EGERTON UNIVERSITY

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EPSC 122: DEVELOPMENTAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Topic 4 Handout

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Published 2020
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TOPIC FOUR METHODS OF STUDYING CHILDREN

Introduction

Welcome to topic four. In the study of the interplay and impact of various factors on development,
psychologists have adopted scientific methodology. In this topic, we look at the scientific method as a
general way of seeking evidence – not biased or wishful thinking – to answer questions (Berger, 2001).
We also discuss the five basic steps of the scientific method:
 Formulation of a research question. This is done on the basis of previous research or a
particular theory or personal observation after which you pose a question about development.
 Developing of a hypothesis. In this step, you reformulate the research question into a
hypothesis, which is a prediction that can be tested.
 Testing of the hypothesis. You design and conduct a research project that will provide evidence
in the form of data about the falsehood or the truth of the hypothesis.
 Drawing conclusions. Research data is used as evidence that supports or refutes the hypothesis.
In this step you describe any limitations of the research and any alternative explanations for the
results.
 Publishing of the results of the findings. This enables other researchers to evaluate your study
and replicate it using a different set of subjects if they wish to verify the results.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this topic, you should be able to:-

i. Differentiate between the different methods of studying human development.

ii. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of various methods of studying human growth and
development.
iii. Discuss the ethical considerations to be made when studying human development.
iv. Apply different methods of study in the investigation of problems in human development.

4.1 Methods of Research

4.1.1 Experimental Research

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Experimental research is a method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully
controlled conditions and observes whether there are changes in a second variable as a result. Through
an experiment, researchers can isolate a single factor and examine its effect on a particular behaviour.
An experiment has the following components: hypothesis, Variables (independent, dependent,
Intervening, extraneous, confounding) and experimental controls.

4.1.1.1 Hypothesis

Research in developmental psychology begins by formulating a hypothesis which is an

educated/informed guess or a possible explanation for a behaviour being studied. A hypothesis is
expressed as a prediction or as a statement of cause-and-effect. A scientific hypothesis is based on
facts and theories that have been gathered and investigated by previous researchers or observations by
the researcher. It is posed in a way that indicates how the results can be measured. Thus, making it is
verifiable. It may or may not be correct since it is a possible explanation of behaviour and it is subject
to verification/proof through scientific study.

There are two types of hypotheses:

 The alternative hypothesis which is positively stated. For example, “There is a relationship
between diet and the rate of child development”.

 The null hypothesis or zero hypothesis which is negatively stated. “There is no relationship
between the mother’s diet and the birth weight of a new born”.

4.1.1.2 Variables

A variable is a factor that may vary or change. It can assume more than one value, for example
factors such as, weight, height, scores on a test, motivation, and so on. An independent variable is the
factor that is selected and manipulated by an experimenter and is independent of anything the subject
does. The experimenter can vary it as he thinks is necessary in terms of what he wants to achieve.
The second variable is the dependent variable. It refers to a measurable behaviour or outcome
exhibited by the subject and is affected by the independent variable. In other words, its value is
dependent on the independent variable. It is what you measure after varying or manipulating the
independent variable. For example, let us assume that stimulation influences the development of
motor skills. Stimulation would be the independent variable whereas motor skills are the dependent
variables

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 The third type of variables is an extraneous variable, that is, a factor that may influence the results if it
is not adequately controlled. In the example given, such factors would include intelligence, age, past
experience and fatigue. Extraneous variables get in the way of the study and make it look as though
we found what we expected, even though we did not. They confound (confuse) the results.

4.1.1.3 Experimental Controls

In an experiment, the researcher randomly assigns subjects to experimental and control groups. The
experimental group receives treatment with the aim of discovering whether the treatment has a
predictable effect on some outcome or behaviour (dependent variable). The control group (non-
treatment group) does not receive such treatment so as to ensure that any changes in the dependent
variable are due to the treatment administered. The two groups are expected to have similar attributes
or characteristics. The effect of the treatment is assessed by comparing the two groups after treatment
is given to the experimental group.

4.1.1.4 Merits and Demerits of experimental research

Merits

 Researcher is able to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

 Other conditions/factors can be controlled or kept constant.

 Experiments can be easily replicated and thus the reliability of the findings can be confirmed.

Demerits

 Some experiments can pose risk or danger to human subjects. For example, you cannot administer
growth hormones to children to study their effects on growth.

