Mrs.P.K.K.

Kalegga
PETROLOGY (GLO 1202)

Lecturer: Mrs. Peggy K. Kalegga

It is a core course with three credit units (i.e. 2 lecture hours & 2 practical hours per week).

Brief course description:

This course introduces students to the different types of rocks, their genesis and evolution
processes as well as their relationship to the theory of plate tectonics.
Course objectives:
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:
 Describe the different types of rocks and how they are formed.
 Identify different rocks.
 Relate the different rocks to various tectonic processes.

Course content:
- Classification of rocks: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
- Sedimentary rocks: composition, classification, textures & structures, lithification and
diagenesis
- Igneous rocks: composition, textures & provinces, major igneous rock groups; basalts and
granites
- Metamorphic rocks: regional, contact and cataclastic metamorphism; metamorphic rock
composition and textures, polymetamorphism

Course outline:
I. Introduction: Definitions on petrology, rock, magma/lava, texture/structure; rock types and
their characteristic features; rock cycle; relationship between petrology and plate tectonics
II. Igneous rocks: magma evolution; magma differentiation; textures; classification
III. Metamorphic rocks: Metamorphism; types of metamorphism; textures; rock types;
nomenclature; classification; metamorphic facies
IV. Sedimentary rocks: main groups/classes; sedimentary environments; clastic & non-clastic
sedimentary processes; composition; detailed classification; sedimentary texture; textures of
clastic and non-clastic sedimentary rocks.
V. Practicals on ii, iii & iv above.

Assessment criteria: Students will be assessed in three ways i.e. assignments & tests (20%),
practicals (20%), and final examination (60%).

Selected References:
- Best, G. M. (1982): Igneous and metamorphic Petrology W. H. Freeman and Co., San
Francisco; 630pp.
- Deer, W.A, Howie R.A.& Zussmann, (1992): An introduction to the rock forming minerals;
second edition; John Willey & Sons Inc., New York; 691pp.
- Haung, W. T. (1962); Petrology; Mc Graw line; London, 480pp.
- Internet
- Klein, C. & Hurlburt, C. S. (1993): Manual of Mineralogy; 21st edition; after J. D. Dana; John
Willey & Sons Inc., New York; 558-592p.
- Le Maitre, R. W. (1989): A classification of igneous rocks and glossary of terms; Black well
scientific and publications; London, 193pp.

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- Mottana, A. Crespi, R. & Liborio, G. (1978); Simon & Schuster’s Guide to rocks and
minerals, Simon & Schuster Inc; N.Y.
- Petrology journals and magazines e.g. ‘Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology’by
springer.com, e. t. c.
- Physical geology textbooks.
- Press, F. & Siever, R. (1986): Earth; fourth edition; W.H. Freeman and company, New York;
656pp.
- Watson, J. & Read, H.H. (1968): Introduction to Geology, Volume 1, Principles; second
edition; Macmillan Education Ltd, London; 693pp.

INTRODUCTION:
Since Rocks are the basic building blocks of the Earth, this course is designed to give the
student a fundamental background in rocks, necessary to understand the Earth. The student
learns the principles behind rock forming processes and to examine rocks in hand specimen as
a means of identifying and describing the rocks and as a means of extracting clues to formulate
hypotheses about how the rocks formed in nature.

Petrology is a science concerned with the study of rocks and therefore handles their occurrence,
composition, classification, origin plus their relation to geological processes and hence their
history. Petrology is divided into two branches:
(1) Petrogenesis and
(2) Petrography
Petrogenesis deals with the genesis of rocks i.e. how they were formed and their history. It also
covers the processes that the rocks have undergone since their formation.
Petrography is the descriptive part of petrology and deals with the composition of rocks, their
textures, mineralogy and chemistry. The identification of minerals constituting a rock can
often be done in the field, by eye or with a hand lens. In case of fine- or very fine-grained rocks,
and those that contain glass, it’s necessary to make use of a petrographic microscope, x-ray or
other laboratory methods.

Minerals are the constituents of rocks, which make up the entire inorganic, solid portion of the
Earth. Mineral formation and rock formation are, in fact, one process.
To know minerals, therefore, it’s important to know rocks. A single mineral may form a rock
but usually, rocks are cohesive aggregates of two or more minerals. Depending on how they
were formed, rocks are divided into igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary types.

Rock:
Rocks are natural aggregates of one or more minerals in different fashions to produce different
textures or even different rocks. Rocks are therefore made of definite mineral assemblages
from which the earth is built.

Magma:
Magma is molten silicate rock material. But it can also be defined as mobile rock matter made
up wholly or in an appreciable part of a liquid phase having the composition of a silicate melt.

Lava:
Lava is magma that reaches the earth surface.

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Texture:
Texture is the grain-to-grain relationship of a rock and hence covers the geometric aspects of
the component particles of a rock, which include size, shape and arrangement. It thus describes
the arrangement, grain sizes and crystal shapes of a rock.
It also throws some light on the rate of crystallisation of magma (especially for igneous rocks)
e.g. volcanic rocks tend to be fine-grained because the lava (from which they form|) crystallises
very fast at surface temperatures and pressures while plutonic rocks tend to be medium- to
coarse-grained because the magma (from which they form|) crystallises rather slowly and
hence minerals have a enough time to form large sizes. Sometimes, the lava is quenched (cools
suddenly) to form glassy rocks like obsidian.
The rate of crystallisation of magma/lava is also dependent on temperature, pressure, and gas
content of the magma/lava, viscosity of the magma/lava and the depth of emplacement. Thus
texture is a small-scale feature in comparison to structure that is a large-scale feature.

Structure:
Structure is a large-scale feature of a rock mass usually noted on outcrops in the field or very
easily on a hand specimen e.g. bedding/stratification, lamination (for sedimentary rocks),
banding (for both sedimentary and metamorphic rocks), flow structures (igneous rocks and
some sedimentary rocks like tillites), cleavage, jointing, brecciation, folding, faulting, e.t.c.
(for any type of rock).

TYPES OF ROCKS:
Rocks are divided into 3 main groups according to their mode of formation i.e.
- Igneous/magmatic rocks
- Sedimentary rocks &
- Metamorphic rocks.

(a) Igneous rocks:

These are the parents of all other rocks. They are produced by the cooling and solidification of
magma either at depth to produce plutonic (intrusive) rocks or at the Earth’s surface to produce
volcanic (effusive) rocks.

Magma that comes to the surface is termed lava and tends to flow on the surface of the earth.
This characteristic tends to produce rocks of different textures for example some volcanic
rocks such as rhyolite tend to show flow textures. But depending on the pressure content of the
lava, it can erupt onto the Earth surface, rapidly with great force producing pyroclastic rocks.
Pyroclastic rocks are granular rocks produced under the influence of heat and show some
baked appearance.

Features Common to Igneous Rocks

* Volcanic (extrusive/effusive) rocks:
Grain size:
(1) Are generally fine-grained and sometimes glassy due to sudden cooling at the surface since
there was no time for crystallisation to occur.
(2) Can be granular/clastic especially if proclastic in nature

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Other features:
(3) - Usually contain air spaces called vesicles due to the escape of gases, which were initially
dissolved in the lava as pressure suddenly decreased. Hence the resultant texture is vesicular
texture. For example basalt has vesicular texture.
- The vesicles can be filled with secondary minerals like iron zeolite, quartz, or calcite and are
then termed amygdules, with the resulting texture called amygdaloidal texture.

* Plutonic rocks:
- Are mostly coarse-grained (but the grain sizes may range from fine- to medium- to coarse- or
even very coarse-grain sizes).
- They are crystalline in nature.
- Granular

(b) Sedimentary rocks:

These are rocks formed from sediments, either derived from pre-existing rocks by precipitation
from solution (termed non-clastic or chemical sedimentary rocks) or by accumulation of
inorganic materials (termed clastic or detrital sedimentary rocks).
The clastic sedimentary rocks constitute rocks formed from weathering of pre-existing rocks
and this usually involves breakdown (mechanical disintegration) of other rocks
(igneous/metamorphic/older sedimentary rocks) to form sediments, transportation of the
sediments (by agents like wind, or running water), deposition in a basin, burial of successive
layers of sediments and lastly compaction into hard rock.
The non-clastic sedimentary rocks involves accumulation of organic materials (e.g. plant
debris to form coal), or precipitation of sediments from surface water (e.g. gypsum beds or
limestone from seawater). Sedimentary rocks form when these initial sediments solidify by
cementation and compaction.

Features common to Sedimentary Rocks

(1) Bedding (layering/stratification).
- It is the arrangement of rocks in form of layers. It’s most evident in shales, mudstones,
or limestones.
(2) Granular/clastic
- The individual mineral grains may be coarse, medium or fine. Most sedimentary rocks are
granular or clastic (and distinctly crystalline) but some few are non-clastic.
(3) Soft i.e. easily disintegrate into individual grains.
(4) There may be cement between individual grains. The cement is usually silica, iron oxide,
clay or calcite.
N.B: Read about the characteristic primary structures of sedimentary rocks and their
significance in geology e.g. (a) Bedding (b) Lamination (c) Ripple marks (d) Mud-cracks, e.t.c.

(c) Metamorphic rocks:

These are rocks formed by metamorphism. Metamorphism involves burial of rocks at great
depth which causes an increase in temperature & pressure coupled with some chemically active
fluids (liquids/gases) which produce some reactions where some of the mineral phases in the
pre-existing rocks react with one another to produce different textures/structures or new
minerals may be formed and hence different rocks formed that constitute metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic rocks can thus be defined as rocks formed by the change of pre-existing rocks to
new rocks with different textures and mineralogy as a result of the effects of heat, pressure,
chemical action or combinations of these.

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Features Common to Metamorphic Rocks
(1) Generally show foliation (different sheets of minerals are stack parallel to one another (i.e.
one sheet on top of the other). Foliation is seen in form of distinct alternation of material,
which differ from one another in grain size or composition or by the parallel segregation of
different minerals into parallel layers.
Schistosity is also common in metamorphic rocks. Schistosity is a variety of foliation
occurring in coarse-grained metamorphic rocks resulting from the parallel arrangement of
platy mineral grains)
(2) Preferred orientation of minerals (lineation) i.e. mineral are arranged in a particular
direction.
(3) Are crystalline in nature since they are formed under pressure.

ROCK CYLCE
The relationship between the three types of rocks constitutes the rock cycle.
The earth is dynamic and subjected to various processes that lead to the formation of different
rocks. Given time, the effects of these processes in any one of these rocks can be intense
enough so that they’re changed to other rock types. This relationship is the basis of the rock
cycle. Refer to the two sketches of the rock cycle.

Classification of rocks:
Rocks are divided into 3 main groups according to the process by which they are formed:
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Each of these is further subdivided according to several criteria, which have not been accepted
universally, since rocks and scientists are both heterogeneous.

