, and the Crystal
Circe...."
The slow horror of remembrance crept across his face. Out there, in
space, something had happened. I thought: It must have been
frightful to leave such traces on Arnsen.
He read my thought. "Frightful? Perhaps. It was quite lovely, too. You
remember the old days, when I thought of nothing but raising hell...."
After a long pause, I said, "Who was—the Crystal Circe?"
"I never knew her name. She told me, but my brain couldn't
understand it. She wasn't human, of course. I called her Circe, after
the enchantress who changed her lovers to swine." Again he looked
at the darkening sky. "Well—it began more than two years ago, in
Maine. Doug and I were on a fishing trip when we ran into the
meteorite. Little fishing we got done then! You know how Doug was—
like a kid reading a fairy tale for the first time. And that meteorite—"

CHAPTER ONE
The Star-Gem
It lay in the crater it had dug for itself, a rounded arc visible about the
brown earth. Already sumac and vines were mending the broken soil.
Warm fall sunlight slanted down through the trees as Douglas O'Brien
and Steve Arnsen plodded toward the distant gurgling of the stream,
thoughts intent on catching the limit. No fingering tendril of menace
thrust out to warn them.
"Mind your step," Arnsen said, seeing the pit. He detoured around it
and turned, realizing that O'Brien had not followed. "Come on, Doug.
It's getting late."
O'Brien's tanned young face was intent as he peered down into the
hollow. "Wait a bit," he said absently. "This looks—say! I'll bet there's
a meteor down there!"
"So there's a meteor. We're not fishing for meteors, professor. They're
mostly iron, anyway. Gold, now, would be a different matter."
O'Brien dropped lightly into the hole, scraping at the dirt with his
fingers. "Wonder how long it's been here? You run along, Steve. I'll
catch up with you."
Arnsen sighed. O'Brien, with his vast enthusiasm for everything under
the sun, was off again. There would be no stopping him now till he
had satisfied his curiosity about the meteorite. Well, Arnsen had a
new fly he was anxious to use, and it would soon be too late for good
fishing. With a grunt he turned and pushed on toward the stream.
The fly proved excellent. In a surprisingly short time Arnsen had
bagged the limit. There was no sign of O'Brien, and hunger made
itself evident. Arnsen retraced his steps.
The younger man was sitting cross-legged beside the crater, holding
something in his cupped hands and staring down at it. A swift glance
showed Arnsen that the meteorite had been uncovered, and,
apparently, cracked in two, each piece the size of a football. He
stepped closer, to see what O'Brien held.
It was a gray crystal, egg-sized, filled with cloudy, frozen mists. It had
been cut into a diamond-shaped, multifaced gem.
"Where'd you get that?" Arnsen asked.
O'Brien jumped, turning up a startled face. "Oh—hello, Steve. It was
in the meteorite. Damnedest thing I ever saw. I saw the meteorite had
a line of fission all around it, so I smacked the thing with a rock. It fell
apart, and this was in the middle. Impossible, isn't it?"
"Let's see." Arnsen reached for the jewel. O'Brien showed an odd
reluctance in giving it up, but finally dropped it into the other's
outstretched hand.
The gem was cold, and yet not unpleasantly so. A tingling raced up
Arnsen's arm to his shoulder. He felt an abrupt, tiny shock.
O'Brien snatched the jewel. Arnsen stared at him.
"I'm not going to eat it. What—"
The boy grinned. "It's my luck piece, Steve. My lucky charm. I'm
going to have it pierced."
"Better take it to a jeweler first," Arnsen suggested. "It may be
valuable."
"No—I'll keep it." He slipped the gem into his pocket. "Any luck?"
"The limit, and I'm starving. Let's get back to camp."

Over their meal of fried trout, O'Brien fingered the find, staring into the
cloudy depths of the gem as though he expected to find something
there. Arnsen could sense a strange air of withdrawal about him. That
night O'Brien fell asleep holding the jewel in his hand.
His sleep was troubled. O'Brien watched the boy, the vaguest hint of
worry in his blue eyes. Once Doug lifted his hand and let it fall
reluctantly. And once a flash of light seemed to lance out from the
gem, brief and vivid as lightning. Imagination, perhaps....
