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WAKING THE ASIAN PACIFIC
CO-OPERATIVE POTENTIAL
 WAKING THE
ASIAN PACIFIC
CO-OPERATIVE
POTENTIAL

Edited by

Morris Altman
University of Dundee Business School, Dundee, United Kingdom

Anthony Jensen
University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia

Akira Kurimoto
Hosei University, Tokyo, Japan

Robby Tulus
Asia Pacific Co-operative Practitioner/Activist

Yashavantha Dongre
University of Mysore, Mysuru, India

Seungkwon Jang
Sungkonghoe University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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 For over 30 years the late Dr. Gary Lewis researched and wrote about the Australian co-operative
movement. Co-operatives were his passion and a very significant part of his professional life. He
was the doyen of Australian co-operative history with publications that included pathbreaking stud-
ies of consumer co-operatives, credit unions, and agricultural co-operatives. His research is crucial
in terms of public policy and historical research. His submission and evidence before the Australian
Senate inquiry into co-operatives and mutuals reminded the Committee of the historical contribu-
tion of co-operatives to Australia but argued that their full potential was yet to be realized.
 Contents

List of contributors xv 3. Are there core cooperative principles

Preface xvii required for cooperative economic success
and sustainability?
MORRIS ALTMAN
1. Introduction
MORRIS ALTMAN, YASHAVANTHA DONGRE, 3.1 Introduction 19
AKIRA KURIMOTO, ANTHONY JENSEN, ROBBY TULUS 3.2 Cooperative principles and values in context 20
AND SEUNGKWON JANG 3.3 Cooperative principles and values: international
cooperative alliance 20
1.1 Cooperatives in the transforming Asian Pacific
3.4 What is a cooperative? 21
region 1
3.5 Values 21
1.2 Waking the Asian Pacific cooperative
3.6 Democracy 21
potential 3
3.7 Surpluses 22
1.3 Structure of this book 3
3.8 Autonomy and independence 22
1.4 Creating the Asian Pacific scholarship on
3.9 Education 22
cooperative studies 5
3.10 Noncore differentiating attributes and the
Further reading 5
cooperative advantage 23
3.11 The cooperative advantage 25
3.12 The long and the short run 28
Part 1 3.13 Incompatible attributes revisited 28
3.14 Indian cooperatives 29
ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK 3.15 Conclusion 31
OF ASIAN COOPERATIVE References 31
MODELS Further reading 33

4. Emerging Asian Pacific cooperative

2. Why Asian Pacific cooperative models models from a global history perspective
matter? AKIRA KURIMOTO AND YASHAVANTHA DONGRE
AKIRA KURIMOTO
4.1 Introduction 35
2.1 Introduction 9 4.2 Origin of Asia Pacific cooperatives in the late 19th
2.2 Asia Pacific region’s vast diversity 10 and early 20th century 36
2.3 Emergence of Asian Pacific cooperative 4.3 Evolution of Asia Pacific cooperative models after
models 11 the Second World War 37
2.4 Inter-cooperation as another Asia Pacific 4.4 Changing mode of exchange: from unilateral
cooperative model 14 assistance to mutual learning 43
2.5 Conclusion 16 4.5 Conclusion 43
References 16 References 45
Further reading 16 Further reading 45

vii
viii Contents

5. Asian cooperatives and public policy 8. Cooperatives and youth in Asia

ROBBY TULUS YASHAVANTHA DONGRE, T. PARANJOTHI AND G.
PARAMESHWARI
5.1 Introduction 47
5.2 Colonial legacy and cooperative legislation in 8.1 Introduction 89
Asia 49 8.2 Profile of youth population in Asia Pacific
5.3 Failed government top-down approaches in region 90
cooperative development: three case studies 50 8.3 Challenges faced by youth 90
5.4 Public policy initiatives of the International Co- 8.4 Why cooperatives are ideal platforms for youth 91
operative Alliance 53 8.5 Why cooperatives need youth participation 92
5.5 Sustaining the momentum of public policy debates 8.6 Campus cooperatives: the Asian model of youth
on cooperatives 55 integration 92
5.6 Conclusion 56 8.7 Role of ICA Asia Pacific 95
References 57 8.8 Conclusion 96
Further reading 58 References 96