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A certain uniformity of approach has been reached for the igneous rocks based on quantitative
mineralogical methods (see Figures 5a & 5b) but there is still a long way to go with
sedimentary rocks and to a lesser extent with metamorphic rocks, in which structural and
textural considerations seem to be more important than purely mineralogical ones. The
classification schemes of each rock group are summarised below:
Intrusive/ plutonic
Igneous rocks Mode of formation
Hypabyssal

Extrusive/ volcanic

M>90 %: according to the predominating mineral e.g. pyroxenite,

hornblendite, carbonatite, e.t.c.
Colour index (M)
M<90 %: according to the relative proportions of alkali feldspar (A),
Plagioclase (P) and either quartz (Q) or feldspathoid (F).

Pyroclastic Rudites

Sedimentary rocks Detrital/fragmental or clastic) Arenites

Argillites
Chemical or non-clastic

Organic/organogenetic/Biochemical Prefix ortho: from igneous rocks &

Migmatites: which are halfway between
igneous & metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks Rocks from which they’re derived
Prefix para: from sedimentary rocks

Genesis i.e. type of metamorphism they’ve undergone

Grade of metamorphism

Facies: Particular temps & pressures of crystallisation defined by specific mineral assemblages (mineral paragenesis)
Texture: hornfels, phyllite, mylonites, schists, gneisses.

RECOGNITION & STUDY OF ROCKS:

Rocks are natural aggregates of minerals, hence in order to identify the different rock types, we
must be able to recognise the minerals they contain, determine the proportions in which the
minerals are present and their spatial relation to one another i.e. their texture.
In order to recognise a rock, we need to
1) Recognise the number and types of minerals present with the aid of a hand lens or naked
eye,
2) Determine the size and shape of the crystals and their spatial relationship to each other,
properties which establish the texture of a rock &
3) Combine these with field observations of structure of the rock e.g. bedding/ stratification,
igneous lamination, folds, faults, e.t.c.
4) Precursor rock and/or confirmatory identity for the rock
5) Rock type and name of the rock.

PETROLOGY AND PLATE TECTONICS:

The global tectonic theory of plate tectonics demonstrates an intimate interrelation between
tectonism, magmatism and metamorphism, all linked to the thermal energy in the earth as
illustrated below:

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Melting & magma production

Thermal energy Magmatism

Energy for destruction of existing rocks &

recrystallization of new mineral grains Metamorphism

Association of mountain building and seafloor

spreading with metamorphism and magmatism Tectonism

Plate tectonic settings where rock-forming processes occur are concentrated along plate
boundaries because that is where flow of matter and energy are focused due to plate motion.
Particular boundaries are characterised by particular types (and complexities) of geologic
processes affecting different rock materials and this favours development of specific types of
rock bodies or plate tectonic rock associations (see Table 1). Considering magmatism, there
are different types of magma series (characterised by their distinct mineralogical compositions)
in the different plate boundaries leading to formation of different rock types (see Tables 2 & 3).

Table 1

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Table 2

Rock-forming processes mainly function along divergent/spreading/accretionary and

convergent/subduction/consumptive plate margins while the passive/transform/shear margins
have very minor rock-forming processes (chiefly characterised by destruction of pre-existing
rocks). Refer to the schematic sketch representing volcanism on a global scale.
Although most magmatic activity occurs along convergent and divergent plate boundaries,
some is also found randomly distributed far from any plate boundary and even within a given
plate. This could be prompted by aborted attempts of rifting a continental plate apart or it
could be related to plumes of deep hotter mantle rising up to the base of the lithosphere (which
is a relatively thin rigid part of the Earth encompassing the uppermost mantle and all the crust,
and it’s divided into about a dozen separate plates). Such intraplate magmatism is
compositionary variable and includes many of the rock types found in convergent plate
boundary associations plus a variety of alkaline rocks (enriched in sodium & potassium relative
to silica).
Therefore, plate tectonics controls the distribution of different rock types within different parts of the Earth.

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Table 3

Tholeiitic magmas have: pyroxene (enstatite-augite) ±

pigeonite; no olivine; free silica (glassy matrix)

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Magma is molten silicate rock from which most igneous rocks are formed after solidification.
It may contain significant quantities of gases e.g. carbondioxide, which escapes with sudden
release of pressure producing, structures called vesicles in volcanic rocks. Magma consists
mostly of liquid rock matter, but may contain crystals of various minerals, and may contain a
gas phase that may be dissolved in the liquid or may be present as a separate gas phase.

Magma Evolution:
Primary magma is lighter, hotter and usually more pressured than the overlying rocks and
hence tends to more upwards. These 3 properties make magma more buoyant. Magma
evolution is the process by which magma may be modified in composition as it moves up to
generate a great variety of rocks.

There are different way by which magma ascends:

(1) It might ascend upwards by assimilating the overlaying rocks. Assimilation refers to
mutual solution of magma with solid rocks, or with other magma or with foreign gas so that a
new magma with at least some of approach to chemical homogeneity results.
(2) It may wedge apart weak strata or squeeze into fractures or faults other planes of weakness
or it may move along bedding planes forming structures such as sills, dykes, laccoliths e.t.c.
(3) It may solidify at depth to form structures such as batholiths, stocks. Batholiths and stocks
are common in plutonic regions and are described according to their form and relationship to

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the rocks they have invaded. Look at the sketch diagrams on the plutonic and volcanic
structures.

Magma Differentiation:
Is the process of modification of magma as it cools. It can also be defined as a process by
which an initially homogenous magma splits into fractions of different composition as it
solidifies.

Processes of magma differentiation:

(1). Fractional crystallization: This is a process by which different fractions of magma having
different compositions separate out at different temperatures to form different types of rocks as
magma progressively cools on its way up.
Certain minerals are therefore associated together in igneous rocks because they crystallise out
at the same temperature e.g. Olivine and Albite or Olivine and Labradorite.

As crystallisation progresses, equilibrium between the solid and residual liquid phase tends to
be maintained. This equilibrium is achieved by the already formed crystals reacting with the
residual liquid and hence change in composition of the original magma.
This reaction may be either:
a) progressive such that a continuous series of homogenous solid solution is produced or
b) the already formed crystals may react with the hot residual liquid magma and get
transformed and change into other minerals of different crystal structures at definite
temperatures thus producing the discontinuous reaction series.
These two reaction series constitute Bowen’s reaction series as shown below:

Bowen’s Reaction Series:

Discontinuous reaction series Continuous reaction series
Olivine Anorthite
Pyroxene Bytownite
Amphibole (hornblende) Labradorite
Biotite Andesine
Oligoclase
Fe & Mg are decreasing Ca is decreasing while Na, K &
while Al & Si are increasing Albite Si are increasing
K-feldspar
Quartz
Muscovite
Zeolites &
Other water-rich minerals
As magma cools, minerals crystallize (separate-out) at different temperatures, in a definite
sequence indicated by Bowen’s reaction series hence olivine and calcium-feldspar (which are
Fe, Mg & Ca-silicates) form at high temps & may separate/crystallise early/first from the melt
while the other minerals solidify as the temp falls. As the magma cools, other ferromagnesian
minerals & Ca-Na feldspars crystallise. The last to crystallize are potassium-feldspars,
muscovite mica & quartz –the major mineral constituents of granite. Granites make up the
bulk of the batholiths we see (after being exposed by erosion, millions of years later).
Finally, the remaining material (a small percentage of the total mass) consists of water in the
magma, carrying valuable metals (such as Pb, Cu, Ag, Sn) + semi-metals (like As, Sb, Bi) plus
other transition metals, sulphurdioxide and sulphur in solution that move outward thru

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fractures in the surrounding rock and deposit sulphides in veins. These materials are left over
because they are unstable at high temps & pressures and are soluble in water at lower T & P.
The water is important because it affects the temp at which crystallisation occurs and the types
of minerals formed during cooling.
Batholiths may cool and shrink thereby producing fractures near their margins. Hot-water
(hydrothermal) solutions move thru the fractures to lower-pressure zones nearer the surface.
As they move outward into cooler zones, the elements precipitate by the metals & semi-metals
combining with sulphur to form veins. The less soluble elements crystallise at higher temps in
or near the batholith (thus termed hypothermal). More soluble elements crystallise farther
away (mesothermal) and very soluble elements crystallise at greater distances up to tens of
miles from the batholith (epithermal). Most veins are thus zoned with high-temp zones near
the batholith and low temp zones farther away. Because the temp at any given location falls
with time, hydrothermal veins are quite complex, with several generations of mineral
deposition visible in any specimen.

BOWEN’S REACTION SERIES

(2) Crystal Setting/Floatation

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- Here the dense crystallised minerals tend to sink to the bottom of the magma chamber while
the lighter ones tend to float. This process tends to produce layered igneous rocks e.g.
granites.

(3) Gas Streaming

- Is process whereby gas bubbles in magma either attach themselves to the formed
crystals and make them float hence separate from the liquid phase or may cause
the interstitial fluid to rise.

(4) Filter-pressing
- When crystallization of magma is far advanced, the crystals form
a continuous mesh with the residual liquid in the pores. If the mass is
squeezed by movement of the wall rock such as faulting, then the liquid is pressed out and
separated from the crystals. This constitutes the process of filter pressing.

(5) Assimilation
- Here, hot magma is modified in composition by reacting with the wall rocks and hence the
magma is contaminated and changes in composition.

(6) Mingling
- Is a process by which partly crystallised magma mix with foreign bodies such as
rocks or fluids (which may be gases). The rocks produced by this mechanism are
called hybrid rocks.

Volcanic rocks
- Typical volcanic rocks occur as those extruded on the earth surface ranging from the few
inches to several hundreds of feet in thickness. Most volcanic rocks usually occur in form of
lava flows. Lava flows are tabular igneous bodies, which are thin compared to their horizontal
extent.

Volcanic rocks are of 3 different origins:

(1) Effusive forms - Are dominant in volcanoes supplied by magmas of low viscosity and no
violent explosions.
Broad low cones or shield volcanoes are formed around the vents supplied by magma of low
viscosity and are typically developed in basic volcanic provinces such as the Hawaii Islands of
the mid-Pacific volcanic province.

(2) Explosive forms - Result from the explosive eruptions in volcanoes fed by somewhat
viscous magmas. The explosive action is due to the pressure of volatile components of the
magma, which on coming out of solution are unable to escape readily.
Around the vents of such volcanoes, wall rocks are shuttered and the explosive escape of gases
carries with it dust & debris from the rocks as well as fragments of solidified lava.
All this pyroclastic materials falls back to the earth to make cinder or ash cones or in other
places composite (strato) volcanoes are formed.

(3) Collapse forms - The collapse of an underlying magma chamber may cause circular
depressions called caldera.

Pyroclastic rocks

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- Are accumulations of fragmental rocks and minerals brought to the surface by the explosive
escape of volcanic gases. These include rocks and chips of already solidified volcanic material,
accidental fragments of non-volcanic rocks disrupted by the explosions and contributions
thrown up from the active magma itself. Some pyroclastic materials may remain lodged in
vents to form bodies of vent agglomerate called volcanic domes. The large fragments pile up
near the vent to form volcanic breccia while finer ash spreads further from the vent and forms
tuff.

