UNIT 1

Introduction: An electronic instrumentation system consists of number of components to

perform a measurement and record its result. The basic measurement system consists of three
vital components, which are as follows:

a. Input Device: Input Device receives the quantity under measurement and delivers a
proportional or analogous electrical signal to processing device.
b. Processing Device: Here the signal is amplified, filtered, modulated or modified in format
acceptable to the output device.
c. Output Device
Usually the input quantity for most of the instrumentation system is a non electrical quantity. In
order to use electrical methods and techniques for measurement, the non electrical quantity is
converted into an electrical form by a device called TRANSDUCER.

Definition of Transducer: Transducer is a device which converts a physical quantity (non-

electrical) into an electrical signal.
The electrical signal produced may be a Voltage, current or frequency. A transducer uses
many effects to produce such conversion. The process of transforming signal from one form to
other is called transduction.
So basically electrical transducer consists of two parts which are very closely related to
each other.
1. Sensing Element
2. Transduction Element
This sensing element is commonly known as sensor.

Definition of Sensor:

A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment. The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any other
environmental phenomena.

Definition of Transduction Element: A transduction element transforms the output of sensing

element to an electrical output.
Characteristics of Transducer:
 Accuracy: closeness with which the reading approaches an standard value or true value.
 High stability and Reliability: Output of transducer must be highly stable and reliable
so that there will be minimum error in measurement.
 Sensitivity: The electrical output obtained per unit change in the physical parameter of
the input quantity.
 Speed of Response: It must be as high as possible.
 High Output: Transducer should give high output signal so that it can be easily
measured and processed.
 Linearity: output should be linearly proportional to the input quantity under
measurement.
 Repeatability: The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same
environment.
 Dynamic Range: The operating range of transducer should be wide.

Criteria to choose a Sensor

There are certain features which have to be considered when we choose a sensor. They are as
given below:
1. Accuracy
2. Environmental condition - usually has limits for temperature/ humidity
3. Range - Measurement limit of sensor
4. Calibration - Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings changes with time
5. Resolution - Smallest increment detected by the sensor
6. Cost
7. Repeatability - The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same environment

Classification of Sensors
Active vs. Passive Sensors

1) Active sensors: Require an external source of power (excitation voltage) that provides the
majority of the output power of the signal.

2) Passive sensors: The output power is almost entirely provided by the measured signal
without an excitation voltage
Digital vs. Analog Sensors

1) Digital sensors: The signal produced or reflected by the sensor is binary. It gives discrete
output. Example: Optical Encoder
2) Analog sensors: The signal produced by the sensor is continuous function of time.
Example: strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouples

Various Types of Transducers:

Displacement and Pressure Transducers
Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of an object. Position
sensors are employed to determine the position of an object in relation to some reference point.
There are various types of transducers used in measurement and instrumentation system. Here
we will discuss only displacement and pressure transducers.
1. Measurement of displacement using Potentiometer
Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of an object. Position
sensors are employed to determine the position of an object in relation to some reference point.
The potentiometer is also called as pots and it one of the most commonly used device for
measuring the displacement of the body. The potentiometer is the electrical type of transducer or
sensor and it is of resistive type because it works on the principle of change of resistance of the
wire with its length. The resistance of the wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire,
thus as the length of the wire changes the resistance of the wire also changes.

Linear potentiometer Angular potentiometer

Construction of Potentiometer

The construction of the potentiometer is categorized into two parts. They are the sliding and non-
sliding parts. The sliding contact is a called wiper. The motion of the sliding contacts is either
translatory or rotational. Some potentiometer uses both the translatory and rotational motions.
Such type of potentiometer uses the resistor in the form of a helix, and hence they are called
heliports.

Helipot
• The potentiometer has three terminals. The two terminals are connected to the resistor,
and the third terminal is connected to the wiper which is movable with the wire.The
potential of the third terminal is controlled by changing the resistor.

Measurement of Displacement using Resistive Transducer

The above circuit consists of a potentiometer and a voltage source, VS. We can say that these
two are connected in parallel with respect to the points A & B. Potentiometer has a sliding
contact, which can be varied. So, the point C is a variable one. In above circuit, the output
voltage, V0 is measured across the points A & C.
Mathematically, the relation between the voltages and distances can be represented as
 Vo/VS = AC/AB
because Voltage is directly proportional to R and R is directly proportional to L.
Therefore, we should connect the body whose displacement is to be measured to the sliding
contact. So, whenever the body moves in a straight line, the point C also varies. Due to this, the
output voltage, Voalso changes accordingly. In this case, we can find the displacement by
measuring the output voltage, Vo.