6. Cooperatives and the sustainable 9. The theoretical model of Asian

development goals capitalism and the varieties of cooperation
BALASUBRAMANIAN IYER ANTHONY JENSEN

6.1 Introduction 59 9.1 Introduction 99

6.2 Sustainable development 59 9.2 Toward a theoretical model for Asia Pacific 100
6.3 Background to the Sustainable Development 9.3 Conclusion 106
Goals 60 References 106
6.4 Cooperatives and sustainable Further reading 107
development 60

Part 2
6.5 International Cooperative Alliance and the
Sustainable Development Goals 62
6.6 Asia Pacific cooperatives implementing the
Sustainable Development Goals 64
CASE STUDIES OF ASIAN CO-
6.7 Issues and challenges for cooperatives 67 OPS, INCLUDING CROSS-
6.8 Conclusion 69 COUNTRY COMPARISON
References 69
Further reading 70

7. Asian cooperatives and gender SECTION 1

equality AGRICULTURAL CO-OPS
SUDHA KORNGINNAYA

7.1 Introduction 71 10. How small farmers enter the big

7.2 Rationale for gender equality in the market? A case study of agricultural
cooperatives 72 cooperatives in China
7.3 Challenges to the advancement of gender equality BIN WU
in cooperatives in Asia 73
7.4 Contribution of Asian cooperatives to gender 10.1 Introduction 113
equality 75 10.2 Case study 114
7.5 Conclusion 84 10.3 Further thinking 119
References 85 10.4 Conclusion 122
 Contents ix
Acknowledgment 124 References 160
References 124 Further reading 161

11. Successful agricultural cooperative 14. Co-ops, including cross-country

model in Vietnam. A case study: Van Duc comparisonNepal Multipurpose
Co-operative Cooperative Society Limited
NGUYEN VAN PHUONG, TRAN THI THU HUONG AND PUNYA PRASAD REGMI, INDIRA PANT AND NABIN
BUI HONG QUY BHANDARI

11.1 Overview 125 14.1 Brief history of cooperatives in Nepal 163

11.2 Macro factors affecting cooperatives in 14.2 Nepal Multipurpose Cooperative Society
Vietnam 126 Limited 164
11.3 Micro factors affecting cooperatives in 14.3 Nepal Multipurpose Cooperative Society Limited:
Vietnam 127 a successful cooperative 164
11.4 Characteristics of the Van Duc Co-operative 128 14.4 Macro factors contributing to the emergence of
11.5 Challenges faced by Van Duc Co-operative 129 cooperatives 165
11.6 Factors contributing to success 130 14.5 Market functioning and capitalism 165
11.7 Impacts 134 14.6 Social movements and cooperatives 165
11.8 Conclusion 135 14.7 Internal factors leading to success 165
References 135 14.8 Business model and development strategy 166
Further reading 136 14.9 Human resource management 166
14.10 Cooperative members and financial
12. Cooperatives: a panacea for rural structure 166
population 14.11 Challenges and overcoming measures 167
T. PARANJOTHI AND ANIL KARANJKAR 14.12 Factors contributing to cooperative failure 168
14.13 Factors contributing to cooperative success 168
12.1 Introduction 137 14.14 Impacts on members and local community 169
12.2 Section I 138 14.15 Conclusion 170
12.3 Section II 140 Further reading 170
12.4 Section III 148
References 152 15. Japan: cooperatively facilitating
Further reading 152
membership engagement—employee-led
13. Korea’s multipurpose agricultural initiatives at JA Hadano
EMI DO
cooperatives and the developmental state:
the case of the National Agricultural Introduction 171
Cooperative Federation (NACF) 15.1 Emergence 171
EUNJU CHOI, HWALSHIN KIM AND SEUNGKWON JANG 15.2 Governance 174
15.3 Case study: JA Hadano 175
13.1 Introduction 153 15.4 Governance at JA Hadano 176
13.2 The early stage of National Agricultural Co- 15.5 Employee-driven membership engagement
operative Federation from 1961 to 1980 154 initiatives 176
13.3 Challenges to National Agricultural Co-operative 15.6 Jibasanzu 176
Federation 155 15.7 Membership education 177
13.4 Responses for the betterment of National 15.8 Conclusion 180
Agricultural Co-operative Federation 157 References 180
13.5 Conclusion 160 Further reading 181
x Contents