Plutonic rocks
Forms of plutonic intrusions include sills, dykes, laccoliths, lapoliths, phacoliths, batholiths,
and stocks. These will not be described because they have already been covered in your course
of internal processes.

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A laccolith intruded between sedimentary rock layers,

bowing-up overlying rocks in a dome-like structure.

Depth (km)

Cross-section of a lopolith, a large saucer-shaped intrusion

with a central feeder channel.

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TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS:

Igneous rock textures may be described in 3 different ways;
(1) Degree of crystallinity
- Generally refers to the proportion of crystals (relative to matrix) in a given igneous rock.
Terms used;
(a) Holocrystalline - Refers to igneous rocks that are wholly or entirely composed of crystals
e.g. granite.
(b) Holohyaline –Refers to igneous rocks that are entirely composed of matrix or glass e.g.
obsidian
(c) Hypocrystalline - Refers to igneous rocks containing both glass and matrix or crystals and
matrix/glass e.g. basalt and rhyolite.
Note: The terms mentioned above are restricted to igneous rocks only.

(2) Grain Size (granularity)

- Aphanitic - Refers to rocks whose minerals are too small to be visible with an unaided eye.
- Phaneritic: - Refers to igneous rocks whose minerals are visible with the naked eye.
 Fine-grained: Most grains are < 1mm in diameter.
 Medium-grained: Most grains are between 1mm and 5mm in diameter.
 Coarse-grained: Most grains are >5mm in diameter.
Note: The terms mentioned above are also used in describing the grain size of sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks.

(3) Grain Shape & Forms

- Euheral (idiomorphic/automorphic): If the constituent minerals are completely bound by
visible crystal faces.
- Subhedral (Hypidiomorphic/hypautomorphic)
Composed of minerals only partly bounded by crystal faces.
- Anhedral (allotriomorphic/xenomorphic): Composed of minerals devoid of crystal faces.

Note: The terms mentioned above could also be used in describing the grain shapes/forms of
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

NB: -
(1) When a mineral is surrounded by another, the enclosing mineral is younger.
(2) Earlier formed crystals are generally more euhedral than later ones.
(3) If both large and small crystals occur together the larger ones are those that developed
first.
(4) When large crystals (phenocrysts) are embedded in a fine-grained mass (matrix or
glass), the texture is referred to as porphyritic.
Pyroclastic texture is only restricted to pyroclastic rocks!

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

There are so many types of igneous rocks and various classification schemes have accordingly
been designed. The classification can be based on chemistry, mode of occurrence, mineralogy
or texture.

1. Chemical classification:
This is based on the silica content, silica saturation or alumina saturation.

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I). Silica (SiO2) content may be used as the basis for classification since most igneous rocks
consist of silica. Accordingly, we may classify them as:
(i) Acidic: SiO2 content > 66% e.g. granite granodiorites, rhyolites, e.t.c.
(ii) Intermediate; SiO2 content 52-66%, e.g. syenites, trachytes, monzonites e.t.c.
(iii) Basic; SiO2 content 45-52% e.g. gabbros, basalts.
(iv) Ultrabasic or ultramafic: SiO2 <45% e.g. peridotities dunites, Kimberlites.

The major mineral constituents of acidic rocks are quartz & muscovite.
Intermediate rocks have K-feldspar, Na-feldspar, pyroxene. Biotite and Ca-feldspar are major
minerals in basic rocks. Ultrabasic rocks contain lots of amphibole and olivine.
These minerals are the basis for the classification scheme given above
Some minerals in igneous rocks are never associated with quartz (free silica) because they are
unstable in the presence of free silica. SHAND called such minerals unsaturated. e.g.
Nepheline, sodalite, Forsiterite [iron rich end member of olivine group], spinel, pyrope, e.t.c.

Other minerals can develop in the presence of silica and they are therefore called saturated with
respect to silica e.g. Feldspars, amphiboles, micas, fayalite, sphene, ilmenite etc.

II). Accordingly, Shand distinguished 3 types of igneous rocks based on silica saturation
(a) Over saturated rocks: Contain free silica of primary origin
(b) Saturated: - Contain either free silica or any unsaturated minerals.
(c) Unsaturated rocks: Consist either wholly or in part of unsaturated minerals e.g.
nephelinites.

III). Alumina (Al2O3) saturation may also be used for classification since alumina is the
second most abundant chemical constituent in igneous rocks.
Shand proposed 4-fold classification based on Al2O3 saturation:
(i) Peraluminous rocks - have molecular proportion of Al2O3 that exceeds that of Na2O
and K2O + CaO i.e. Al2O3 > Na2O + K2O + CaO. Such rocks form from acid hydrous magma
at fairly low temperatures.

(ii) Metaluminous rocks - in such rocks the proportion of Al2O3 exceeds that of soda and
potash but it’s less than that of lime, soda and potash i.e. Na2O + K2O > Al2O3<Na2O
+K2O + CaO.

(iii) Sub-aluminous rocks - have very little or no excess alumina over that required for the
crystallisation of feldspars and feldspathoids i.e. Al2O3  Na2O + K2O.

(iv) Pera-alkaline rocks, (Al2O3<Na2O + K2O).

- These form in the last stage of crystallisation of soda rich magma hence minerals such as
feldspars and feldspathoids don’t form so easily in these rocks and are therefore very few.

2. Textural Classification:
Rocks are separated into fine-; medium- and course-grained types depending on whether the
rock is volcanic or plutonic and this is principally based on the viscosity of the magma involved.
Grain size in igneous rocks is proportional to the rate of crystallisation of lava or magma.

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
3. Mineralogical Classification:
Here we distinguish between the:
a) essential minerals i.e. the dominant minerals in a given rock from
b) accessory minerals, which appear in minor or trace amounts (<1%) in a given rock.
Colour can also be used to classify rocks as follows:
i) Felsic rocks- that are made of light coloured (felsic) minerals e.g granites.
ii) Mafic rocks- that are made of dark-coloured minerals and hence are basic and ultrabasic
rocks e.g. gabbros, dunites, peridotites, e.t.c. They are dark because of their minerals (like
amphiboles, olivine, e.t.c.) that contain Fe and Mg. Iron & Magnesium are termed as
Ferromagnesians.
Each rock can therefore be given a colour index to express the proportion of light and dark
minerals.
Shand distinguished 4 classes of such rocks:
(1) Leucocratic rocks: Have <30% mafic minerals.
(2) Mesocratic rocks: Have 30-60% mafic minerals.
(3) Melanocratic rocks: Have 60-90% mafic minerals.
(4) Hypermelanic rocks: Have >90% mafic minerals.

Refer to the previous notes on the classification of rocks with respect to the igneous rocks and
also the chemical composition of igneous rocks. Look at the two handouts about the
mineralogy of igneous rocks. Look at reference number 7 (on the reference list availed) about
the mineralogy of particular types of igneous rocks.

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga

Fig. 5a Fig. 5b

Composition of igneous rocks:

Igneous minerals important in the formation of igneous rocks are relatively few in number
because the magma from which these minerals crystallize is rich only in certain elements:
silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron & magnesium. These are the
elements that combine and form the silicate minerals. The olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles,
micas, feldspars & quartz account for over 90% of all igneous rocks.

The mineralogical composition of igneous rocks is presented in Table 4 below, with the
quantity (or volume percentages) of the different minerals varying in different rock types.
The essential felsic minerals include: quartz, alkali-feldspar, plagioclase, nepheline and
muscovite.
The essential mafic minerals may include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite and
tourmaline.
The frequent accessory minerals are apatite, garnet, leucite, hematite, magnetite, ilmenite,
zircon and monazite.
The secondary minerals may include calcite, zeolites, clay minerals, epidote, chlorite and
pyrite.
The prominent physical properties of these minerals are described below:

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Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga

IGNEOUS /MAGMATIC PROVINCES:

The arrangement of magmatic provinces in the earth and the history of igneous activity through
geological time are bound up with the whole history of the crust.

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
A brief summary of the characteristics of the great igneous provinces which have developed in
the recent geological past and are still active at the present day is given below as shown in the
map below. The map (Fig. 255) shows the distribution of active volcanoes and the extent of
areas where igneous activity has been widespread since the early Tertiary. Ignoring minor
variations, we may recognise five igneous provinces as elaborated below:

1. The oceanic basins; where most islands and seamounts are volcanic. In the Pacific we may
mention the Hawaiian, Samoan and Society Islands, Easter Island and Tahiti. In the Indian
Ocean we’ve Reunion and St. Paul yet in the Atlantic, there’s St. Helena and Tristan da
Cunha.
In all these groups, basalts are the dominant rocks and their associates appear to be derived
from basaltic magma. The oceanic provinces display a type of volcanicity in which sialic
material plays no part. Much of the igneous activity is related to the mid-oceanic ridge systems
which may mark the site of rising convection-currents in the mantle.

2. The North Atlantic belt is a distinctive but now almost extinct, igneous province extends
from east Greenland to Iceland, Jan Mayen, the Faeroes, western Scotland and northern Ireland.
In all these areas, plateau-basalts are the predominant igneous rocks and in Iceland
fissure-eruptions of basalt have taken place in historic times. Volcanoes of central type were
also widely developed in the Tertiary periods, and plugs and ring-intrusions of plutonic rocks
were formed in their roots. Throughout the province olivine-basalts and tholeiites are
associated in the lava piles, which in places reach totals of more than 5 kms in thickness. Their
minor associates include trachybasalts and trachytes on the one hand and rhyolites on the other.
The plutonic intrusions of the province include gabbros and their differentiation products (e.g.
the Skaergaard) and a number of conspicuous bodies of granite; intermediate rocks linking the
acid and basic types are quite restricted. The association of acid and basic rocks in the Tertiary
plutonic complexes has always provided a problem; the acid material may represent a
differentiate of the basic magma, but it is also possible that the acid fraction was augmented by
contributions from sialic material mobilised by the basic magma.
In the British section of the province, relics of Tertiary plateau-basalts are found in Skye, Mull
and the adjacent parts of the Scottish mainland, and in Antrim. Plutonic complexes, many of
which occupy the roots of eroded central volcanoes, occur in St. Kilda, Skye, Rhum,
Ardnamurchan, Mull, Arran, the Mourne Mountains, the Carlingford hills and Slieve Gullion;
with the exception of St. Kilda, these centres lie close to a single north-south line, and there is
little doubt that they were built up along the line of a far-reaching crustal fracture. Swarms of
doleritic dykes run north-west and south-east across the volcanic region and are concentrated
about the plutonic centres. The formation of the plutonic bodies was at most centres bound up
with the development of ring-fractures; in at least one centre (Mull) calderas developed at the
surface in association with the ring-structures. Igneous activity at each volcanic centre was
highly diversified. At Ardnamurchan, for example, activity began with the formation of
explosive vents with which were associated some early intrusions of dolerite and a set of
basaltic cone-sheets. A new centre further west gave rise to a concentric series of ring-dykes,
largely gabbroic in composition, and a set of cone-sheets. Both these early centres were then
broken through by a third ring complex whose ring dykes produce at the present day a
remarkable concentric topography.