Linear Potentiometer Rotary potentiometer

Applications of potentiometer:
These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift
trucks etc.

2. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

The term LVDT stands for the Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is the most widely
used inductive transducer that converts the linear motion into the electrical signal. The output
across secondary of this transformer is the differential thus it is called so. It is very accurate
inductive transducer as compared to other inductive transducers.
Construction of LVDT:

LVTD
The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound
on a cylindrical former (which is hollow in nature and contains the core). Both the secondary
windings have an equal number of turns, and we place them on either side of primary winding.
The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in the air gap and
voltages are induced in secondary windings. A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former
and displacement to be measured is connected to the iron core. The LVDT is placed inside
stainless steel housing because it will provide electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding. The
both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted output is the difference
between the voltages of two windings.
Working of LVDT:
The primary Coil is connected to an AC source so alternating current and voltages are produced
in the secondary of the LVDT. The output in secondary S1 is e1 and in the secondary S2 is e2.
So the differential output is

Now three cases arise according to the locations of core which explains the working of LVDT.
CASE I When the core is at null position:
When the core is at null position then the flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal
so the induced emf is equal in both the windings. So for no displacement the value of output
eout is zero as e1 and e2 both are equal. So it shows that no displacement took place.
When the core is moved to upward of null position : In the this case the flux linking with
secondary winding S1 is more as compared to flux linking with S2. Due to this e1 will be more as
that of e2. Due to this output voltage eout is positive.
When the core is moved to downward of Null position: In this case magnitude of e2 will be
more as that of e1. Due to this output eout will be negative and shows the output to downward of
the reference point.
Some important points about magnitude and sign of voltage induced in LVDT:
• The amount of change in voltage either negative or positive is proportional to the amount
of movement of core and indicates amount of linear motion.
• By noting the output voltage increasing or decreasing the direction of motion can be
determined
• The output voltage of an LVDT is linear function of core displacement.
 LVDT

Advantages of LVDT:
1. LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an absolute
position sensor.
2. Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements of the sensor, it is highly
reliable.
3. The LVDT has low power consumption.
4. It has higher sensitivity.
5. It has wide range.
6. It has low hysteresis.
Disadvantages of LVDT:
1. Comparatively large displacements are necessary for appreciable differential output.
2. Temperature affects the performance.
3. Sensitive to stray magnetic field.
Note: A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of
rotation.
Applications of LVDT sensors
1. It act as a secondary transducer, it is used to measure force, weight and pressure.
2. The LVDT can be used for displacement measurement ranging from fraction of mm to few
cm.
3. Optical Encoder
An optical encoder is a type of rotary encoder that uses a sensor to identify position change as
light passes through a patterned encoder wheel or disk.

Construction and working of optical encoder

There are four components in an optical shaft encoder:
 A light source (an LED light)
 A sensor
 A movable disk
 A fixed shaft
1. Figure shows the construction of an optical encoder.
2. It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes.
3. Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing through the holes. These
sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement to the mechanical
element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted.
4. The inner track has just one hole which is used to locate the ‘home' position of the disc.
5. The holes on the middle track provide the direction of rotation.
6. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in
the inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind.
7. The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one
revolution, the resolution would be,
 360°/100 = 3.6°.
Note: Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These
are widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts.

Measurement of Force using Strain Gauge:

The most popular method for measuring force is using strain gauge. We measure the strain
developed due to force using strain gauges; and by multiplying the strain with the effective cross
sectional area and Young’s modulus of the material, we can obtain force.
By Hook's law

Where, σ is stress , E is Young's Modulus and ε is stain

Where, F is force and A is effective cross section area.