16. Almondco: an Australian cooperative 18.5 Factors affecting the emergence of cooperatives in
success story Vietnam 207
18.6 Factors contributing to the success of Saigon
GARY LEWIS
Co-op 209
16.1 Introduction 183 18.7 Identifying and overcoming current challenges
16.2 Historical overview 184 faced by Saigon Co-op 212
16.3 A cooperative success: Almondco 184 18.8 The impact of Saigon Co-op on vietnam 213
16.4 A mature democratic business emerges 187 18.9 Conclusion 213
16.5 Overcoming obstacles to success 188 References 214
16.6 Macro factors 188
16.7 Micro factors 189
19. NTUC FairPrice supermarket and
16.8 Degeneration or staying true to cooperative cooperatives in Singapore
principles? 190 HUONG HA AND HUI SHAN LOH
16.9 Cooperative principles 191
16.10 Future challenges 191 19.1 Introduction 215
16.11 Lessons to be learned 192 19.2 Key cooperatives in Singapore 218
16.12 Conclusion 193 19.3 Case study: NTUC FairPrice Co-Operative
Ltd 219
17. Agricultural cooperatives in Asia: 19.4 Conclusion 222
References 223
state, market, governance, and Further reading 224
sustainability
YASHAVANTHA DONGRE 20. Korea’s consumer cooperatives and
civil society: the cases of iCOOP and
17.1 Introduction 195
Hansalim
17.2 Case studies 196
SUNHWA KIM, YENA LEE, HYOJIN SHIN AND
17.3 Legal regime 197
SEUNGKWON JANG
17.4 Role of state 197
17.5 Social capital 198 20.1 Introduction 225
17.6 Addressing the challenges 199 20.2 A brief history and the current status 226
17.7 Conclusion 200 20.3 Categories and structures of Korea’s consumer
References 200 cooperatives 226
20.4 The characteristics and the roles of Korea’s

Section 2 consumer cooperatives 227

20.5 Conclusion 231
CONSUMER CO-OPS References 232
Webpages 232
Further reading 233
18. The success of the Saigon Co-op in
the retail sector of Vietnam 21. Consumer cooperatives’ model in
NGUYEN ANH TRU, DANG THI KIM HOA AND NGUYEN
Japan
TRONG TUYNH AKIRA KURIMOTO

18.1 Introduction 203 21.1 Introduction 235

18.2 The socialist republic of Vietnam and its 21.2 Overview of Japanese consumer cooperatives 236
cooperatives 204 21.3 Japanese consumer cooperative model: Its
18.3 The foundation of Saigon Co-op 205 characteristics 238
18.4 Organizational structure, management, and 21.4 Macro factors affecting consumer cooperatives’
business outcomes of Saigon Co-op 206 development 239
 Contents xi
21.5 Micro factors for success 241 References 269
21.6 Impact of Japanese model on members and wider Further reading 269
society 242
21.7 Conclusion 243 25. Existential challenges of
References 244 cooperatives and credit unions in
Further reading 244
Indonesia
ROBBY TULUS AND MUNALDUS NERANG
22. Consumer cooperatives summary
AKIRA KURIMOTO 25.1 Cooperatives in Indonesia: a historical view 271
25.2 Cooperatives in the postindependence years 272
22.1 Introduction 245 25.3 The emergence and growth of credit unions in
22.2 Consumer cooperatives in the Asian context 245 Indonesia 274
22.3 Legal framework and state policy 246 25.4 Keling Kumang case study 276
22.4 Relationship with social movements 247 Further reading 282
22.5 Micro factors contributing to success 248
22.6 Challenges facing consumer cooperatives 249 26. The SANASA movement—
22.7 Conclusion 249 Sri Lanka
Further reading 249
ROBBY TULUS