The moon sank. O'Brien stirred and sat up. Arnsen felt the other's
eyes upon him. He said softly, "Doug?"
"Yes. I wondered if you were awake."
"Anything wrong?"
"There's a girl...." O'Brien said, and fell silent. After what seemed a
long time, he went on: "Remember you said once that I'd never find a
girl perfect enough to love?"
"I remember."
"You were wrong. She's like Deirdre of the Tuatha Dé, like Freya, like
Ran of the northern seas. She has red hair, red as dying suns are
red, and she's a goddess like Deirdre, too. The Song of Solomon was
made for her. 'Thou art all fair, my love; there is no spot in thee.... I
sleep, but my heart waketh; it is the voice of my beloved that
knocketh.' Steve," he said, and his voice broke sharply. "It wasn't a
dream. I know it wasn't. She exists, somewhere." He stirred; Arnsen
guessed that he was peering at the gray jewel.
There was nothing to say. The frosty brilliance of the stars gleamed
through the laced branches above. A curious breath of the unearthly
seemed to drop down from the vast abyss of the sky, chilling Arnsen's
heart.
In that moment he knew that his friend was ensorcelled.
Superstition—foolishness! He shook the thought away. But all the
blood of his Northern ancestors rose up in him, the Vikings who had
believed in Queen Ran of Ocean, in trolls and warlocks and the
water-maidens who guard sunken gold.
"You're dreaming," he said stubbornly, more loudly than he thought.
"It's time we got back to the city. We've been here long enough."
To his surprise, O'Brien agreed. "I think so. I've an idea I want to work
on." And the boy shut up like a clam, relaxing almost instantly into
peaceful slumber.
But Arnsen did not sleep for a long time. The stars seemed too close
and, somehow, menacing. From the black void, eyes watched—not
human eyes, for all their loveliness. They were pools of darkest night,
and stars glimmered within them.
He wished that O'Brien had not found the meteorite.

CHAPTER TWO
Lure of the Crystal
There was a change in the boy after that. The dream in his eyes did
not fade, but he worked now with an intensity of purpose that had
never existed before. Previously, the two had held routine jobs in a
huge commercial organization. Without warning O'Brien quit. Arnsen
followed suit, feeling the necessity for staying close to the younger
man. Yet in the days to come, he amounted to little more than excess
baggage.
O'Brien had plans. He borrowed money, scraped together enough to
equip a small laboratory, and there he worked long hours. Arnsen
helped when he could, though that was not often. He seldom knew
exactly what the boy was trying to accomplish.
Once O'Brien said a queer thing. They were in the laboratory,
awaiting the result of an experiment, and Arnsen was pacing back
and forth nervously.
"I wish I knew what was up, Doug," he said almost with anger. "We've
been at this for months now. What do you expect, anyway? You've
had no more than an ordinary training in physics."
"The jewel helps," O'Brien said. He took the gem from its suede bag
and stared into the cloudy depths. "I catch—thoughts from it."
Arnsen stopped short, staring. His face changed.
"You kidding?" he demanded.
O'Brien flushed. "Okay, try it," he said, thrusting the stone at Arnsen,
who took it rather reluctantly. "Shut your eyes and let your mind go
blank. That does it, sometimes."
"I—all right." Arnsen squeezed his eyes closed and thought of
nothing. Instantly a sick, horrible feeling swept through him—a terrible
yearning such as he had never known before. So might the
Assassins feel, deprived of the magic drug that took them to
Paradise. An Assassin exiled, cast into outer darkness.
A face swam into view, lovely and strange beyond imagination. Only
a glimpse he had, blotted out by rainbow, coruscating lights that
darted and flashed like elfin fireflies. Then darkness, once more, and
the frightful longing—for what?
He let go of the gem; O'Brien caught it as it fell. The boy smiled wryly.
"I wondered if you'd get it, too. Did you see her?"
"I saw nothing," Arnsen snarled, whirling toward the door. "I felt
nothing!"
"Yet you're afraid. Why? I don't fear her, or the stone."
"The more fool you," Arnsen cast over his shoulder as he went out.