3. The Circum-Pacific belt which extends northward up the Cordilleran systems of America,
through the Aleutian Islands and southward through Japan, the Philippines and the East Indies
to New Zealand.

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
4. The Mediterranean-Himalayan belt where volcanicity is sporadically developed from the
Canary Islands eastward through the Mediterranean and the Middle East and recurs again in
Burma, Sumatra and Java, finally linking up with the circum-Pacific belt.

These two great belts of volcanicity (i.e. circum-Pacific belt & Mediterranean-Himalayan belt)
follow the active orogenic zones of the earth where many other signs of crustal unrest are
visible, and there is no doubt that the volcanicity is a by-product of the orogenic processes.
Many of the volcanoes are arranged in linear or arcuate series related to fractures or zones of
deformation at depth.
The volcanic products and volcanic forms of the circum-Pacific and Mediterranean belts show
so much variation that it is hardly possible to generalise. Basalts are widespread, but do not
show the overwhelming dominance of the basalts of the oceanic and north Atlantic regions.
Andesites and rhyolites are conspicuous in the Andes and the North American cordilleras, and
alkaline rocks are developed in the Mediterranean. In addition to the superficial igneous
products, a variety of plutonic bodies, formed well below the surface, are now being exposed
where the mountain-belts are dissected by erosion. These bodies are largely granitic and belong
to the Plutonic Series.

5. The Rift-valley belt following the rift-valley systems of Africa and the Middle East. In this
belt alkaline rocks are very conspicuous. Recent igneous activity is more or less confined to the
line of the rift-valleys and associated earth-fractures, and the distinctive alkaline cast of the
igneous rocks must be in some way connected with the tectonic setting; the controlling factors,
and the origin of the alkaline magmas, remain uncertain.

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Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
Note that:
- Igneous minerals important in the formation of igneous rocks are relatively few in number
because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich only in certain elements: silicon,
O, N, Na, K, Ca, Fe & Mg. These are the elements that combine and form the silicate minerals
and account for over 90% of all igneous rocks.
- As magma cools, minerals separate-out/crystallize at different temps (see Bowen’s reaction
series) hence olivine and calcium feldspar form at high temps and may separate-out early from
the melt while the other minerals solidify as the temp falls. The last to crystallize are
K-feldspar, muscovite mica & quartz- the major constituents of granite. Finally, water in the
magma, carrying valuable metals and sulphur in solution moves thru fractures in the
surrounding rock and deposits sulphides in veins. The water is also important because in
affects the T at which crystallization occurs and the types of minerals formed during cooling.
- Plutonic rocks form from magma (a complex molten material that originates within the earth)
that cools and hardens within the earth. They are surrounded by pre-existing rocks, called
country rock. The magma cools slowly and as a result, these rocks are coarse-grained.
- Central cores of major mountain ranges consist of large masses of the plutonic rock, generally
granite, intruded as a part of the mountain-building process. When exposed by erosion, these
cores, called batholiths, may occupy millions of Square miles of surface area. Off-shoots of
batholiths bear different names, such as laccoliths and sills, depending on their size and their
relationship to the country rock. Abyssal: course-grained rocks formed at depth; Hypabyssal:
intrusive rocks formed near the surface.
- Volcanic rocks are formed at the earth’s surface as a result of volcanic activity, which is
associated with maintain-building forces within the earth.
- Rocks may fracture as a result of mountain-building forces, hence P released, causing a
sizeable volume of rock to melt and resulting magma is forced through fractures to the surface,
hence forming a volcano. Lava (molten rock) flows from the volcano & spreads onto the
ground, cools & crystallizes rapidly and is thus fine grained. Volcanic material may be blown
violently from the volcanic pipe as blocks, pellets and dust or as a liquid which hardens before
falls to the surface. These pyroclastics may fall nearby, forming part of the volcano or may be
spread great distances by winds.
- Classification of igneous rocks can provide important information as to the conditions of
formation. Common ones include particle size which is depends largely on cooling history
and composition (both chemical and mineralogical) since feldspars, Quartz, olivines,
pyroxenes, amphiboles and micas are the important minerals in the formation of igneous rocks,
they are basic 2 the formation of those rocks and all the other minerals are non -essential (i.e.
accessory). In general, phaneritic rocks with crystals large-enough to be seen by the eye ≡≡
intrusive origin but aphanitic rocks with crystal too small to be seen by the eye ≡≡ an extrusive
origin. Porphyritic: crystals embedded in a fine grained matrix imply two phases of magma
cooling to form the rock.
- Granites show evidence of being the result of either igneous or metamorphic processes. Some
crystallize from a melt hence blocks of partially assimilated country rock may be found in
granite thus indicating that the country rock fell into a liquid magma that hardened around it.
Others bear evidence of having been formed by metamorphism hence this variations in
composition of pre-existing sedimentary rocks are reflected in banding preserved in the granite.
The conversion of sedimentary rock to granite by metamorphism is called granitization.

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Types of Magma
Types of magma are determined by chemical composition of the magma. Three general types
are recognized, but we will look at other types later in the course:

1. Basaltic magma -- SiO2 45-55 wt%, high in Fe, Mg, Ca, low in K, Na
2. Andesitic magma -- SiO2 55-65 wt%, intermediate. in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
3. Rhyolitic magma -- SiO2 65-75%, low in Fe, Mg, Ca, high in K, Na

Gases in Magmas: At depth in the Earth nearly all magmas contain gas dissolved in the liquid,
but the gas forms a separate vapor phase when pressure is decreased as magma rises toward the
surface. This is similar to carbonated beverages which are bottled at high pressure. The high
pressure keeps the gas in solution in the liquid, but when pressure is decreased, like when you
open the can or bottle, the gas comes out of solution and forms a separate gas phase that you see
as bubbles. Gas gives magmas their explosive character, because volume of gas expands as
pressure is reduced. The composition of the gases in magma are:

 Mostly H2O (water vapor) with some CO2 (carbon dioxide)

 Minor amounts of Sulfurdioxide, Chlorine, and Fluorine gases

The amount of gas in a magma is also related to the chemical composition of the magma in
that rhyolitic magmas usually have higher dissolved gas contents than basaltic magmas.

Temperature of Magmas: Temperature of magmas is difficult to measure (due to the danger

involved), but laboratory measurement and limited field observation indicate that the eruption
temperature of various magmas is as follows:

 Basaltic magma - 1000 to 1200oC

 Andesitic magma - 800 to 1000oC
 Rhyolitic magma - 650 to 800oC.

Viscosity of Magmas: Viscosity is the resistance to flow (opposite of fluidity). Viscosity

depends on primarily on the composition of the magma, and temperature. Hence;
- Higher SiO2 (silica) content magmas have higher viscosity than lower SiO2 content magmas
(i.e. viscosity increases with increasing SiO2 concentration in the magma).
- Lower temperature magmas have higher viscosity than higher temperature
magmas (i.e. viscosity decreases with increasing temperature of the magma).

Thus, basaltic magmas tend to be fairly fluid (low viscosity), but their viscosity is still 10,000
to 100,0000 times more viscous than water. Rhyolitic magmas tend to have even higher
viscosity, ranging between 1 million and 100 million times more viscous than water. (Note
that solids, even though they appear solid have a viscosity, but it is very high, measured as
trillions times the viscosity of water). Viscosity is an important property in determining the
eruptive behavior of magmas.

Summary Table
Magma Solidified
Chemical Composition Temperature Viscosity Gas Content
Type Rock

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga

45-55 SiO2 %, high in Fe,

Basaltic Basalt 1000 - 1200 oC 10 - 103 PaS Low
Mg, Ca, low in K, Na
55-65 SiO2 %, intermediate
Andesitic Andesite 800 - 1000 oC 103 - 105 PaS Intermediate
in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
65-75 SiO2 %, low in Fe,
Rhyolitic Rhyolite 650 - 800 oC 105 - 109 PaS High
Mg, Ca, high in K, Na.

Origin Of Igneous Rocks:

The origin of magma is not known from direct observations, but during the last few
decades, our understanding of the chemistry and physics of liquid rock material has increased
greatly. This knowledge is based on observations of synthetic magmas made in the laboratory,
on the observation of volcanic products, and on studies of Earth's geophysical properties.
We know from seismic evidence that the Earth is essentially solid to a depth of
2900 km, and that only its outer core is liquid. The liquid core, however, is unlikely to be the
source of most magma. The core's density ranges from 9 to 10 gm/cm3, a density much greater
than that of any magma or igneous rock in the crust. Basalt, one of the densest igneous rocks,
has a density of only 3 gm/cm3). Magma must therefore originate from the localized melting of
solid rock in the upper mantle and lower crust, at depths ranging from only 50 to 200 km below
the surface.
To understand the origin of magma, remember that a rock does not have a specific
melting point. This is because; each mineral within the rock begins to melt at a different
temperature. Muscovite, K-feldspar, and quartz not only crystallize in sequence at
temperatures ranging from a little over 800 to 600°C, but they begin to melt in this temperature
range as well. Amphibole melts at a higher temperature, followed by the melting of pyroxene
and olivine. Sodium-rich plagioclase begins to melt at about 600°C, whereas calcium-rich
plagioclase may not melt until it reaches a temperature of 1200oC. In reality, melting and
crystallization are complex physical and chemical processes. It is, however, well established
that some minerals melt at lower temperatures than others. This fact is important in
understanding the general way in which a magma originates.
In addition to temperature, remember that other important factors-such
as pressure, amount of water present and overall composition of the rock influence melting. For
example, melting can be initiated by either an increase in temperature or a decrease in pressure
and is enhanced by the amount of water present in the pore spaces of the rock.
The diagrams in Figure 3.14 summarize our present
understanding of how and where magma originates. Global studies of the distribution of flood
basalts, volcanoes, batholiths, and associated mountain belts indicate that basaltic magma is
generated at divergent plate margins and that granitic-andesitic magma is generated in
subduction zones. In both areas, variations in temperature and pressure occur as a result of plate
movement, and magma is produced by the partial melting of the lower crust or upper mantle.
Generation of Basaltic Magma
Basaltic magma is believed to be generated at divergent plate margins by partial
melting of the asthenosphere (Figure 3.14A). The asthenosphere, as well as the lower mantle, is
almost certainly composed of peridotite, a rock made up largely of the minerals olivine,
pyroxene, and minor amounts of plagioclase. The balance between temperature and pressure in
the asthenosphere is just about right for peridotite to begin to melt. Below the asthenosphere,
the pressure is too great for melting to occur, and at more shallow depths above the
asthenosphere, the temperature is too low.
The general process of how basaltic magma originates follows: As
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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
material in the asthenosphere moves slowly upward and outward, the lithosphere splits and
moves apart. This reduces pressure above a section of the asthenosphere, and melting begins.
Plagioclase melts first, followed by pyroxene, and ultimately by the melting of olivine. If only
part of the mantle rock melts, much of the olivine remains solid, so the resulting magma is
richer in those elements that compose plagioclase and pyroxene. In fact, that is the composition
of basaltic magma. Scientists therefore hypothesize that basaltic magma originates from
partial melting of the asthenosphere at rift zones, where pressure is reduced as a result of the
splitting and spreading apart of lithospheric plates. A decrease in pressure thus plays an
important role in the generation of basaltic magma. The basaltic magma, being less dense than
the surrounding peridotite, rises along the spreading center and is extruded as basalt flows in
the rift zone.
Generation of Granitic Magma
In a subduction zone, the basaltic oceanic crust and water-saturated oceanic sediments descend
into the mantle. This mixture of basalt and sediment is heated by the friction between colliding
lithospheric plates and by the higher temperatures at depth as the mixture is submerged (Figure
3.14B). As the basalt and oceanic sediments are heated, the silica-rich minerals begin to melt
first, some at temperatures as low as 500°C. Partial melting of the basaltic crust thus produces
a magma richer in silica than the magma produced at divergent plate boundaries (see Figure
3.1). This silica-rich magma rises upward in the orogenic belt to produce granitic intrusions
and andesitic-rhyolitic flows. The extreme pressure in the roots of a deformed mountain belt, at
converging plate margins, would also increase the temperature enough to begin the melting of
some of the minerals in metamorphic rocks. The liquid would rise, collect in larger bodies, and
produce chambers of granitic magma.
Generation of Magma in Mantle Plumes
The origin of magma in ocean islands in the middle of the plates but far from plate boundaries
- has long been a mystery. The details of the composition of these basaltic lavas suggest to
many geologists that they are generated by partial melting of rising plumes of solid mantle.
Presumably, they rise because they are more buoyant and warmer than the rest of the mantle.
As the material in the plume nears the surface, the plume partially melts to produce basalt that
rises to the surface.
The basaltic magma may erupt to form chains of shield volcanoes, such as the Hawaiian
Islands, or to form large provinces covered by flood basalts. Thus the magma-generating
process is very similar to the process that generates oceanic ridges, but the composition and the
shape of the zone of magma generation and eruption are significantly different.

