SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: are the secondary rocks which are formed from the loose fragments
or detrital or clastic sediments produced by weathering of older rocks.

 Almost 90% of earth crust is made up of igneous rocks

 75% of land surface on the earth is covered by thin veneer of sediments or sedimentary
rocks.
 These sediments are transported and deposited by river water, wind or by movement of
glacial ice. Transportation is either in suspension or in solution.
 When settle down on the beds of ocean, river and lakes undergo compaction/cementation
for millions of years to form SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

IMPORTANCE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Present is the key to the past”

 Helps in knowing depositional environment viz. marine (ocean deposits), fluvial (river
deposits), aeolian (wind deposits), glacial, estuarine, Lacustrine (lake deposits) etc.

 Helps in knowing the provenance (i.e. source area of the sediments); change in climatic
conditions i.e. in knowing and understanding old climate=paleoclimate

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 TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Clastic rocks Chemical & Organic rocks
 Sandstones
 Conglomerates
 Breccia
 Shale/mudston Carbonate rocks Organic rocks

Form basically from Form due to

Evaporitic rocks
CaCO3 – both by decomposition of
chemical leaching and organic remains
These rocks are formed under temperature
due to evaporation of by organic source
(biochemical) eg. and pressure eg.
saline water (sea water) Coal/Lignite etc.
eg. Gypsum, Halit Limestone; dolomite
(rock salt)

Sedimentary rocks are secondary rock constituted of sediments.

Weathering is the most important process that operate in the formation of sedimentary rocks.

Weathering take place by three methods-

• Mechanical disintegration, associated with physical factors

•

• Rock decomposition, associated with chemical factors

• Biological Weathering associated with the activities of organisms

Erosion (a) The general process or the group of processes whereby the materials of the Earth's crust
are loosened, dissolved, or worn away, and simultaneously moved from one place to another, by
natural agencies, which include weathering, solution, corrasion, and transportation, but usually
exclude mass wasting; specif. the mechanical destruction of the land and the removal of material
(such as soil) by running water (including rainfall), waves and currents, moving ice, or wind. The
term is sometimes restricted by excluding transportation (in which case "denudation" is the more
general term) or weathering (thus making erosion a dynamic or active process only). Cf: denudation.
(b) An instance or product, or the combined effects, of erosion (AGI glossary)

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Weathering:
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils and minerals as well as artificial materials through
contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters. Weathering occurs in situ, or "with no movement",
and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by
agents such as water, ice, snow, wind and gravity.

Two important classifications of weathering processes exist – physical and chemical weathering.
Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with
atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure. The second classification, chemical
weathering, involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals (also
known as biological weathering) in the breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals.[1]

The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic material creates soil. The
mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material, thus a soil derived from a single rock type
can often be deficient in one or more minerals for good fertility, while a soil weathered from a mix of
rock types (as in glacial, aeolian or alluvial sediments) often makes more fertile soil. In addition many of
Earth's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering processes combined with erosion and re-
deposition.

Physical weathering:
Physical weathering is the class of processes that causes the disintegration of rocks without chemical
change. The primary process in physical weathering is abrasion (the process by which clasts and other
particles are reduced in size). However, chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand. Physical
weathering can occur due to temperature, pressure, frost etc. For example, cracks exploited by physical
weathering will increase the surface area exposed to chemical action. Furthermore, the chemical action of
minerals in cracks can aid the disintegration process. Physical weathering is also called mechanical
weathering, disaggregation.
Thermal stress
Thermal stress weathering (sometimes called insolation weathering)[2] results from expansion or
contraction of rock, caused by temperature changes. Thermal stress weathering comprises two main
types, thermal shock and thermal fatigue. Thermal stress weathering is an important mechanism
in deserts, where there is a large diurnal temperature range, hot in the day and cold at night.[3] The
repeated heating and cooling exerts stress on the outer layers of rocks, which can cause their outer layers
to peel off in thin sheets. The process of peeling off is also called exfoliation. Although temperature
changes are the principal driver, moisture can enhance thermal expansion in rock. Forest fires and range
fires are also known to cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders exposed along the ground
surface. Intense localized heat can rapidly expand a boulder.