26.1 Historical background of SANASA 283

Section 3 26.2 Early challenges of SANASA 284
26.3 SANASA’s growth and development amid
CREDIT CO-OPS continuing challenges 286
26.4 Growth and development of SANASA’s four
23. Teachers Mutual Bank case study pillars 289
PETER MASON
26.5 Future sustainability of SANASA 293
Further readings 295
23.1 Introduction 253
23.2 Credit Unions and their origin in Australia 253 27. Summary: credit union case studies
23.3 Hornsby Teachers Credit Union 255 ROMULO M. VILLAMIN
23.4 NSW Teachers Credit Union 256
23.5 Teachers Mutual Bank 257
23.6 Conclusion 258
References 259
Section 4
WORKER CO-OPS
24. From resilience to unlimited
opportunities: the First Community Credit
28. The sociopolitical environment of
Cooperative’s (FICCO) experience
worker cooperatives in the Philippines:
BIENVENIDO P. NITO, ISAGANI B. DABA AND ERNEST
MARC V. CASTILLO basis for addressing the worker
contractualization issue
24.1 Growth of credit cooperatives in the LEO G. PARMA, MARIA ANTONETTE D. PASQUIN AND
philippines 261 BIENVENIDO P. NITO
24.2 The start of FICCO 263
24.3 The FICCO culture 267 28.1 History of worker cooperatives in the
24.4 Further challenges among cooperatives in the Philippines: a case of alpha co-operative 304
philippines 268 28.2 Overcoming challenges during the initial
24.5 Conclusion 268 phase 307
xii Contents

28.3 Macro challenges in the growth phase: 31. Worker cooperatives as a model for
the state’s underdeveloped role and weak legal family business succession? The case of
structure 309
C-Mac Industries Co-operative Ltd in
28.4 Micro challenges in the growth phase: the
overriding capitalist mentality among worker Australia
cooperatives 311 DR.ANTHONY JENSEN AND FRANK WEBB
28.5 Theoretical interpretation 311
28.6 Conclusion 312 31.1 Introduction 335
References 313 31.2 C-Mac Industries Co-operative
Further reading 315 Limited 336
Appendix A 315 31.3 Overcoming legal obstacles and agreeing on the
value of the business 337
31.4 Methodology: participatory action research at
C-Mac 338
29. Collectivism as a strategy for 31.5 Key obstacles to the emergence of the C-Mac
success in Indian worker cooperatives: case cooperative 338
study of Koppa Transport Cooperative 31.6 Overcoming the financial obstacles 339
Society 31.7 Overcoming risk aversion 340
SURESHRAMANA MAYYA AND 31.8 Overcoming access to financial skills and
YASHAVANTHA DONGRE cooperative expertise 340
31.9 Success of C-Mac cooperative 340
29.1 Workers cooperatives in India 317 31.10 Factors contributing to the success of
29.2 Transport cooperative society, Koppa 318 buyouts 341
29.3 Challenges and strategies 320 31.11 Conclusion 342
Conclusion 323 References 343
References 323 Further reading 343
Further reading 324
32. Korea’s worker cooperative and
organizational transformation: the case of
30. Successful cooperatives across Asia: Happy Bridge Co-operative
ULCCS—the icon of successful JONGHO WON AND SEUNGKWON JANG
cooperatives in India
T.P. SETHUMADHAVAN
32.1 Introduction 345
32.2 Development of Korea’s worker cooperatives 346
30.1 Introduction 325 32.3 Becoming a worker cooperative 347
30.2 Genesis of Uralungal Labour Contract 32.4 Conclusion 352
Co-operative Society 326 References 354
30.3 Background to the formation of Uralungal
Labour Contract Co-operative 33. Workers’ cooperatives as a solution to
Society 326 social exclusion in Japan
30.4 Macro factors as a key to emergence and YURIE KUBO
success 329
30.5 Micro factors as a key to emergence and 33.1 Introduction 355
success 330 33.2 Contexts of social exclusion 356
30.6 Conclusion 331 33.3 Two streams of workers cooperatives 357
Appendix 332 33.4 Considerations on the development of workers
References 333 cooperatives 358
Further reading 333 33.5 Impacts and challenges 361
 Contents xiii
Conclusion 362
References 362
Part 3
Further reading 363 TOWARD AN ASIAN
34. Summary
SCHOLARSHIP ON CO-OPS
ANTHONY JENSEN
35. Deconstructing cooperative success in
34.1 Socialist system—solidarity in job creation 366 the Asia Pacific region
34.2 Post socialist system—a collective response 366
YASHAVANTHA DONGRE, AKIRA KURIMOTO,
34.3 Emerging Southeast Asian system—individual SEUNGKWON JANG, ROBBY TULUS, ROBBY ALTMAN
triumph 366 AND ANTHONY JENSEN
34.4 Advanced Northeast system—civil society activists
for democratizing workplaces 366 35.1 The state and civil society 372
34.5 Liberal corporatist system—the catalyst of civil 35.2 Findings through case studies 372
society movements 367 35.3 Macro factors 372
34.6 Liberal market economy system—worker buyout of 35.4 Micro factors 373
a family business 367 35.5 The Asia Pacific model 374
34.7 Proof of concept 367 References 374
34.8 Scaling up 367
Epilogue 375
References 367
Index 381
 List of contributors