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Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
These are rocks produced by a process of metamorphism.
Metamorphism refers to mineralogical and structural changes that occur in rocks due to
increase in temperature and pressure as well as the action of the chemically active fluids as the
rocks are buried deeper and deeper. As temperature changes, the mineral phases in the rock
become activated. Metamorphism is therefore motivated by pressure and temperature increase,
active fluid e.g. water, CO2, HCl, Carbonic acid & Hydrofluoric acid.

Metamorphism is given a grade depending on the temperature at which it occurs.

-Low-grade metamorphism occurs at lower temperatures while high-grade metamorphism
occurs at high temperatures.
-Metamorphism which occurs in response to increasing temperature is termed Prograde
metamorphism while that which occurs in response to decreasing temperatures, usually helped
by the presence of fluids is termed retrograde metamorphism.
Metamorphism takes place in solid rocks and if little or no new material is brought in from an
external source or taken out of the rock then metamorphism is termed Isochemical.
However if substantial addition or removal of material occurs, which leads to the alteration of
the bulk composition of the rock, then it’s termed metasomatic (allochemical).
- In many cases the minerals of rocks react to the pressure exerted during metamorphism by
flattening out i.e. elongating in the direction of least pressure and acquire a foliated structure.
The resultant rock usually shows foliation (for finer-grained metamorphic rocks) or schistosity
(for the coarse-grained metamorphic rocks) but may also show lineation (linear arrangement of
minerals).

- Types of Metamorphism:
(1) Regional metamorphism
(2) Dynamic metamorphism
(3) Impact metamorphism
(4) Contact metamorphism
(5) Hydrothermal metamorphism
We distinguish type of metamorphism depending on temperature, pressure, strain and fluid
activity.

Regional metamorphism
- Occurs at high temperatures and pressures, variable strain and fluid pressure.
- It is developed over areas of many thousands of sq. km. (extensive), usually in the roots of
Fold Mountains and Precambrian terrains.
- Here the growth of new metamorphic minerals is accompanied by deformation and
introduction of tectonic mineral fabrics in response to strain. Most metamorphic rocks have
undergone regional metamorphism and therefore have wide range of temperatures and
pressures in which they occur.
The heat needed for this metamorphism is derived from 3 sources
(1) Granitic magma regionally injected into the rock.
(2) Rise of heated juvenile water
(3) Decay of radioactive isotopes

Regional metamorphism may be of various grades depending on the temperature and pressure
at which it occurs however temperature is the most important factor.
Many low grade rocks derived from initially wet hydrous fine-grained sediments such as clay,
mudstones, shales contain hydrous minerals such as chlorite, muscovite, sericite which are

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
indicative of low-grade metamorphism however with progressive increase in metamorphism,
these minerals lose more water (& fluids) and become more recrystallised and harder.

Contact (thermal) metamorphism

-Developed in zones or country rocks adjacent to igneous intrusive rock bodies as a result of
magmatic heating.
-The temperature of metamorphism and hence the grade is determined by the proximity of the
rocks to the intrusive body which supplied the heat as well as the active fluid which stimulate
chemical reactions.
-The resulting metamorphic rocks comprise contact aureoles (i.e. a region burnt or baked due
to contact with the hot igneous body) are rarely more than few hundreds of metres wide and
show concentric metamorphic zones.

‘Contact aureole’ around an igneous intrusion:

Middle zone of spotted slates

Intrusive igneous body

Inner zone of hornfels

Outer zone of baked rocks

-Contact metamorphism can affect a wide range of rock types but most aureoles are developed
in sediment rocks with previous of history of regional metamorphism usually at low to
moderate grade however it may affect Pre-existing igneous rocks as well.
-The rocks nearest to the intrusive body e.g. hornfels are usually more recrystallised and harder
than those far away. Contact metamorphism of an impure carbonate rock composed of calcite
and quartz may produce wollastonite.

Dynamic metamorphism
-This metamorphism is developed due to intensive deformation and the rocks are recrystallised
due to intense strain and it’s also accompanied by reduction in grain size.
-Dynamic metamorphism affects pre-existing metamorphic or igneous rocks destroying the
original mineral fabrics due to the high temperature (> 300oC).
-Ductile deformation is developed in the affected rocks.
-Mylonites are the characteristic rocks formed by dynamic metamorphism. These are usually
crushed and granulated to give rise to very fine grain sizes.

The above 3 types of metamorphism considerably overlap and it’s worth noting that contact &
dynamic metamorphism occur in restricted areas while regional metamorphism affects very
large regions.

Rocks may undergo metamorphic adjustment in more than one episode and this is referred i.e.
as polyphase metamorphism e.g. a rock may initially be deformed and metamorphosed by

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
dynamic metamorphism caused by orogenic movements but it’s later affected by an igneous
intrusion and hence acquires a baked appearance.

Hydrothermal (metasomatic) metamorphism

- Can occur in a wide range of tectonic settings but its characterised by the involvement of hot
aqueous fluids, which pass through the metamorphosing rock and lead to changes in chemical
composition. The extent of such changes can be rather minor dominated by hydration or it may
be extensive and results into the formation of monomineralic metamorphic rocks of which the
abundance of many of the chemical species in the rock have been changed. Although localised
it is common around igneous intrusions, shear zones and fault zones.
-The most important occurrence of hydrothermal metamorphism is produced by interaction of
heated seawater with newly created oceanic crust at Mid Ocean Ridges. This type of
metamorphism is called sea floor metamorphism. It’s found in orphiolites on land as well as
on Present Ocean floor. Rocks of an early history of hydrothermal metamorphism may
subsequently be affected by regional metamorphism

Textures of metamorphic rocks

- Metamorphic rocks are recrystallised, hard and strong and usually hence a well-defined
parallel arrangement of minerals i.e. minerals can be separated from one another. This party is
termed foliation. However in many coarse-grained metamorphic rocks there exists very fine
foliation termed schistosity.
- Minerals in metamorphic rocks compete for space when they are forming. The term “Blasto”
was proposed by scientist called Becke (1908), to metamorphic textures in order to distinguish
them from similar-looking igneous textures e.g. pophyroblastic, granoblastic, crystalloblastic
e.t.c.
- Since most metamorphic rocks are recognised by the texture especially in the field, textural
terms are very important in naming metamorphic rocks and indicate whether or not oriented
mineral fabric elements are related to their appearance. The following textural terms are used
in describing the textures of metamorphic rocks depending on the rock type in question:

Types of rock Textural term

- Hornfels (high grade contact metamorphic Horn felsic
rock
- Slates Slaty
Phyllites (from shales) Phyllitic
- Schists (regional metamorphic rock) Schistose
- Gneisses Gneissic
- Mylonites Mylonitic

Descriptions of the common metamorphic rocks:

Slate
Is a very fine-grained rock of very low metamorphic grade displaying slaty cleavage. Slates
are strongly cleaved rocks since the cleavage planes are well developed throughout the rock
due to orientation of very fine phyllo-silicates, which can hardly be seen by the naked eye.

Phyllite
Is a fine-grained rock of low metamorphic grade, displaying a perfect penetrative Schistosity
resulting from the parallel alignment of coarser phyllo-silicates. Hence it’s similar to a slate

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but with coarser phyllo-silicates. The foliation surfaces within a phyllite commonly show a
lustrous sheen.

Schist
It’s a metamorphic rock characterised by a pervasive, well-developed schistosity defined by
preferred orientation of abundant unequant mineral grains of moderately coarse-grained
phyllo-silicates and other minerals.

Gneiss
A coarse-grained metamorphic rock displaying gneissose structure. The term can also be
applied to rocks displaying a dominant linear fabric rather than a gneissose structure, in which
case the term lineated gneiss may be used. Coarse crystals appear and the rock is foliated. If
the parent rock is sedimentary, the gneiss is called a para-gneiss while that with igneous parent
rock is called an ortho-gneiss.

Mylonite: Rock produced as a result of intense ductile deformation leading to mechanical

reduction of grain sizes due to breaking and granulation of minerals, resulting in the
development of a penetrative fine-scale foliation, and often associated with mineral and
stretching lineation.

Nomenclature of metamorphic rocks:

Metamorphic rocks may be named based on their mineralogy.
- Important metamorphic minerals, which are indicators of certain conditions, are often used in
metamorphic rock names even if they are not the major constituents of the rock e.g. Sillimanite
muscovite schist, amphibolite.
- Metamorphic rocks may also be named according to the order of abundance of the
metamorphic minerals within the rock e.g. garnet sillimanite schist.
- Metamorphic rocks may also be named based on the nature of the parent rock.

Original rock Metamorphic equivalent

Limestone Marble
Quartz-sand Quartzite
Basalt Metabasite

- Appropriate names may be given to particular metamorphic rocks e.g. serpentinite consists of
mineral called serpentine.

Minerals in metamorphic rocks may form in 3 different phases:

(1) Pre-existing (previous) phases:
Consists of minerals formed before the metamorphic event. These could be clasts of detrital
sedimentary rock, pre-metamorphosed minerals in igneous rocks or blasts representing an
earlier metamorphic event.