Frost weathering

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Frost weathering, frost wedging, ice wedging or cryofracturing is the collective name for several
processes where ice is present. These processes include frost shattering, frost-wedging and freeze-thaw
weathering. Severe frost shattering produces huge piles of rock fragments called scree which may be
located at the foot of mountain areas or along slopes. Frost weathering is common in mountain areas
where the temperature is around the freezing point of water. Certain frost-susceptible soils expand
or heave upon freezing as a result of water migrating via capillary action to grow ice lenses near the
freezing front.[4] This same phenomenon occurs within pore spaces of rocks. The ice accumulations grow
larger as they attract liquid water from the surrounding pores. The ice crystal growth weakens the rocks
which, in time, break up.[5] It is caused by the approximately 10% (9.87) expansion
of ice when water freezes, which can place considerable stress on anything containing the water as it
freezes.

Freeze induced weathering action occurs mainly in environments where there is a lot of moisture, and
temperatures frequently fluctuate above and below freezing point, especially
in alpine and periglacial areas. An example of rocks susceptible to frost action is chalk, which has many
pore spaces for the growth of ice crystals. This process can be seen in Dartmoor where it results in the
formation of tors. When water that has entered the joints freezes, the ice formed strains the walls of the
joints and causes the joints to deepen and widen. When the ice thaws, water can flow further into the rock.
Repeated freeze-thaw cycles weaken the rocks which, over time, break up along the joints into angular
pieces. The angular rock fragments gather at the foot of the slope to form a talus slope (or scree slope).
The splitting of rocks along the joints into blocks is called block disintegration. The blocks of rocks that
are detached are of various shapes depending on rock structure.

Pressure release
In pressure release, also known as unloading, overlying materials (not necessarily rocks) are removed (by
erosion, or other processes), which causes underlying rocks to expand and fracture parallel to the surface.

Intrusive igneous rocks (e.g. granite) are formed deep beneath the Earth's surface. They are under
tremendous pressure because of the overlying rock material. When erosion removes the overlying rock
material, these intrusive rocks are exposed and the pressure on them is released. The outer parts of the
rocks then tend to expand. The expansion sets up stresses which cause fractures parallel to the rock
surface to form. Over time, sheets of rock break away from the exposed rocks along the fractures, a
process known as exfoliation. Exfoliation due to pressure release is also known as "sheeting".

Retreat of an overlying glacier can also lead to exfoliation due to pressure release.

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Pressure release could have caused the exfoliated granite sheets shown in the picture

Hydraulic action
Hydraulic action occurs when water (generally from powerful waves) rushes rapidly into cracks in the
rock face, thus trapping a layer of air at the bottom of the crack, compressing it and weakening the rock.
When the wave retreats, the trapped air is suddenly released with explosive force.

Salt-crystal growth
Salt crystallization, otherwise known as haloclasty, causes disintegration of rocks when saline solutions
seep into cracks and joints in the rocks and evaporate, leaving salt crystals behind. These salt crystals
expand as they are heated up, exerting pressure on the confining rock.

Salt crystallization may also take place when solutions decompose rocks (for
example, limestone and chalk) to form salt solutions of sodium sulfate orsodium carbonate, of which the
moisture evaporates to form their respective salt crystals.

The salts which have proved most effective in disintegrating rocks are sodium sulfate, magnesium sulfate,
and calcium chloride. Some of these salts can expand up to three times or even more.

It is normally associated with arid climates where strong heating causes strong evaporation and therefore
salt crystallization. It is also common along coasts. An example of salt weathering can be seen in
the honeycombed stones in sea wall. Honeycomb is a type of tafoni, a class of cavernous rock weathering
structures, which likely develop in large part by chemical and physical salt weathering processes.

Chemical Processes of weathering:

1. Hydration: Chemical combination of water molecules with a particular substance or

mineral leading to a change in structure.