Morris Altman Dean & Chair Professor of Sunhwa Kim Department of Management of Co-
Behavioural and Institutional Economics & Co- operatives, Graduate School, Sungkonghoe
Operatives, School of Business, University of University, Seoul, Korea
Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
Sudha Kornginnaya Department of Commerce,
Nabin Bhandari Nepal Multipurpose Cooperative Mangalore University, Mangalore, Karnataka,
Society Limited, Jhapa, Nepal India
Ernest Marc V. Castillo Research Associate for the Yurie Kubo School of Commerce, Meiji University,
School of Economics, University of Asia and the Tokyo, Japan
Pacific, Philippines
Akira Kurimoto Hosei University, Chiyoda City,
Eunju Choi iCOOP Co-operative Institute, Seoul, Tokyo, Japan; Institute for Solidarity-based
Korea Society, Hosei University, Tokyo, Japan
Isagani B. Daba Former Chairman of First
Yena Lee Department of Management of Co-
Community Credit Cooperative, Philippines
operatives, Graduate School, Sungkonghoe
Emi Do Department of Agricultural Economics, University, Seoul, Korea
Tokyo University of Agriculture, Setagaya,
Tokyo, Japan Gary Lewis Byron Bay, NSW, Australia
Yashavantha Dongre University of Mysore, Hui Shan Loh School of Business, Singapore
Mysuru, Karnataka, India University of Social Sciences, Singapore
Huong Ha School of Business, Singapore Peter Mason Cufa Ltd, Sydney, Australia
University of Social Sciences, Singapore
Balasubramanian Iyer International Cooperative Sureshramana Mayya Poornaprajna Institute of
Alliance Asia-Pacific, New Delhi, India Management, Udupi, India

Seungkwon Jang Division of Business Munaldus Nerang Federation of People-Centered

Administration and Department of Management Co-operative Enterprises (INKUR), Indonesia
of Co-operatives, Graduate School, Sungkonghoe Bienvenido P. Nito Research Fellow, Center for
University, Seoul, Korea Research and Communication, University of Asia
Anthony Jensen University of Newcastle, and the Pacific, Pasig, Philippines; Senior Fellow
Callaghan, Australia; Business School, University of the Center for Research and Communication of
of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia the University of Asia and the Pacific, Philippines
Anil Karanjkar Centre for Research and Indira Pant National Cooperative Development
Publications, Vaikunth Mehta National Institute Board, Pulchok, Lalitpur, Nepal
of Co-operative Management, Pune, India G. Parameshwari PES First Grade College,
Hwalshin Kim Department of Management of Co- Mandya, Karnataka, India
operatives, Graduate School, Sungkonghoe T. Paranjothi Agricultural Co-operative Staff
University, Seoul, Korea Training Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, India