(2) Contemporaneous (Simultaneous) phases:

Minerals that appear at the time of the actual metamorphism event.

(3) Late or post-genetic phases:

Consist of minerals that are formed (or appear) after the metamorphic event.

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Classification of metamorphic rocks (see handout on rock classification)

There are many ways of classifying metamorphic rocks but the textural and mineralogical
classification schemes are the simplest. Based on texture, the following textural classes may be
distinguished: hornfels, slates, phyllites, schists, gneisses.

Composition of Metamorphic rocks

- Since they are derived from other rocks, we expect them to have minerals common in
sedimentary & igneous rocks. However, some minerals are restricted to metamorphic rocks.
- Minerals common to Igneous & metamorphic rocks: Quartz, feldspars, muscovite, biotite,
hornblende, pyroxene, olivine, iron ore, etc.
- Minerals common to metamorphic & sedimentary rocks: Quartz, muscovite, clay, minerals,
calcite, dolomite and feldspar.
- Minerals restricted to metamorphic rocks: Garnet, andalusite, Kyanite, sillimanite, epidote,
chlorite, staurolite, cordierite, e.t.c.

Metamorphic facies [zones]

- The most important role of metamorphic petrology is to determine the pressure (depth) and
temperature at which particular metamorphic minerals formed.
This depends on the bulk composition of the original rocks and the P/T conditions, which they
experienced.
Metamorphic terranes can be divided into zones or facies each characteristic of a particular
mineral or suite of minerals.
Zone boundaries represent constant grades and are called isograds.
Rocks subjected to high T & P are said to be of high grade than those subjected to less extreme
conditions. If metamorphism is increasing in a rock sequence this is termed prograde
metamorphism.
Different original rock types respond in different ways to the same conditions of
metamorphism according to their bulk composition and some show far fewer mineralogical
changes than others.
-The term facies was therefore introduced, corresponding to regions in the P/T diagram, which
may be distinguished by particular mineral assemblages in any range of rock types.
-For regional metamorphism, minerals showing different grades of metamorphism are isolated;
Low grade: Sericite, chlorite, talc, antigorite, actinolite, glaucophane epidote, albite, e.t.c.
Medium grade: Muscovite, biotite, hornblende, almandine, staurollite, anthophyllite, e.t.c.
High grade: Pyrope, cordierite, wollastonite, spinel, sillimanite, Hornblende, Pyroxene,
anorthite, Bytownite e.t.c.

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga

Note that:

The word "Metamorphism" comes from the Greek: meta = change, morph = form, so
metamorphism means to change form. In geology this refers to the changes in mineral
assemblage and texture that result from subjecting a rock to conditions such pressures,
temperatures, and chemical environments different from those under which the rock originally
formed.

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
Diagenesis is also a change in form that occurs in sedimentary rocks. In geology, however, we
restrict diagenetic processes to those which occur at temperatures below 200oC and pressures
below about 300 MPa (MPa stands for Mega Pascals), this is equivalent to about 3 kilobars of
pressure (1kb = 100 MPa).
Metamorphism, therefore occurs at temperatures and pressures higher than 200oC and 300
MPa. Rocks can be subjected to these higher temperatures and pressures as they are buried
deeper in the Earth. Such burial usually takes place as a result of tectonic processes such as
continental collisions or subduction.
The upper limit of metamorphism occurs at the pressure and temperature where melting of the
rock (anatexis) in question begins. Once melting begins, the process changes to an igneous
process rather than a metamorphic process.
Therefore, the lower limit of metamorphism is diagenesis while the upper limit of
metamorphism is anatexis.

- Solid-state reaction is one of the important mechanisms of metamorphism where a chemical

reaction takes place between two minerals without either of them melting but what actually
occurs is that atoms are exchanged between the minerals and new minerals are formed e.g
Quartz and calcite are stable alone & in a siliceous limestone don’t change at low temp but at
high temp react with one another and form the metamorphic mineral wollastonite i.e.
SiO2 (Solid Quartz) + CaCO3 (Solid (calcite) → CaSiO3 (solid wollastonite) + CO2
Many complex high-temp reactions take place among minerals and each mineral-assemblage
produced is due to the temp & pressure at the time of metamorphism.
NB: The introduction of new chemicals (during metasomatism) is not necessary for
recrystallization and solid-state reaction to take place but it speeds up metamorphic processes.
- Contact aureoles are important in the study of metamorphism because a single rock type may
show all degrees of metamorphism from the contact area to the un-metamorphosed country
rock some distance away.
- Formation of important ore minerals may occur by metasomatism at or near the contact;
limestone is particularly susceptible to this type of mineralization.
- Regional metamorphism involves changes in great masses of rock over wide areas (thousands
of square miles) due to high T & P in the depth of the earth. Mineralogy & texture of such
rocks provide information about mountain-building and earth processes.
- Metamorphism destroys features that would have revealed the rocks previous history e.g
recystalization destroys fossils & sedimentary structures while solid-state reaction and
metasomatism change the original composition.

Origin Of Metamorphic Rocks

Regional Metamorphism results from the combined action of high temperatures and directed
stresses. It is common where lithospheric plates collide and the rocks are folded, crushed,
sheared, and stretched. Rocks in the roots of mountain belts are generally altered by
recrystallization, growth of new minerals, and re-orientation of existing minerals.
Careful field and laboratory studies indicate that certain mineral assemblages are indicative of
varying degrees metamorphism. Chlorite, talc, and mica, for example, form under relatively
low temperatures and pressures, whereas garnet and amphibole develop under more intense
conditions.

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
Contact Metamorphism results from high temperatures and vigorous solution activity,
concentrated near the contacts of a cooling magma. This type of metamorhism is localized and
diminishes rapidly away from the intrusive body.
Heat and the chemical activity of fluids associated with the magma are the major metamorphic
agents. The affected rocks generally recrystallize to form hard, massive bodies.

Metamorphism and Tectonics

- Metamorphism at Convergent Plate Margins.
Most metamorphic rocks on continents were formed in mountain belts at convergent
plate margins. These rocks represent an important phase in the growth of continents by
accretion (Figure 5.7). The major steps in the process of continental accretion can be
summarized as follows.
Sediment derived from the erosion of a continent (or an island arc) is transported and
deposited along the continent's trailing margin. Convecting currents in the asthenosphere may
change the direction of plate movement, and ultimately the trailing margin, with the thick
deposit of sediments, collides with another plate. The sediments are thus deformed into a
mountain range. Rocks in the roots of the mountain are subjected to high pressure because of
deep burial and to high temperatures because of the generation and migration of magma that is
intruded into the mountain belt. The deep burial and the tremendous horizontal pressures of the
converging plates cause the rocks in the roots of the mountain belt to partially melt and
recrystallize. New minerals grow under the horizontally directed stresses and typically develop
a foliation that is perpendicular to the stress (essentially vertical). High-grade metamorphism
of the sediments forms gneisses and schists deep in the mountain roots. Slates develop at
shallower depths.
Blue schists result from the low-temperature, high-pressure metamorphism of
deep-marine shale deposited on the continental margins. Green schists form in the zone of deep
burial as a result of high pressure and high temperature. Some completely melted rock material
may rise to the surface and cool as dikes, injected between the planes of foliation. Erosion of a
mountain range causes the mountain belt to rise due to isostatic adjustment. Ultimately, the
metamorphic rock, formed deep in the mountain root, is exposed at the surface and forms a new
segment of the continental shield.

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- Metamorphism at Divergent Plate Margins
Another type of metamorphism occurs at the oceanic ridge (Figure 5.8) and is
completely different from that produced by mountain building. Here, metamorphism is
produced by the chemical action of hot seawater with little or no intense heat and pressure. At
the oceanic ridge, the major tectonic stress is extension that creates numerous open fissures
through which seawater can seep downward to depths of 2 to 3 km near the base of the dike
complex. As the water circulates through the hot volcanic rocks, it is heated to temperatures as
high as 450°C. This hot, saline water reacts with the olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase in the
basalt to form new minerals i.e. chlorite, sodium-rich plagioclase, talc, and serpentinite.
The circulation of hot water occurs along the entire oceanic ridge and represents a
fundamental geologic process. The total amount of water circulating through the oceanic crust
each year is equivalent to 2% of the annual discharge of all rivers on the planet, which is
enough to recycle the entire volume of the oceans every 5 to 10 million years.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks cover two-thirds of the earth surface. They are produced by the
transformation of pre-existing rocks (which may be igneous, metamorphic or even older
sedimentary rocks) by gravity, atmospheric agents (like wind, rainfall, ice, running water, e.t.c.)
and living organisms.

Sedimentary rocks are divided into two groups:

(1) Clastic sedimentary rocks: These are formed by the consolidation of sediments and loose
materials derived from the mechanical accumulation of fine and coarse fragments of rock
(clastic sediments). Most clastic sediments are produced by the mechanical disintegration
(weathering) of pre-existing rocks by agents (such as wind, water and heat). Such sediments
are transported by wind, ice or water and deposited in form of layers/beds in a basin. These are
later compacted, recrystallised, cemented together, few P-T reactions occur and finally
lithification of the rock occurs to form a clastic sedimentary rock. All the above underlined
processes constitute diagenesis.
(2) Non-clastic sedimentary rocks: These are formed by precipitation from solution, with or
without the intervention by living organisms. Hence two sub-groups of non-clastic
sedimentary rocks are distinguished as (a) Organogenetic and (b) Chemical deposits
respectively.

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Chemical deposits are thus derived from solutions without the intervention of living organisms
while organogenetic deposits are derived from chemical solutions with the intervention of
living organisms.

Sediments are classified according to the environment in which they are deposited/formed.
Hence there are continental, interstitial and marine sediments.
(1) Continental sediments may be:
a). Terrestrial/sub-aerial (on the earth’s surface) e.g.
-Detritus (broken particles) from landslides,
- Eolian (wind-blown) sands of deserts, and
- Peri-glacial (end-stage of glaciation) loess or
b). Sub-aqueous (under water) e.g.
- Moraine (or glacial sediments),
- Lacustrine (lake) sediments like sands, muds and clays,
- Alluvial (river) sediments,
- Fluvial (stream) sediments like pebbles and rounded sands

(2) Marine
- Corals that form reefs in shallow seawater
- Neritic (formed in areas of low tide to depths of less than 200m.)
- Bathyal (200-2000m)
- Abyssal (>2000m).

(3) Interstitial
- Deltaic
- Estuarine
- Lagoonal sediments like muds and clays, sometimes with layers evaporites
- Intertidal (Lithoral).

* Pyroclastic materials

*Sediments formed in Karstic environment (forming Karstic sedimentary rocks e.g limestone).