Soil forming minerals in rocks do not contain any water and they under go hydration when
exposed to humid conditions. Up on hydration there is swelling and increase in volume of
minerals. The minerals loose their luster and become soft.
It is one of the most common processes in nature and works with secondary minerals, such
as aluminium oxide and iron oxide minerals and gypsum. (e.g.)

a) 2Fe2O3 + 3HOH -> 2Fe2O3 .3H2O

(Hematite) (Red) (Limonite) (Yellow)

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b) Al2O3 + 3HOH -> Al2O3 .3H2O
(Bauxite) (Hyd. aluminium Oxide)

c) CaSO4 + 2H2O -> CaSO4 .2H2O

(Anhydrite) (Gypsum)

d) 3([Link].SiO2) + 2H2O -> 3MgO.2SiO2.2H2O + SiO2 + 3H2O

(Olivine) (Serpentine)

2. Hydrolysis: Most important process in chemical weathering. It is due to the dissociation

of H2O into H+ and OH- ions which chemically combine with minerals and bring about
changes, such as exchange, decomposition of crystalline structure and formation of new
compounds. Water acts as a weak acid on silicate minerals.

KAlSi3O8 + H2O -> HAlSi3O8 + KOH

(Orthoclase) (Acid silt clay)

HAlSi3O8 + 8 HOH -> Al2O3 .3H2O + 6 H2SiO3

(Recombination) (Hyd. Alum. oxide) (Silicic acid)

This reaction is important because of two reasons.

1. clay, bases and Silicic acid - the substances formed in these reactions - are available
to plants
2. water often containing CO2 (absorbed from atmosphere), reacts with the minerals
directly to produce insoluble clay minerals, positively charged metal ions (Ca++,
Mg++, Na+, K+ ) and negatively charged ions (OH-, HCO3-) and some soluble silica
– all these ions are made available for plant growth.

3. Solution: Some substances present in the rocks are directly soluble in water. The soluble
substances are removed by the continuous action of water and the rock no longer remains
solid and form holes, rills or rough surface and ultimately falls into pieces or decomposes.
The action is considerably increased when the water is acidified by the dissolution of organic
and inorganic acids. (e.g) halites, NaCl
NaCl + H2O -> Na+, Cl- , H2O (dissolved ions with water)

4. Carbonation: Carbon dioxide when dissolved in water it forms carbonic acid.

2H2O + CO2 -> H2CO3

This carbonic acid attacks many rocks and minerals and brings them into solution. The
carbonated water has an etching effect up on some rocks, especially lime stone. The
removal of cement that holds sand particles together leads to their disintegration.

CaCO3 + H2CO3 -> Ca(HCO3)2

(Calcite) slightly soluble (Ca bi carbonate) readily soluble

5. Oxidation: The process of addition and combination of oxygen to minerals. The

absorption is usually from O2 dissolved in soil water and that present in atmosphere. The
oxidation is more active in the presence of moisture and results in hydrated oxides.(e.g)
minerals containing Fe and Mg.

4FeO (Ferrous oxide) + O2 -> 2Fe2O3 (Ferric oxide)

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4Fe3O4 (Magnetite) + O2 -> 6Fe2O3 (Hematite)
2Fe2O3 (Hematite) + 3H2O -> 2Fe2O3 .3H2O(Limonite)

6. Reduction: The process of removal of oxygen and is the reverse of oxidation and is
equally important in changing soil colour to grey, blue or green as ferric iron is converted to
ferrous iron compounds. Under the conditions of excess water or water logged condition
(less or no oxygen), reduction takes place.

2Fe2O3 (Hematite) - O2 -> 4FeO( Ferrous oxide) - reduced form

In conclusion, during chemical weathering igneous and metamorphic rocks can be regarded
as involving destruction of primary minerals and the production of secondary minerals.

In sedimentary rocks, which is made up of primary and secondary minerals, weathering acts
initially to destroy any relatively weak bonding agents (FeO) and the particles are freed and
can be individually subjected to weathering.