Load cells and Proving rings are two common methods for force measurement using strain
gauges. We will first discuss the principle of strain gauge and then go for the force measuring
techniques.
Strain Gauge:
Strain gauge is one of the most popular types of transducer. It has got a wide range of
applications. It can be used for measurement of force, torque, pressure, acceleration and many
other parameters.
Structure of Strain Gauges: There are many types of strain gages. Among them, a universal
strain gage has a structure such that a grid-shaped sensing element of thin metallic resistive foil
(3 to 6µm thick) is put on a base of thin plastic film (15 to 16µm thick) and is laminated with a
thin film.
Principle of Strain Gauges
The strain gauge is tightly bonded to a measuring object so that the sensing element (metallic
resistive foil) may elongate or contract according to the strain borne by the measuring object.
When bearing mechanical elongation or contraction, most metals undergo a change in electric
resistance. The strain gauge applies this principle to strain measurement through the resistance
change.
Let’s express the principle as follows:
∆R = K.ε R
where,
R: Original resistance of strain gage, Ω (ohm)
∆R: Elongation- or contraction-initiated resistance change, Ω (ohm)
K: Proportional constant (called gage factor), The gage factor, K, differs depending on the
metallic materials.
ε: Strain

Types of Strain Gauges:

1. Metallic Strain Gauge
Most of the strain gages are metallic type. They can be of two types: unbonded and bonded. The
unbonded strain gage is normally used for measuring strain (or displacement) between a fixed
and a moving structure by fixing four metallic wires in such a way, so that two are in
compression and two are in tension, as shown in fig. (a).
On the other hand, in the bonded strain gauge, the element is fixed on a backing material, which
is permanently fixed over a structure, whose strain has to be measured, with adhesive. Most
commonly used bonded strain gauges are metal foil type. The construction of such a strain gauge
is shown in fig. (b). This strain gauge can measure strain in one direction only.

2. Semiconductor type Strain Gauge

Semiconductor type strain gage is made of a thin wire of silicon, typically 0.005 inch to 0.0005
inch, and length 0.05 inch to 0.5 inch. They can be of two types: p-type and n-type. In the
former, the resistance increases with positive strain, while, in the later the resistance decreases
with temperature. The construction and the typical characteristics of a semiconductor strain gage
are shown in fig. Below
 3. Strain Gauge Bridge: Normal strain experienced by a strain gauge is in the range of
micro strain. As a result, the change in resistance associated with it is small (Δ R/R =
Gε). So if a single strain gauge is connected to a wheat stone bridge, with three fixed
resistances, the bridge output voltage is going to be linear.
But still then, a single strain gauge is normally never used in a wheat stone bridge. This is not
because of improving linearity, but for obtaining perfect temperature compensation. Suppose one
strain gauge is connected to a bridge with three fixed arms. Due to temperature rise, the strain
gauge resistance will change, thus making the bridge unbalance, thus giving an erroneous signal,
even if no strain is applied. If two identical strain gauges are fixed to the same structure, one
measuring compressional strain and the other tensile strain, and connected in the adjacent arms
of the bridge, temperature compensation can be achieved.

Load Cell (Measurement of Force Method):

Load Cell
A load cell is a transducer which is used convert force in to electrical signal. Load cell is also
called as load transducer .We use strain gauge to convert the force into electrical signal. Load
cell are of four types:
1.Pneumatic Load Cell
2. Hydraulic Load Cell
3. Strain gauge Load Cell
4. Capacitive load Cell
Strain gauge Load Cell is the most common load cell.

Strain Gauge Type Load Cell

1. Load cells are extensively used for measurement of force; Wheatstone Bridge is one of
the most common applications of load cell.

2. Here two strain gauges are fixed so as to measure the longitudinal strain, while two other
measuring the transverse strain, as shown in fig.
3. The strain gauges, measuring the similar strain (say, tensile) are placed in the opposite
arms, while the adjacent arms in the bridge should measure opposite strains (one tensile,
the other compressional).

4. If the strain gauges are identical in characteristics, this will provide not only the perfect
temperature coefficient, but also maximum obtainable sensitivity from the bridge.
5. On applying the strain the resistance changes and this resistance is measured using the
Wheatstone bridge.
Proving Ring (Measurement of Force Method):
1. Proving Rings can be used for measurement of both compressional and tensile forces.
2. The advantage of a Proving Ring is that, because of its construction more strain can be
developed compared to a load cell.
3. The typical construction of a Proving Ring is shown in fig. It consists of a hollow
cylindrical beam of radius R, thickness t and axial width b. The two ends of the ring are
fixed with the structures between which force is measured. Four strain gages are mounted
on the walls of the proving ring, two on the inner wall, and two on the outer wall.
4. When force is applied as shown, gages 2 and 4 will experience strain –ε (compression),
while gages 1 and 3 will experience strain + ε (tension). The magnitude of the strain is
given by the expression:

5. The four strain gages are connected in a bridge and the unbalanced voltage can easily be
calibrated in terms of force to be measured.