xv
xvi List of contributors

Leo G. Parma Chairman, Kagawani Foundation, Robby Tulus Regional Director (Emeritus) for
Inc., Founder and Former CEO and Chief Asia Pacific, International Co-operative Alliance
Business Builder of Asiapro Multi-Purpose (ICA). Founder and Chief Advisor, Federation of
Cooperative, Social Entrepreneur and Advocate People-based Co-operative Enterprises (INKUR
of Worker Cooperatives, Pasig, Philippines Federation), Indonesia, and Credit Union Central
Maria Antonette D. Pasquin Instructor, School of Organization (CUCO), Indonesia
Law and Governance, University of Asia and the Nguyen Trong Tuynh Faculty of Accounting and
Pacific, Pasig, Philippines Business Management, Vietnam National
Bui Hong Quy Faculty of Accounting and University of Agriculture, Hanoi, Vietnam
Business Management, Vietnam National Nguyen Van Phuong Faculty of Accounting and
University of Agriculture, Gia Lam, Vietnam Business Management, Vietnam National
Punya Prasad Regmi Karnali Province Planning University of Agriculture, Gia Lam, Vietnam
Commission, Surkhet, Nepal Romulo M. Villamin Institute of Cooperative
T.P. Sethumadhavan Uralungal Labour Contract Studies, MASS SPECC Cooperative Development
Cooperative Society, Madappallly, Kerala Center, Tiano-Yacapin St., Cagayan de Oro,
Philippines
Hyojin Shin Department of Management of Co-
operatives, Graduate School, Sungkonghoe Frank Webb Business Clarity, New South Wales,
University, Seoul, Korea Australia
Dang Thi Kim Hoa Faculty of Accounting and Jongho Won Department of Management of Co-
Business Management, Vietnam National operatives, Graduate School, Sungkonghoe
University of Agriculture, Hanoi, Vietnam University, Seoul, Korea
Tran Thi Thu Huong Faculty of Accounting and Bin Wu Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou,
Business Management, Vietnam National P.R. China
University of Agriculture, Gia Lam, Vietnam
Nguyen Anh Tru Faculty of Accounting and
Business Management, Vietnam National
University of Agriculture, Hanoi, Vietnam
 Preface

Cooperatives are enterprises capable of in many Asian countries. The increase of pro-
building a better world. The United Nations ducts at the hands of the profit economy is
asserted this in 2012 by declaring it the obviously not enough to end hunger and defi-
International Year of Cooperatives. This has nitely not enough to reverse the poverty and
been ratified by organizations of the stature of inequality rates.
the International Labour Organization (ILO) This is why the collective effort to wake up
and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the giant inside the giant through this book is
the United Nations (FAO), with which the welcomed! Indeed, cooperativism in the Asia-
International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) Pacific region with its rich history, astute lead-
signed two memorandums of understanding. ership, and on-the-ground experiences offer
Cooperatives are not just another type of pathways that surpass the classic centralized
company. They are enterprises with values and or free-market models.
principles; generate wealth in their territories; As president of the ICA and as a member of
distribute opportunities without leaving any- the ICA board, I have had the opportunity to
one out; and promote a world of solidarity, visit several countries in this region. I have
inclusion, and peace. made direct contact with leaders of organiza-
However, we are facing an increasingly tions, government officials, and members of
complex global scenario, with rising inequal- cooperatives. I have seen, first-hand, the enor-
ities that cause serious conflict within and out- mous work they are carrying out to meet the
side national and regional borders; rapidly needs of increasingly large populations in a
evolving technological revolution whose use- more demanding world. I can assure you that
fulness can be as positive as it may be harmful; cooperativism is not asleep in the Asia-Pacific.
and our common home—Mother Earth is However, it still has a lot to do and a lot to
warning us about the damages we are inflict- show to the region and the world. The efforts
ing on the environment in the name of sup- made by the authors of this book are timely. In
posed indefinite progress of humanity. the pages that follow, we will read about the
In this context, the strength of the Asian achievements of cooperatives in different con-
region makes us all look toward its direction. texts, without abandoning a critical look that
Rapid growth with commensurate poverty makes us reflect on the mistakes and helps us
reduction, rapid technological development, find the best ways to continue serving our
and the pace of innovation seems to have communities.
awakened a giant over the past few decades. The central ingredient of this work is the 22
At the same time, millions of citizens remain case studies that allow us to see first-hand
excluded and social and environmental imbal- how and why cooperativism can be the pro-
ances threaten the path of growth undertaken tagonist in sectors as diverse as agriculture,