Biological weathering
A number of plants and animals may create chemical weathering through the release of acidic
compounds, i.e. moss on roofs is classed as weathering. Mineral weathering can also be initiated and/or
accelerated by soil microorganisms. Lichens on rocks are thought to increase chemical weathering rates.
For example, an experimental study on hornblende granite in New Jersey, USA, demonstrated a 3x - 4x
increase in weathering rate under lichen covered surfaces compared to recently exposed bare rock
surfaces.[7]

Biological weathering of lava by lichen,La Palma.

The most common forms of biological weathering are the release of chelating compounds (i.e. organic
acids, siderophores) and of acidifying molecules (i.e. protons, organic acids) by plants so as to break
down aluminium and iron containing compounds in the soils beneath them. Decaying remains of dead
plants in soil may form organic acids which, when dissolved in water, cause chemical weathering.[citation
needed]
Extreme release of chelating compounds can easily affect surrounding rocks and soils, and may
lead to podsolisation of soils.

The symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi associated with tree root systems can release inorganic nutrients from
minerals such as apatite or biotite and transfer these nutrients to the trees, thus contributing to tree
nutrition.[8] It was also recently evidenced that bacterial communities can impact mineral stability leading

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to the release of inorganic nutrients.[9] To date a large range of bacterial strains or communities from
diverse genera have been reported to be able to colonize mineral surfaces and/or to weather minerals,
and for some of them a plant growth promoting effect was demonstrated.[10] The demonstrated or
hypothesised mechanisms used by bacteria to weather minerals include several oxidoreduction and
dissolution reactions as well as the production of weathering agents, such as protons, organic acids and
chelating molecules.

Product of weathering

The first product of weathering is a mantle of broken and decomposed material of varying
thickness and composition called the regolith.

Soluble salts- These are carried away along with the transporting media in solutions.

Colloidal substance- These are carried by ground water and stream. These are like Al (OH)3, Fe
(OH)3 etc.

Insoluble products- It includes clay minerals, quartz grains, unrecompensed feldspar with some
chemical resistant minerals like zircon and tourmaline.

Deposition:
According to the environment of deposition the quality and quantity of deposition is effected.
Besides the assemblage of sedimentary rocks differ from environment to environment

Lithification and Diagensis:

Lithification- It is a complex process whereby freshly unconsolidated deposits of sediments are

converted in to rock. The main process of lithification are-
 Compaction
 Cementation
 Recrystalissation

Diagensis:
The physical, chemical and biological changes that occur under the condition of pressure (1kb),
temp (100 to300oC) that arenorma to the outer part of earth crust to deposited from time of their
initial deposition to their lithification and after it are known as diagenesis

In very thick sedimentary sequences, diagenesis may graded in to metamorphism, sedimentary

rock change in to meta sedimentary rock to metamorphic rock.
The main process of diagenesis are-
 Compaction
 Recrystallisation
 Cementation
 Solution

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  Authigenesis
 Replacement
 Boiturbation

The degree to which each of these process ontribute to diagenesis of sediments is controlled by
such factors are-
 Composition
 Pressure due to burial
 Temperature
 The composition and nature of the pore fluids
 Grain Size
 Porosity and permeability
 Amount of fluid flow

Compaction:
Volume of sediment is reduced as grains are squeezed together. The volume of pore space is also
reduced the grains are coming close together and packing will be good. If any fluid inside the
pore will be expelled as volume reduced.

Recrystallization
Physical and chemical condition induce the re-orientation of the crystal lattice of mineral grain.
These textural changes cause the sediment to become lithified. It occurs in response to such
Factor such as pressure, temperature and fluid phase.

Solution
It refers to a process in which a mineral is dissolved. When a fluid passes through the sediments,
the unstable constituents are dissolved and transported away or reprecipitated in pore under
different condition. Solubility of unstable constituents are depends up pH, Eh, temperature,
pressure.
Common minerals to dissolve are evaporates,halites, sylvite, anhydrite

Pressure solution is a process that occurs as pressure is centered at point of contact of two grain
in sediments this cause solution and subsequent migration of ions or molecular solution away
from the point of contact towards area of low pressure.