Measurement of Pressure using LVDT based diaphragm:

Measurement of pressure inside a pipeline or a container in an industrial environment is a

challenging task because of two reasons:

The pressure may be very high, or very low (vacuum);

The medium may be liquid, or gaseous.

We will not discuss the vacuum pressure measuring techniques; rather try to concentrate on
measurement techniques of pressure higher than the atmospheric. They are mainly carried out by
using elastic elements such as diaphragms, bellows and Bourdon tubes. These elastic elements
change their shape with applied pressure and the change of shape can be measured using suitable
deflection transducers.
Diaphragms: Diaphragms may be of three types: Thin plate, Membrane and Corrugated
diaphragm. This classification is based on the applied pressure and the corresponding
displacements.

Thin Plate Diaphragm: Thin plate (fig. 1(a)) is made by machining (Machining is the process
of cutting, shaping, or removing material from a work piece using a machine tool.) a solid block
and making a circular cross sectional area with smaller thickness in the middle. It is used for
measurement of relatively higher pressure.

Membrane Diaphragm: In a membrane the sensing section is glued in between two solid
blocks as shown in fig. 1(b). The thickness is smaller; as a result, when pressure is applied on
one side, the displacement is larger.

Corrugated Diaphragm: The sensitivity of membrane type diaphram can be further enhanced
in a corrugated diaphragm and a large deflection can be obtained for a small change in pressure;
however at the cost of linearity. The materials used are Bronze, Brass, and Stainless steel. In
recent times, Silicon has been extensively used in the diaphragm material in MEMS (Micro
Electro Mechanical Systems) pressure sensor.

When pressure is applied to a diaphragm, it deflates (fig 2) and the maximum deflection at the
centre (Y0) can be measured using a displacement transducer.
For a Thin plate, the maximum deflection y0 is small and referring fig. 2, a linear relationship
between p (pressure) and y0 exists as:

where, E= Modulus of elasticity of the diaphragm material, and ν = Poisson’s ratio.

However, the allowable pressure should be less than:

where, σ max is the safe allowable stress of the material.

For a membrane and corrugated diaphragm, the deflection is larger, and the relationship between
p and y0 is nonlinear.

Theory of LVDT: from previous topic

To form a pressure transducer, the core displacement of the LVDT is produced by the
movement of a metallic pressure responsive diaphragm. Some specific advantages can be gained
from using pressure transducers that operate on the Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT) principle. Here, a pressure responsive element is directly coupled to the core of a linear
LVDT.
Piezoelectric sensor: Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure,
acceleration and dynamic-forces such as oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or
tension.

Principle of Operation: It contains piezoelectric ionic crystal materials such as Quartz. On

application of force or pressure these materials get stretched or compressed. During this process,
the charge over the material changes and redistributes. One face of the material becomes
positively charged and the other negatively charged.
Working principle:

When a force is applied to a piezoelectric material, an electric charge is generated across the
faces of the crystal. This can be measured as a voltage proportional to the pressure.
A given static force results in a corresponding charge across the sensor. However, this will leak
away over time due to imperfect insulation, the internal sensor resistance, the attached
electronics, etc.
As a result, piezoelectric sensors are not normally suitable for measuring static pressure. The
output signal will gradually drop to zero, even in the presence of constant pressure. They are,
however, sensitive to dynamic changes in pressure across a wide range of pressures.
This dynamic sensitivity means they are good at measuring small changes in pressure, even in a
very high-pressure environment.
Materials used: Natural occurring highly polar crystals like quartz, Rochelle, salt, ammonium
dehydrogenate phosphate or synthesized material like barium titanate, Ceramic, lead zirconate
titanate are used for piezoelectric transducers.
Advantages:
1. One of the main advantages of piezoelectric pressure sensors is their ruggedness. This makes
them suitable for use in a variety of harsh environments.
2. Apart from the associated electronics, piezoelectric sensors can be used at high temperatures.
Some materials will work at up to 1,000ºC.
3. Piezoelectric sensors can be easily made using inexpensive materials (for example quartz or
tourmaline), so they can provide a low cost solution for industrial pressure measurement.
4. The sensing element itself is insensitive to electromagnetic interference and radiation.

Disadvantages:
1. High impedance
2. Low power
3. Drift with temperature and pressure