Continental deposits may be subaerial or terrestrial (i.e. formed on the earth surface) e.g.
broken particles (detritus) from land slides, they may be Aeolian i.e. wind-blown sands of
deserts, may be glacial i.e. transported by moving ice (glacier) or sub-aqueous i.e. formed
under water. They may also include fluvial sediments i.e. material that is carried by streams,
may be lacustrine i.e. lake deposits with sand, muds and clays, or swamp deposits.
Marine sediments consists of the mixture of detritus (clastic material), fine- and coarse-grained
material often reconstituted from pre-existing continental sediments together with the
chemicals coming from chemical/biochemical precipitation of salts contained in the sea water
and the remains of organic activity present in those waters e.g. skeletons and shells.
These are classified according to the depth of the water they are deposited and their distances
from the coastal are as follows,

(1) Pelagic: These are fine-grained and siliceous.

(2) Neritic sediments: These are coarse-grained, with complex structures due to movement
of detritus by water and the activity of the organism.
(3) Intertidal (lithoral) sediments): These are formed between areas of high tide and low
tide at shallow sea depth, near the coast.

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
(4) Lagoonal deposits;- mainly chemical or organogenetic sediments formed in coastal
areas of wide extent but extremely shallow in that they are separated from the
neighbouring deeper area of the sea, they mainly consist of muds, and clays but
sometimes having layers of evaporites between the layers of the deposits.
(5) Deltaic sediments - Deposited at the mouth of large rivers and usually consist of a
variety of materials that are thoroughly sorted according to size.
(6) Coral reefs; are often chaotic and generally mixed with organic material.

The term sedimentary environment refers to the place where the sediment is deposited
and to the physical, chemical, and biological conditions that exist there. The diagram below
shows, in a general way, the regional settings of some major sedimentary environments. The
description of each environment summarizes some of the important characteristics of the
sedimentary rocks formed in each environment.

7 6 5

4
2
1. Shoreline Environments 3
Beaches, bars, and spits commonly develop along low coasts and partly enclose quiet-water
lagoons and tidal flats. The sediment in these environments is well washed by wave action and
is typically clean, well-sorted quartz sand. Behind the bars, and adjacent to the beaches, fine silt
and mud are often deposited as tidal flats.
2. Shallow-Marine Environments
Shallow seas are widespread along the continental margins. In the past, they were even more
extensive than today. Sediments deposited in shallow-marine waters form extensive layers of
well-sorted sand, shale, and limestone that typically occur in a cyclical sequence as a result of
shifting environments from changes in sea level.
3. Deep-Ocean Environments
The deep ocean adjacent to the continents receives a considerable amount of sediment
transported from the continental margins by turbidity currents. As a current moves across the
deep-ocean floor, its velocity decreases gradually, and the sediment carried in suspension
settles. The resulting deposit is a wide-spread sediment layer in which the grain size grades
from coarse, at the base of the layer, to fine, at the top. Deep-sea deposits are thus characterized
by a sequence of graded beds.

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4. Organic Reefs
An organic reef is a solid structure com posed of the shells and secretions of marine organisms.
The reef framework is typically built by corals and algae but many other types of organisms
contribute to the reef community. Together, these organisms produce a highly fossiliferous
limestone
5. Deltas
A delta is a large accumulation of sediment that is deposited at the mouth of a river. A delta is
one of the most significant sedimentary environments and includes a number of sub
environments, such as stream channels, floodplains, beaches, bars, and tidal flats. The deltaic
deposit as a whole consists of a thick accumulation of silt, mud, and sand.
6. Floodplains
The great rivers of the world typically meander across a flat floodplain before reaching the sea.
Over time, a considerable amount of sediment is deposited on these plains. Rocks formed in a
floodplain environment are commonly channels of sandstone deposited on the point bar of a
meander and enclosed in a shale deposited in the backswamps.
7. Glacial Environments
Glaciers transport but do not effectively sort material. The resulting deposit is an unsorted,
unstratified accumulation of angular' boulders, gravel, sand, and fine silt.
8. Alluvial Fans
Alluvial fans are stream deposits that accumulate near a mountain front in a dry basin. They
typically contain poorly sorted coarse gravel and boulders. Fine-grained sand and silt may be
deposited near the margins of the fan.
9. Eolian Environments
Wind is an effective sorting agent and will selectively transport sand and dust. It leaves gravel
behind but moves sand near the surface and lifts dust-sized particles high in the atmosphere and
transports them thousands of miles before they accumulate as a thin blanket of loess.
Windblown sand commonly accumulates in dunes, characterized by well sorted, fine grains.
The dominant sedimentary structure in eolian environments is large-scale cross-bedding.

The Clastic sedimentary process:

The clastic sedimentary process has 4 stages:
(1) Weathering and alteration of the original rocks by the agents named above. This leads to
the formation of sediments (but in advanced stages, soil forms) on top of the parent rocks.
A particular alteration process, the duration of the process, the nature of the parent material and
the possible washing away of the sediments, governs the thickness of the sediments (or soil).
(2) Transportation: This normally takes place in water; first in streams, then in rivers and
finally in the sea by currents and wave motions. But it can also be due to the effects of wind
frost, gravity and living organisms. Transportation normally separates the different
components of the sediment according to size, specific gravity or chemical composition. In
transport by water, we must distinguish between materials simply rolled and those carried in
suspension or solution.
(3) Deposition: It is most important stage because it gives the sediment its special textural
characteristics.

The Non-clastic (Chemical and Biochemical) Sedimentary Process

- Consists of precipitation of inorganic salts or substances that living organism need for their
survival; primarily CaCO3, CaPO4 and hydroxides of iron and silica.

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
- CaCO3 is particularly precipitated in continental areas while that which occurs in marine
environment is also mixed with MgCO3 and very fine siliceous muds in relatively shallow
water.
- Animal and vegetable organisms play a large role in the chemical processes e.g. they use
inorganic compounds in the formation of their skeletons, shells and branches and very
extensive stratified areas are formed from these materials after their death.

Below certain depth of water CaCO3 is re-dissolved.

- Hence abyssal (deep water) deposits are formed almost exclusively of silica, which largely
comes from the accumulation of remains of organisms and from precipitation of hot
(hydrothermal) solutions of volcanic origin, which also contain abundant manganese and iron.
This partly results into the formation of fine-grained siliceous sedimentary rocks called chert.
- Phosphatic and Ferruginous deposits are mainly continental in origin. The former
(phosphates) are derived from the accumulation of skeletons of vertebrates and of extrement
while the latter (ferruginous sediments) are derived from the bacterial fixation of Iron in
solution in swampy waters.

- A rare but important type of chemical sediment consists of evaporites which are derived from
the evaporation of salty water which is mainly sea water in the closed basin with the
precipitation of salts (particularly chlorides and sulphates of alkali elements) which would
otherwise remain in solution.

N.B: The final stage (4|) of any sedimentary process whether clastic or non-clastic in nature is
lithification. Lithification is the transformation of loose sediments into a hard coherent rock by
the elimination of intergranular space. This takes place either by simple compaction or by
chemical precipitation of cement (e.g. silica, calcite or iron oxide), which binds the grains
(mostly alluvial) together. This stage is completed by diagenesis which is the partial
recrystallisation caused by pressure of the sedimentary overburden and by the solution and
selective chemical exchange carried out by the surrounding water which often leads to the
formation of hard (consolidated) sedimentary rocks like dolomitic-limestones, sandstones,
mudstones, siltstones, shales, e.t.c.

Comparison between Diagenesis and Metamorphism:

- The word "Metamorphism" comes from the Greek: meta = change, morph = form, so
metamorphism means to change form. In geology this refers to the changes in mineral
assemblage and texture that result from subjecting a rock to conditions such pressures,
temperatures, and chemical environments different from those under which the rock originally
formed.
Note that Diagenesis is also a change in form that occurs in sedimentary rocks. In geology,
however, we restrict diagenetic processes to those which occur at temperatures below 200oC
and pressures below about 300 MPa (MPa stands for Mega Pascals), this is equivalent to about
3 kilobars of pressure (1kb = 100 MPa).
- Metamorphism, therefore occurs at temperatures and pressures higher than 200oC and 300
MPa. Rocks can be subjected to these higher temperatures and pressures as they are buried
deeper in the Earth. Such burial usually takes place as a result of tectonic processes such as
continental collisions or subduction.
- The upper limit of metamorphism occurs at the pressure and temperature where melting of the
rock (anatexis) in question begins. Once melting begins, the process changes to an igneous
process rather than a metamorphic process.

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
- Therefore, the lower limit of metamorphism is diagenesis while the upper limit of
metamorphism is anatexis.

Chemical composition of sedimentary rocks:

This is variable since they are produced from various rock types. Most sedimentary rocks are
however hydrous aluminium or iron oxides or Ca-Mg Carbonates or Silica containing rocks as
shown below:

sandstones & cherts

Argillaceous rocks
e.g. shales

Most sedimentary rocks have the unshaded composition. No sedimentary rocks have been
found to have the shaded composition!

Mineralogical composition of Sedimentary rocks

The minerals of sedimentary rocks belong to 2 distinct types:
(1) Detrital and
(2) Chemical minerals
Detrital minerals are those resistant minerals that survive the weathering process and are
mechanically transported to the basin of deposition.

Chemical minerals are those precipitated from the solution when already in the basin of
deposition. They are generally hydrated compounds since they form in water rich
environments.
Detrital minerals may be termed as allogenic while chemical minerals are also called
authigenic.
Allogenic minerals originate outside the sedimentary basin and transported to the basin of
deposition while authigenic minerals are formed by chemical precipitation either within the
basin of deposition or later within the sedimentary deposit itself. However most sedimentary
rocks are mixtures of both.
- Although sedimentary rocks have a complex mineralogy, the most common and abundant
minerals are few and include quartz, feldspars, micas, (muscovite & sericite), calcite, dolomite
and clay minerals.

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Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
- Sedimentary rocks may be grouped into 2 distinct classes i.e. (1) Clastic sedimentary rocks
and (2) Non-Clastic sedimentary rocks.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed by mechanical accumulation of rock particles such as
gravel, sands and clays and hence may otherwise be termed as fragmental/detrital rocks e.g.
sandstones, mudstones, siltstones, arkoses, Greywackes, shales, e.t.c.

Non-clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of minerals, which formed in the basin of
deposition. Such rocks contain mostly carbonates (calcite & dolomite), silica (usually
amorphous) or halides.
Chemical precipitation from bodies of surface water may be affected by evaporation, inorganic
reactions among dissolved salts, or organisms such as corals and bacteria. Evaporites such as
salt deposits, chert, gypsum, anhydrite, e.t.c. are also non-clastic sedimentary rocks.
Deposits formed by abundant skeletal secretions or fossils (e.g. corals, algal reefs, stromatolites,
diatomite, coral limestone, fossilferous limestone, e.t.c.) are termed organic or biogenic
sedimentary rocks and constitute a recognisable part of non-clastic sedimentary rocks.

- Clastic sedimentary rocks can still be classified according to grain size as follows:
(a) Rudites –Are coarse-grained pebbly rocks having a minimum diameter of 2 –256 mm e.g,
breccias, and conglomerates.
(b) Arenites –Are medium-grained rocks having a minimum diameter 2-1/16mm e.g.,
sandstones, arkoses, greywackes.
(c) Lutites –Are fine-grained (mostly clayey) rocks having a minimum diameter 2-1/16 - I/256
mm e.g. shales, marls, siltstones, mudstones.