Cementation
Cementation is process in which chemical precipitates (in the form of new crystal) form in pore
spaces of sediments or rock binding the grain together. Some common cements are quartz,
calcite and hematite. T reduces the porosity by filling the pore spaces between grains.

Higher ph and high temperature favour the carbonate cements

Lower ph and lower temperature favour the quartz cements

Decementation
Leaching of cementing material common in calcareous sandstone in which calcareous cement or
grains are dissolved.

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Authegenesis: Neo Crystallisation
Authigenesis is a process in which new mineral phases are crystallized in sediment or rock
during diagenesis. These new minerals may be produced-
 By reaction involving phases already present in the sediments
 Through the precipitation of materials introduced in fluid phase
 By the combination of primary sedimentary and introduced components.

It usually involves recrystallisation and may result in replacement

Authegenic phase include silicate such as quartz, alkali feldspar, clay and zeolites

Carbonate- calcite and dolomite

Evaporites- Halite, sylvite and gypsum
Examples-
• Pyrite from iron minerals under reducing condition
• Oxidation of iron minerals under oxidizing condition
• Alteration of clay minerals’
• Formation of clay minerals by feldspar alteration
• Alteration of volcanic ashes

Replacement
It involves the essentially simultaneous dissolution of existing minerals and precipitation of new
mineral insitu.

Replacement may be-

Neomorphic- where the new grain in the phase as the old grain or is a poly morph
Pseudomorphic- where the old grains is replaced with new mineral but relict ( crystal) form is
retained.
Allomorphic- Old phase is replaced with a new phase and with new crystal form.
Example –
• Petrification of organic matter
• Silcification of carbonates
• Replacement of fossil material by pyrite

Bioturbation

It refers to the physical and biological activities occur at or near sediment surface which cause
the sediment to be mixed. Burrowing and boring by organism by this way, can increase the
compaction of sediment and usually destroys any lamination or bedding.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks due to integration of products of weathering; so any classification to be

acceptable must take in to account:

a. Genetic aspects of sediments

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 b. Their textural characteristics
c. Mineralogical composition as well as their
d. Structural peculiarities

Residual Deposits:

These are also known as sedimentary deposits. These are formed due to accumulation and
consolidation of those materials which were left as residue during the operation of weathering
process and transportation. These are the insoluble products of rock weathering which still
mantle the rocks from which they have been derived.

Terra Rosa, Bauxite and Laterite .

As a result there is a decrease in volume, affected almost entirely by superficial chemical

weathering.
Mode of formation. For the formation of residual deposits, the following conditions are required
:
(i) Humid-tropical climate.
(ii) Presence of rocks, where some of the constituents are soluble and a majority of constituents
should be insoluble.
(iii) The relief must not be very great.
(iv) Long continued crustal-stability is essential.
(v) There should be conditions for good drainage.

Under conditions of poor drainage clay minerals like & kaolinite iilite, montmorlltorite are
formed If there are well defined wet and dry seasons and fairly good drainage, the clay- minerals
are decomposed to form laterite. But with an evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year, iron-
oxide tends to be separated in the solution because of aeration leaving behind mainly alluminium
hydroxide, which is called as bauxite.
Thus the examples of residual deposits are clay, laterite and bauxite.
Besides, Terra-Rossa forms a ' good example of residual deposits, wbich is the insoluble rcsidue
of clay and other mineral matter are left behind after solution of the limestone.

Residual deposits sometimes contain valuable ore deposits and the process is termed as residual
concentration.

Transported Deposits:
These are formed from the materials that have been transported both mechanically by traction
and suspension and chemically in solution.

 Clastic rocks

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  Non Clastic Rocks

Clastic rocks
These are detrital or fragmental rocks and are carried and deposited by mechanical means. On
the basis of mode of transport and grain size, the clastic rocks are classified as follows-

Rudaceous Rocks:
Very course grained rocks where the size of the grains are those of boulders. These are
transported in traction.