He felt sick and weak, as though unnameable vistas had opened
before him. There was no explanation for what he had felt—no sane
explanation, at least.

And yet there might be, he thought, as he paced about the yard,
smoking an endless chain of cigarettes. Telepathy, thought-
transference—he had simply caught what was in O'Brien's mind. But
it was horrible to know that Doug was feeling that soul-sick craving for
the goddess-girl who could not exist.
O'Brien came out of the laboratory, eyes aglow. "It's done," he said,
trying to repress his triumph. "We've got the alloy at last. That last
treatment did the trick."
Arnsen felt vague apprehension. He tried to congratulate O'Brien, but
his tone rang false to his own ears. The boy smiled understandingly.
"It's been good of you to string along, Steve. The thing will pay off
now. Only—I'll need a lot of money."
"You'll have a lot. Plenty of companies will be bidding for the
process."
O'Brien said, "I want enough to buy a spaceship."
Arnsen whistled. "That's a lot. Even for a small boat." His eyes
narrowed. "Why do you want it?"
"I'm going to find Deirdre," the other said simply. "She's out there,
somewhere." He tilted his head back. "And I'll find her."
"Space is pretty big."
"I've a guide." O'Brien took out the gray gem. "It wants to go to her,
too. It wants to go back. It isn't really alive here on Earth, you know.
And I'm not just dreaming, Steve. How do you suppose I managed to
make this alloy—the perfect plastic, tougher than beryllium steel,
lighter than aluminum, a conductor or non-conductor of electricity
depending on the mix.... You know I couldn't have done it alone."
"You did it."
O'Brien touched the jewel. "I found out how to do it. There's life in
here, Steve. Not earthly life, but intelligent. I could understand a little,
not much. Enough to work out the alloy. I had to do that first, so I
could get money enough to buy a spaceship."
"You don't know how to pilot in space."
"We'll hire a pilot."
"We?"
He grinned. "I'm going to prove my point. You don't believe in Deirdre.
But you'll see her, Steve. The jewel will guide us. It wants to go home
—so we'll take it there."
Arnsen scowled and turned away, his big shoulders tense with
unreasoning anger. He found himself hating the imaginary being
O'Brien had created. Deirdre! His fists clenched.
She did not exist. The major planets and satellites had been
explored; the inhabited ones held nothing remotely human. Martians
were huge-headed, spindle-legged horrors; Venusians were scaled
amphibians, living in a state of feudalism and constant warfare. The
other planets ... the avian, hollow-boned Callistans were closest to
humanity, but by no stretch of the imagination could they be called
beautiful. And Deirdre was beautiful. Imaginary or not, she was lovely
as a goddess.
Damn her!
But that did no good. O'Brien was not to be turned from his purpose.
With relentless, swift intensity he patented the alloy process, sold it to
the highest bidder, and purchased a light space cruiser. He found a
pilot, a leather-skinned, tough, tobacco-chewing man named Tex
Hastings, who could be depended on to do what he was told and
keep his mouth shut.
O'Brien chafed with impatience till the cruiser jetted off from the
spaceport. The closer he came to achieving his goal, the more
nervous he grew. The jewel he kept clenched in one hand most of the
time. Arnsen noticed that a dim brilliance was beginning to glow
within it as the ship plunged farther out toward the void.
Hastings cast quizzical glances at O'Brien, but did what he was told.
He confided in Arnsen.
"We haven't even bothered with charts. It's screwy, but I'm not
kicking. Only this isn't piloting. Your friend just points at a star-sector
and says, 'Go there.' Funny." He scratched his leathery cheek, faded
eyes intent on Arnsen's face.
The big man nodded. "I know. But it isn't up to me, Hastings. I'm
super-cargo."
"Yeah. Well, if you—want any help—you can count on me. I've seen
space-madness before."
Arnsen snorted. "Space-madness!"
Hastings' eyes were steady. "I may be wrong, sure. But anything can
happen out here. We're not on Earth, Mr. Arnsen. Earth laws don't
apply. Neither does logic. We're on the edge of the unknown."
"I never thought you were superstitious."