The organic (organogenetic or biochemical) rocks derived from the accumulation of

substances of organic origin (shells, skeletons, vegetable material) are divided according to
their chemical composition into calcareous (calcite, dolomite), siliceous, ferruginous,
phosphatic (collophane, apatite), and carbonaceous (peat, lignite, bituminous and
sub-bituminous coals and anthracite).

Examples of non-clastic sedimentary rocks are CO2-3 e.g. limestones, dolomites, evaporites
such as rocksalt, sylvite and gypsum, sulphates such as barite, nitrates such soda Nitrate, and
borates. Some sedimentary rocks contain a huge amount of silica and such include chert,
Jasper, Flints, radiolarites, diatomite, e.t.c.

Textures of sedimentary rocks:

Sedimentary texture is concerned with grain size and its distribution, grain morphology and
surface features of grains, and fabric of the sediments.
Texture is useful as a descriptive element of sedimentary rocks and its important in interpreting
the depositional mechanism and environment. It is also an important control on the
economically significant relationship on porosity and permeability.

* a. Sediment grain size and its distribution

Grain size of clastic sediments, represents the hydraulic energy of the environment in that
coarse sediments are transported and deposited by faster flowing currents than finer sediments.
Hence mudrocks tend to accumulate in quieter water.
The sorting of sandstone usually reflects the depositional process and this improves with
increasing agitation and reworking. In contrast the grain size of carbonate sediments generally

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
reflects the size of the organism skeletons and calcified hard parts, which make up the sediment
and they are as well affected by currents (refer to the sheet on sorting).
Grain size and sorting of clastic sediments:
Grain size in clastic sediments is the basis on which they are classified into conglomerates,
sandstones, and shales (refer to the chart).
Grain size and sorting (uniformity of size) are the measure of competence of the transporting
agents. Most agents of transport tend to sort sediments according to their sizes, shapes and
densities hence sand is segregated from clay during transportation. As transportation
progresses, the small and less spherical particles tend to out run the others and the proportion of
larger particles in the sediment load progressively decreases in the direction of transport thus
leading to progressive sorting. In normal water deposited sediments, the size can serve as an
index for determining the proximity of the source rocks hence coarse deposits are angular (i.e.
not rounded), since they have not moved very far from the source.
Turbidity currents are capable of transporting coarse sediments pretty far without much sorting
while normal air or water deposits some of the best-sorted sediments like beach sands and dune
sands.

* b. Grain morphology
The morphology of grains has 3 aspects: shape, sphericity and roundness.
Shape is determined by the various ratios of the long (l), intermediate (i) and short (s) axes in a
given sediment. Accordingly, 4 classes of grain or clast shape are distinguished based on the
ratios of the long, intermediate and short diameters as tabular (disc-shaped), bladed, prolate
(rod-like) and equant (spherical) (see table).

Sphericity is the measure of how closely the grain shape approaches that of a sphere. Hence the
have the ultimate shape is that of a sphere.

Sphericity of a grain = surface area of a sphere of same volume

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 Mrs.P.K.K.Kalegga
actual surface area of the grain
The shape of the given grain is therefore indicated by its sphericity.

Roundness:
Is concerned with the curvature of the corners of the grain. It can therefore be defined as the
sharpness of the edges and corners of clastic sediments. It is independent of shape and hence
forms such as cubes, prisms, e.t.c. have zero roundness although their shapes are different.
Both shape and roundness tend to be more apparent in the larger clastic grains such as
conglomerates and breccias hence conglomerates can be described coarse-grained clastic
sedimentary rocks with well-rounded pebbles as opposed to breccias, which are coarse-grained
but angular. Sediments in clastic rocks may be angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded or well
rounded (refer to the figure above). Hence well-rounded grains have no original faces, edges or
corners left.

* c. Sediment Fabric
Refers to the mutual arrangement of grains in a sediment and it also includes the orientation
and packing of the individual grains. In many types of sedimentary rocks, the preferred
orientation of the particles can be observed. Pebbles in conglomerates or breccias as well as
fossils in a limestone, mudrock or sandstone can show this. This characteristic feature is
termed imbrication. Preferred orientation of particles arises from their interaction with the
depositional medium and can be both parallel to or normal to the flow direction. Measurement
of pebble, fossil grain orientation indicates that palaeocurrent direction. Preferred orientation
can also be tectonically induced especially in deformed areas and hence this might indicate the
fold axes, lineation or cleavage.

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The amount of fine-grained matrix and matrix-grain relationship affect the packing and fabric
of the sediment and it’s important in interpreting the depositional mechanism and environment.
Where grains in a sediment are in contact, the sediment is said to be grain supported. Matrix
can occur between the grains as a cement. Where grains are not in contact, the sediment is
matrix-supported.

In clastic sediments and limestones, grain-support fabric can indicate the extensive reworking
by currents or waves and the removal of mud or deposition from turbulent flows where fine
suspended sediment is separated from coarser sediment called bed load. Limestone with
matrix support fabric mainly indicates quiet water sedimentation conditions.

Textural Maturity:
Mineralogical composition and textural features of sedimentary rocks give information about
the maturity of the rock. Maturity is a measure of the extent to which features of mechanical
and chemical transformation have gone toward completion in a given rock. It therefore
depends on time and intensity of the chemical and mechanical agents of action. For an
originally clayey poorly sorted sediment to become completely matured, it must undergo the
following processes:
(1) Removal of clay
(2) Attainment of good sorting
(3) Rounding of the grains
The degree of sorting, roundness, and matrix content of a given rock contribute towards its
textural maturity e.g. texturally immature sandstones are poorly sorted with angular grain and
some matrix while texturally super mature sandstones are have well-rounded grains and no
matrix. Some grains and minerals are mechanically and chemically more stable than others.
Minerals in decreasing orders of stability are quartz, muscovite, microcline, orthoclase,
plagioclase, hornblende, biotite, pyroxene and olivine. This series is according to
compositional maturity of minerals and in accordance with Bowen’s reaction series.
Immature sandstones are those containing unstable grains (rock fragments, feldspars or mafic
minerals) while super mature sandstones consist almost entirely of quartz.
Textural maturity generally increases with the amount of reworking or distance travelled e.g.
eolian (desert) and beach sandstones are typically mature to super-mature while fluviatile
sandstones are less mature. Hence the maturity of any given sediments is dependent on 4
factors:
(1) Roundness
(2) Sorting/or matrix content
(3) Mineralogy
(4) Transportation distance /or amount of reworking.

Textures of clastic sedimentary rocks

It is generally referred to as clastic texture. It is a texture of any aggregate of grains in which
the original fragmental character is visible. The sizes of particles in the sediment may differ;
the large particles are termed grains and the smaller ones are called matrix. The smaller
particles are usually packed between the larger ones and appear as matrix surrounding the
larger grains. We may distinguish between poorly sorted detritus, which contains a lot of
matrix from well-sorted detritus, which contains grains only. Cement is common in detrital or
clastic rocks and may be of minerals such as CO32-s, opal, limonite, etc. Cement is less
common in argillaceous rocks since the clay material in them is a firm-binding agent between
them.

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Textures of non-clastic sedimentary rocks
- May be formed by the following processes
(1) Direct crystallisation/or inorganic reactions among the dissolved salts.
(2) Crystal growth and enlargement within the sediment, or
(3) Replacement reactions such as dolomitisation or silification.

A typical non-clastic texture e.g. rock salt has no visible intergranular pore spaces (no pores
between included grains) and it is therefore termed as crystalline granular.

Non-clastic rocks can also be subdivided according to grain size, which reflects the texture
within a given rock:
(i) Amorphous - consists of clay--size or colloidal size particles that are non-crystalline e.g.
cherts, mud, amorphous limestone, e.t.c.
(ii) Öölitic:
- Composed of small spheres or ellipsoidal aggregates of 0.25-2mm in diameter e.g. Öölitic
limestone, siliceous Öölite.
(iii) Pisolitic:
- Have greater diameter though similar to Öölitic rocks e.g. pisolitic limestone, algal pisolite.
(iv) Saccharoidal:
- Such rocks have a fine equigranular texture with grains appearing like those of sugar e.g.
saccharoidal dolomite.

Note that:
- Sedimentary rocks provided abundant information about the most recent half-billion years of
the earth’s history because they contain, in fossil form, the preserved remains of evidences of
ancient animals and plants. The manner in which particles of sediments are worn and deposited,
the relationships of the different layers, the colour and composition, the presence of ripple
marks or raindrop impressions –are among the feature that enable geologists to reconstruct
ancient landscapes and climate as well as the general sequence of geologic events.
- Oxidation, hydrolysis, hydration and solution are among the many complex chemical
reactions involved in weathering down rocks.
- The breakdown of rocks and erosion of the fragments has been greatly accelerated over the
past several centuries by the activities of man through farming and construction.
- Clay, quartz, colloidal silica and chemicals in solution are the common products of weathered
rocks and hence are the building materials from the sedimentary rocks.
- Composition of the sediments provides clues to the nature of the original source rock.
Differences between successive layers indicate changes that have occurred with time.
- Precipitated sediments are made of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl-, F-, So42- CO32- & PO43- ions which
are very soluble in water & so can be removed from existing rock in solution. Once dissolved in
water, they can be precipitated by organic process in oceans or lakes or may be extracted by
living organizations e.g. CaCO3 in form of calcite can be precipitated from solution in warm
waters which consolidates to form limestone yet corals, mollusks & algae also removes CaCO3
from Solution. Salts like halite, gypsum phosphates are precipitated from closed basins
(without an outlet) when evaporation forms a saturated solution.

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Origin Of Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks are derived from the weathering and erosion of other rocks.
This material is deposited at the Earth's surface, under conditions of normal temperature and
pressure. The major processes involved in the formation of sedimentary rocks are (1) physical
and chemical weathering of the parent rock material; (2) transportation of these weathered
products by running water, wind, gravity, or ice; (3) deposition of the material in a sedimentary
basin; and (4) compaction and cementation of sediment into solid rock. These processes
operate at or near Earth's surface and are therefore observable.
A significant result of the transportation and deposition of sediment is the sorting and
segregation of the parent rock material into sediments of similar grain size and composition.
Materials similar in size and weight are washed and winnowed by wind and water, and
deposited in a sedimentary environment according to the level of mechanical energy operating
at the time of deposition. For example, coarse gravels may be deposited in an alluvial fan near
a mountain front or on a river bar, whereas sand is transported downstream to the sea to be
concentrated on a beach. Currents and wave action wash away the finer material, which is
deposited ultimately in an environment of low mechanical energy, such as a marsh or lagoon.
Chemical sorting occurs contemporaneously in that the more soluble materials dissolve and are
removed in solution and may later be precipitated in a lake or an ocean basin.

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Some helpful sketches:

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