 The observed change in behaviour may be due to the artificial experimental situation. Therefore,
application to the real-world may be limited. For example, the awareness that one is participating in
an experiment may make him/her change his/her behaviour.

4.1.2 Naturalistic Observation

In a naturalistic observation, children are observed without interfering with their natural situations. For
example, observing children in a classroom or a playground. The researcher records the behaviour of

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 the subjects in their natural state or habitat. The subjects should not detect that they are being
observed/studied because their behaviour becomes unnatural when they know that they are being
observed. For example, a stranger in the name of a researcher in a classroom will make pupils behave
differently.

4.1.2.1 Merits and Demerits of Naturalistic observation

Merits

 The researcher can obtain data about a truly natural behaviour rather than a behaviour that is a
reaction to the experimental situation.

Demerits

 Naturalistic observation may be time consuming.

 It is not possible to control other factors that may contribute to the observed behaviour.

 Interpretation of data may be subjective or biased.

 Observation of overt behaviour does not always provide reliable information about the internal
processes of the subject since the researcher can only observe overt behaviour.

4.1.4 Survey Research Method

In this method, a relatively large number of cases are studied in less depth. In a survey, the subjects
are asked specific questions about their behaviour or opinion. Although a small portion of the
population is studied, a careful survey can provide accurate information about how the large group of
people feels about a particular issue. For example, one can conduct a survey to find out how Kenyans
feel about the 2.6.6.3 system of education, free education, examination system and the ban of corporal
punishment in schools. This method employs various techniques of data collection such as telephone,
questionnaires and interviews. In a survey, it is important that the sample used is representative of the
target population to which the results are going to be generalized.

4.1.4.1 Merits and demerits of Survey

Merits

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 It is less expensive than using the entire population for the study.

 Information about a large number of subjects can be gathered within a short period of time.

 The sample can be used as a basis for generalizing and predicting what is likely to be observed in
future on the basis of the current findings.

Demerits

 Responses may be inaccurate especially if the subjects decide to be dishonest.

 It is not possible to control other factors that may contribute to the observed behaviour/outcome.

 If the target population is very large and diverse, it may not be easy to get a representative sample.

4.1.5 Case Study Method

Case study involves an in-depth investigation of a single research subject. Case study allows an
investigator to explore phenomena that is rare to encounter, such as an unusual talent or a rare
developmental disorder. In a case study, many aspects of a subject are studied in detail in order to
account for the possible causes and effects of the behaviour under investigation. For example, you
may conduct a case study to account for the declining academic achievement of a learner. In your
study you may try to gather information about his/her home background, intellectual ability, study
habits and skills, peer influence, motivation, interests and aspirations and so on.

4.1.5.1 Merits and demerits of Case Study

Merits

 It is appropriate when it is unethical or risky to conduct an experiment. For example, you cannot
underfeed learners to find out how their learning and performance are going to be affected.

 Allows the investigation of an unusual problem in depth.

 It makes use of a natural phenomenon.

Demerits

 A single case may be unrepresentative and therefore generalizability of the results may be limited.

 Control of other factors that may be related to the observed behaviour may be difficult.

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 A case study may be difficult to replicate.

4.1.6 Correlation Method

This method is used to determine the relationship between two sets of factors. It looks at whether two
variables are correlated or associated and provides useful information about cause-and-effect and the
strength of the relationship. The correlation between the two sets of variables is indicated by means of
a correlation coefficient (numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables) which
may be either positive or negative. A correlation coefficient of zero indicates lack of relationship
between the two sets of variables. A positive correlation ranges from 0 to +1.0, whereas a negative
one ranges from 0 to –1.0. A correlation coefficient of +1.0 indicates perfect positive relationship. A
correlation coefficient of –1.0 indicates perfect negative relationship. The method of calculating
correlation coefficient will be discussed in a later module. However, if you are interested on how it is
done, you can refer to any statistics book.

A positive correlation implies that scores of both variables increase correspondingly as opposed to
negative correlation in which an increase in scores of one variable means a decrease in scores of the
other variable. For example, a positive correlation would be expected between:

 Performance in Kenya Certificate of Education (K.C.S.E.) examination and academic performance

at university.

 Learning facilities and academic performance.

On the other hand, a negative correlation may be expected between:

 Indiscipline and academic performance.

 Cost of education and learners’ dropout. This implies that the higher the cost of education the
bigger the number of children who will drop out of school.