Conglomerates
Breccia
Fragments are rounded
Fragments are angular
Arenaceous Rocks:

Those rock consists chiefly particles of sands grain. They are transported in saltation. Sandstone,
Arkose, Greywacke

Silt Rocks:
Here the constituent particles are finer than common sand and coarser than clay. They are
transported in suspension. Loess

Argillaceous rocks:

These are made up of clay particles usually transported by suspension. Clay , Mudstone, shale

Non Clastic Rocks:

These are formed due to chemical precipitation as welr as by biorog;cai means. Thus they are
two types.-
:
(i) Chemically deposited sedimelts, and
(ii) Organic sediments

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Chemical Deposition
1. Evaporites- It is only due to evaporation and the deposits are like salt and gypsum

2. Through reaction between the components carried in solution; silicious, calcareous,

ferruginous and carbonate deposits are produced in this way.

 Sillicious- Chert, Flint

 Calcareous and carbonates- Limestone, dolomite etc.

 .Ferruginous deposits. Iron saits, hematite, goethite siderite

Deposits of organic Origin:

These are the product of accumulation of organic matter preserved under suitable condition. As
rock of organic origin may be built up directly from the beginning as a quit solid material- coral
rock, algal lime stone

In other cases the deposition may be biochemical or bio-mechanical

A rock of organic origin may be built up directly from the beginning as a quite solid material as
in the case of coral rocks and algal limestones. In other cases the deposition may be bio-chemical
or bio-mechanical. They are mainly of five types :

1. Siliceous. Radiolarian ooze ; diatoms are lowly plant organisms whicb secrete silica.

2. Calcareous. Due to biomechanical processes as well us biochemical processes these deposits

are formed. Fossiliferous limestone, Chalk, marl etc. are the examples.

3. Phosphatic. As calciurn phosphate is utilized by certain organisms, especially fish and

brachiopoda, the remains of these organisms accumulate on the sea-floor forming phosphatic
deposits. 'Guano' is directly of organic origin.

4. Ferruginous. By the activities of bacteria, e.g., Bog-iron ore.

5. Carbonaceous. Coal formations.

Besides the above, the consolidated pyroclastic rocks are also considered as sedimentary rocks.

Structures of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are the secondary rocks, in which the presence of different layers, beds or
strata distinguishes them from the-igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimeniary structures are
both organic and inorganic-in origin. Depending on, the mechanism of formation, the inorganic
structures are classified into
,
• Primary

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 • Secondary

Primary Structures: The primary structures are due to mechanical action of current and show the
following characteristics-
 These structures show paleocurrent condition
 Rate of supply sediments
 Mode of transportation
 Environment of deposition
 Top and bottom beds

Bedding or Stratification

Bedding or stratification: Insoluble mechanically transported material is deposited in layers on

the surface of accumulation which may be horizontal or inclined. Stratification may be the result
of variations in composition of different layers, colour of layers, textures of the layers and
porosity of the layers. These are most conspicuous particularly in the rocks formed under water-
Glacial, chemical and biological deposits lacks stratification. Aeolian
deposits seldom show bedding.
If the individual layers are extremely thin the structure is known as lamination and the layers as
larninae. There are two types of laminations :
l. Dimictic lamination. Where the contact between two laminae is sharp,

2. Symictic lamination Here the contact contact between two laminae is rough.

The plane of contact is known as laminating plane, e.g., varve.

When the bedding planes are disposed approximately parallel to one another, they are known as
concordant. If bedding planes are inclined to the major lines of stratification, they are said to be
discordant.

 Bedding is most imp. Feature of a sedimentary Rock

 Beds are usually > 1 cm
 Laminae < 1 cm
 Orientation of bedding helps in knowing the paleo-current direction of the old rivers

Cross stratification- Here

the beds are found to lie
slightly oblique to the major
bedding planes

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Cross bedding forms during deposition on the inclined surfaces of bedforms such as ripples
and dunes, and indicates that thedepositional environment contained a flowing medium (typically
water or wind). Examples of these bedforms are ripples, dunes, anti-dunes, sand waves,
hummocks, bars, and delta slopes. Cross-bedding is widespread in many environments.
Environments in which water movement is fast enough and deep enough to develop large-scale
bed forms fall into three natural groupings: rivers, tide-dominated coastal and marine settings.