"I'm not. Only I've been around, and seen a lot. That crystal Mr.
O'Brien lugs around with him—I never saw anything like that before."
He waited, but Arnsen didn't speak. "All right, then. I've known things
to drift in from Outside. Funny things, damn funny. The Solar
System's like a Sargasso. It catches flotsam from other systems,
even other universes, for all I know. One rule I've learned—when you
can't guess the answer, it's a good idea to stay clear."
Arnsen grunted moodily, staring out a port at the glaring brilliance of
the stars.
"Ever heard any stories about jewels like that one?"
Hastings shook his closely-cropped head. "No. But I saw a wreck
once, Sunside of Pluto—a ship that hadn't been designed in this
System. It was deserted; God knows how long it had been out there.
Or where it came from. Inside, it wasn't designed for human beings at
all. It came from Outside, of course, and Outside is a big place. That
jewel, now—" He bit the end off a quid of tobacco.
"What about it?"
"It's an Outside sort of thing. And your friend isn't acting normal. It
may add up to trouble. It may not. My point is that I'm going to keep
my eyes open, and you'd be wise to do the same thing."
Arnsen went back to the galley and fried eggs, angry with himself for
listening to Hastings' hints. He was more than ever uncomfortable.
Back on Earth, it had been easier to disbelieve in any unknown
powers that the gray jewel might possess; here, it was different.
Space was the hinterland, the waste that bordered the cryptic
Outside. The forward step in science that threw open the gates of
interplanetary travel had, in a way, taken man back in time to a day
when he cowered in a cave, fearing the powers of the dark that lurked
in the unknown jungle. Space travel had broken barriers. It opened a
door that, perhaps, should have remained forever closed.
On the shores of space strange flotsam was cast. Arnsen's gaze
probed out through the port, to the red globe of Mars, the blinding
brilliance of the Milky Way, the enigmatic shadow of the Coal Sack.
Out there anything might lie. Life grown from a matrix neither Earthly
nor even three-dimensional. Charles Fort had hinted at it; scientists
had hazarded wild guesses. The cosmic womb of space, from which
blasphemous abortions might be cast.
So they went on, day after day, skirting Mars and plunging on into the
thick of the asteroid belt. It was uncharted country now, a Sargasso of
remnants from an exploded planet that had existed here eons ago.
Sounds rang loudly in the narrow confines of the space ship.
Nervousness gripped all three of the men. But O'Brien found comfort
in the gray crystal. His eyes held a glowing light of triumph.
"We are coming closer, Steve," he said. "Deirdre isn't far away now."
"Damn Deirdre," Arnsen said—but not aloud.
The ship went on, following the blind course O'Brien pointed.
Hastings shook his head in grim silence, and trained his passengers
in the use of the space-suits. Few of the asteroids had atmosphere,
and it became increasingly evident that the destination was an
asteroid....

CHAPTER THREE
The Singing Crystals
They found it at last, a jagged, slowly revolving ball that looked
incredibly desolate, slag from some solar furnace. The telescope
showed no life. The ball had hardened as it whirled, and the molten
rock had frozen instantly, in frigid space, into spiky, giant crags and
stalagmites. No atmosphere, no water, no sign of life in any form.
The crystal O'Brien held had changed. A pale light streamed from it.
O'Brien's face was tensely eager.
"This is it. Set the ship down, Hastings."
The pilot made a grimace, but bent toward the controls. It was a
ticklish task at best, for he had to match the ship's speed to the speed
of the asteroid's revolution and circle in, describing a narrowing spiral.
Rocket ships are not built for maneuverability. They blast their way to
ground and up again through sheer roaring power.
She settled bumpily on the iron-hard surface of the asteroid, and
Arnsen looked through the thick visiglass at desolation that struck a
chill to his heart. Life had never existed here. It was a world damned
in the making, a tiny planetoid forever condemned to unbearable
night and silence. It was one with the darkness. The sun-glare, in the
absence of atmosphere, made sharp contrasts between light and jet
shadow. The fingers of rock reached up hungrily, as though searching
for warmth. There was nothing menacing about the picture. It was
horrible in its lifelessness; that was all.
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