An example of a situation where you may expect zero correlation would be between learners’ height
and academic performance. This means that one’s knowledge about learners’ height cannot be used to
predict their academic performance. However, a correlation between two variables does not
necessarily imply that one variable causes the other. A third variable that was not taken into account
may have contributed to the observed relationship.

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 4.1.6.1 Merits and Demerits of correlation method

Merits

 Correlational studies allow prediction of events.

 Correlational studies are easier to carry out than experimental studies.

Demerits

 It is not easy to prove causation.

 It is not easy to control all other variables that may have a direct effect on the observed behaviour.

4.1.7 Longitudinal Studies

These are two important approaches to the study of human development. Longitudinal studies
examine/compare the same children (subjects) at different periods in their lives. The subjects are
observed for a long period of time. For example, making observations after every three months to find
out whether putting children on a special diet improves their health. In a study of the differences
between the language capabilities of two, four and six-year-olds, you can observe one group of
children at the age of two, then at the age of four, and finally at the age of six. In this approach, either
a single or a group of individuals are followed over an extended period of time. It gives information
about age changes in development.

4.1.7.1 Merits and demerits of longitudinal studies

Merits

 It gives information about age changes in development.

 It enables the researcher to answer questions about the developmental stability of behaviour

 As a researcher, you are able to determine the earlier conditions or experiences that influenced
the development of the behaviour.

Demerits

 Expensive in terms of time and money

 Cultural and environmental factors can affect the studied behaviour

 Some subjects may dropout, die, or migrate

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  Results are restricted in generalizability because they involve a small sample and because of
morbidity

 It is difficulty to establish causation

4.1.8 Cross-sectional studies

Cross-sectional studies examine individuals of various ages at one point in time and give information
about age differences/variations. They compare subjects of different developmental levels at the same
time. For example, if you want to compare the moral reasoning of 5 and 10 year-olds, you might
interview them at more or less at the same time. In a study of the differences between the language
capabilities of two, four and six–year- olds you can observe the three groups of children at the same
time.

4.1.8.1 Merits and demerits of Cross-sectional studies

Merits

 Quick and time saving

 Some level of control is possible

Demerits

 It tells us little, if anything, about the historical antecedents of the behaviour, that is, the earlier
experiences that gave rise to the behaviour.

 It tells us nothing about the stability of the behaviour, that is, whether behaviour observed at
one time will remain the same when observed at another time.

 Age groups constitute different generations, or cohorts. A Cohort is a group of individuals

born during the same period who share many general societal experiences that conceivably
could influence their development. In this case, it is difficult to tell whether the observed
differences are due to development or exposure to different experiences.

4.1.9 Ethical Considerations for Developmental Psychologists

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 Research in developmental psychology is guided by various ethical standards. The nature of a
research may embarrass, hurt, frighten, impose on or negatively affect the lives of the research
subjects. To deal with this problem, organizations such as the American Psychological Association
have developed a code of ethics for research with human subjects. Ethical standards ensure that
human rights are not violated. They protect the subject. The researcher in developmental psychology
should:

 Not use any research operations that may harm the child psychologically or physically.

 Obtain informed consent from parents or guardians. Informed consent requires that the parent
be given accurate information on the profession and institutional affiliation of the investigator
and on the purpose and operations of the researcher.

 Not force a child into participating in a study. The child has a right to refuse and should be
given the opportunity to decide.

 Seek the opinion of colleagues when in doubt about possible harmful effect on the study
subjects.

 Conceal the identity of the research participants. The child has a right to confidentiality.

 Compensate children in full for their time and effort as research participants.

Topic Summary

You have learned that;

 Experimental research involves the manipulation of a variable under carefully controlled

conditions and observation on whether there is a change in a second variable as a result.

 A hypothesis is expressed as a prediction or as a statement of cause-and-effect.

 Case study involves an in-depth investigation of a single research subject.

 Correlation method is used to determine the relationship between two sets of factors

 The cross-sectional research design involves testing different age groups at a single point in time.

 The longitudinal design involves testing the same sample of subjects more than once over a long
period of time.

 Researchers in human development must be aware of ethical considerations in order to minimize

long-term effects.

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Glossary

 A Dependent variable refers to a measurable behaviour or outcome exhibited by the subject

and is affected by the independent variable

 An independent variable is the factor that is selected and manipulated by an experimenter and
is independent of anything the subject does.

 A Cohort is a group of individuals born during the same period who share many general
societal experiences that conceivably could influence their development

 A variable is a factor that may vary or change.

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