Torrential Bedding- It shows an alternation of coarse current bedded material and finer
horizontal laminae.

GRADED BEDDING
In this case there is a gradation of grain size from coarser at the bottom to finer at the top. It is
having a sharp contact with the underlying strata. This in consolidated form' is known as
turbidites. Graded beddings are seen in 'Graywackes’

Ripple marks
These are minute undulation formed due to current or wave action, developed on arenaceous
rocks.

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Mud cracks:
These cracks are developed in clayey sediments due to prolonged exposure to the atmosphere.
These are also known as shrinkage cracks.

Rain Prints- These are shallow depressions surrounded by a large ridged formed by the
impact of drop, hailstone, bubbles etc.

Track & Trail- These are marking indicative of some animal over soft sediments

Imbricate structure. In conglomerate and pebble beds fragments having a noticeable

elongation are . Sometimes deposited with the long axis of the pebbles lying more or less
parallel to one another ,leaning in the direction of current flow.

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Convolute bedding. Here, the sedimentary lamina are contorted into a series of anticlines
separated by broad synclines. Distortion increases but are confined one bed and often abruptly
truncated by overlying sediments.

Secondary Structures:
These are the products of chemical action contemporaneous with sedimentation or thereafter
and includes-

(a) concretions. They- are sphericat to ellipticar bodies, usually small and of diverse chemical
nature rather than the rocks in which they occur. They include nodules-oolites,.pisolites, geodes
etc.
(b) Solution structures. Irregular openings commonly in calcareous rocks and are produced due
to ground water action.e.g., Vugs.

Biogenic structures

Fossils impressions, as well as petrified remains of animals or plants are the common organic
structure found in sedimentary rocks.

Sole structures. These are the structures preserved on the base of a bed which is sharplv
differentiated Iithordgically from the bed below eg. Sandstone overlying a shale They also
include the flute cast (which are grooves eroded by turbulent flow and later filled with coarse
sediments) and groove casts formed on the surface of sandstone layers, tracks and trails, prod
marks, etc.

Sole marks are sedimentary structures found on the bases of certain strata, that indicate small-
scale (usually on the order of centimetres) grooves or irregularities. This usually occurs at the
interface of two differing lithologies and/or grain sizes. They are commonly preserved as casts of
these indents on the bottom of the overlying bed (like flute casts). This is similar to casts and
molds in fossil preservation. Occurring as they do only at the bottom of beds, and their
distinctive shapes, they can make useful way up structures and paleocurrent indicators.[3]
Sole markings are found most commonly in turbidite deposits.

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TEXTURE OF SEDIMENTRY ROCKS

The word texture refers the size, shape, packing and fabric of the components of rock. Texture
are in to two broad categories.

 Clastic Texture
 Non Clastic texture

Clastic Texture- It includes elements like- Size, Shape, Sphericity, packing, Fabric.

Size- The size of sediments dependent on the mode of weathering, nature of source rock, kind
and distance of transportation and nature

•Boulders - >256mm in diameter

•Cobble -64 to 256mm
•Pebble - 4 to 64 mm
•Gravel -4 to 2mm Gravel Sized: Conglomerate
Sand Sized: Sandstone
•Sand -2 to1/16mm
Mud Sized: Mudstone
•Mud – Silt 1/16 to 1/256 mm Shale, siltstone
Mud – Clay< 1/256 mm

Grain size (diameter) and grain-shape depend on:

• Provenance- Composition of source rock is an important factor that determines the extent
to which the component minerals are susceptible to weathering and liable to pass on to
the products and reduced in size and shape. Beside the coarse or fine texture is also a
function of the source area.

• Transport media: rivers (pebbles bounce on river bottom, sand moved in traction, and
silt/clay suspended in water column); oceans and lakes (near-shore and deep-water
systems); glaciers (sediment moved on glacier bottom); wind (sand dunes).

• Distance from parent rock: the longer the distance traveled, generally the smaller and the
more well-rounded the grains (due to higher kinetic energy)

• Mineral hardness: the harder the parent rock, the longer it will take the sediments to
erode (example: silicates are more resistant to weathering and erosion than feldspars, and
this is why beaches are often comprised of sand, not feldspar-rich sediments)

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 • Consider: sorting (= range of grain sizes) → winds sort well (meaning grain sizes are
very similar); glaciers sort poorly (meaning there is a large spread of grain sizes in glacial
deposits)

Shape- It is defined as the sharpness of corners and edges of a clastic fragment. According the
shape may angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded, well rounded etc.

The shape of the sedimentry grains is determined by-

 Original shape of mineral
 Stability of minerals
 Amount and nature of transport.

Sphericity- It is defined nas the extent to which a particle approaches to sphere. It depends on
(i) distance of transport, (ii) mode of transport and (iii) provenance

Packing-
It is the manner of aggregation of sedimentary garins, which are held togather in place in the
earth’s gravitational field. There are six methods of packing out of which the rhombohedral
packing is the most compact and tight where as cubic packing is the loosest possible packing. It
determines the porosity and permeability of sedimentary rocks.

Fabric
It is the arrangement of the clastic particles in sediments. It is defined as the orientation of the
grains or lack of it with which the sedimentry rock is composed. Pebbles, sand grains, mica
flakes etc. are the most useful fabric elements, also some fossil like gastropod shells etc. It
determines the paleocurrent direction

Sorting of the sediments also suggest the mode of

deposition and transportation

Long distance transport= well-rounded and well-sorted

sediments,
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Short distance transport = poorly sorted angular grains.
Also helps in knowing the energy conditions of the
river.
 Maturity Immature
• Poorly Sorted
Mature • Angular grains
• Well Sorted • Mixed composition including clay
• Well
• Rounded
Non-clastic textures. It is formed as a result of deposition through chemical reaction. They arc
transported chemically by getting dissolved in the .[Link]-mcdia but rcappear due to.
precipitation or evaporation. It is of two types :

(a) Crystalline texture.

(b) Non-crystalline texrture.

(a) Crystalline texture. They are formed due to direct precipitation from a saturated solution, and
the result is an interlocking aggregate of crystals.

(b) Non-crystalline texture. When colloids coagulate they form a gelatin like mass. This
gelatinous mass may lose some of the water in it and eventually harden to form an amorphous
mass.
Nodular, oolitic, spherulitic textures are the examples. Many concretionary,botryoidal, reniform,
nodular. oolitic and pisolitic textures are believed to be of colloidal origin and they show
noncrystalline textures as described above.

Mineralogical character of clastic sedimentary rocks

It is well known that minerals are in equiribrium with the environment in which they are formed
and hence stable. Some are stable over wide range of temperature-pressure conditions while
others yield rather readily,. Different silicate minerals of which most of the rocks are composed
have different stability. The stability of minerals is- approximatly in the reverse order that of

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their Cryslallisation from a magma. It is therefore, commonly observed that rocks of basic and
magnesium varieties break down much faster than the acid and ferruginous ones.

The mineralogical character of sedimentary rock are therefore mostly governed by the stability
characteristics of the minerals

The most stable minerals, which are found quite abundantly in the sedimentary rocks are quartz
followed by muscovite.

The various feldspar along with Zircon rutile, tourmaline , monazite, garnet etc are fairly stable.
Biotite, HBL, apatite, illemenite, magnetite, staurolite, kynite, topaz, sphene etc are minerals of
less stable category.

Minerals like Augite, hypersthenes, diopside, actinolite, olivine etc. are highly unstable.

In view of stability characters of minerals, in most of sedimentary rocks we find the minerals like
quartz and muscovite whereas as presence of unstable minerals like Augite, hyperthene is rarely
found.

In general, sandy rock consists largely of stabler primary mineral, while the fine grained clayey
materials constituted mostly by ferromagnesian silicates and feldspar.

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