xvii
xviii Preface

consumption, credit, and business. Moreover, I believe that the outlook is encouraging for the
in different sociopolitical contexts, with more region. This book ratifies that hope. In contrast
or less favorable regulatory frameworks, with to the prevalent view that cooperatives are
more or less consistent public policies, with marginal players and subservient to other
more or less strong obstacles to overcome. models, we see here the cooperative success,
If the experiences alone do not tell us every- which is not a purely economic success.
thing we need to know, the added value we Cooperatives have their core in social capital,
find here are a series of chapters dedicated to which makes us different. We have roots in
strengthening our conceptual understanding of each of the communities where we participate,
how and why cooperatives can model societies that is, we are the cultural, economic, and
that are inclusive, fair, and peaceful. Indeed, social expression of the people that give us life.
the rigor with which the researchers handled We owe these to our people. That is why
their study gives account of concerns that go I welcome the brilliant initiative to carry out
beyond the narrative of these 22 cases. These, this research project which, from now on,
after all, are triggers to encourage new projects will be a fundamental tool to consolidate the
and to challenge us to think and act in pursuit contribution of cooperatives toward sustain-
of the world that cooperativists long for. able development.
The conceptual scaffolding that enriches The 2030 Agenda proposes that the devel-
these stories is combined with the historical opment of our societies has to be based on
journey of Asian cooperativism and touches decent work, gender equity, and an ecosystem
upon the perspective raised around old of care, among others. And it invites us, as
and new challenges, such as gender equity, cooperatives, to be part of the global alliance
youth participation, and the 2030 Agenda for to address the 17 Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development. Goals.
Another virtue of this book is that it looks at Among the conditions that make this com-
issues from the lens of actual practice. It does pliance possible is knowledge. I add, not any
not seek to be merely scholarly, but builds knowledge if not shared knowledge, elabo-
knowledge from the ground up. Nor is it for- rated from collective experiences that have
eign, because it starts from the local contexts to transformed the quality of life of people every
generate a collective knowledge of what works day. If we add to that the contribution of
and serves the needs of people. researchers, thinkers, and scholars who give a
The economic, social, environmental, and theoretical framework to these trajectories, we
demographic challenges that this region must are facing a very valuable contribution to think
face have, of course, varied responses. However, about our role in today’s complex world.
in the process one can generate value, distribute This contribution will surely not end with
it proportionally to the needs of the populations, this study. On the contrary, as the authors
and develop actions for the well-being of all— themselves propose, this is a first step toward
one that puts people and the environment at the the construction of genuine knowledge, devel-
center and addresses growing economic needs. oped from, by, and for cooperatives. A knowl-
That alternative is there in cooperatives. It is a edge that helps to strengthen their virtues, to
giant! And it is prepared to take on the chal- solve their weaknesses, to overcome threats,
lenges that Asia-Pacific societies face. and to take advantage of the opportunities
Despite the issues and obstacles that we presented to them. It is also useful to those
often encounter as cooperative organizations, responsible for developing public policies,
 Preface xix
to look at cooperatives as strategic allies when robust, dynamic, and integrated cooperative
it comes to improving the quality of life of movement throughout the Asia-Pacific region.
people. Researchers can take this starting Let’s wake up the giant!
point to continue producing and sharing Ariel Guarco
knowledge. President of the Internacional
Finally, it provides the basis for leaders in Co-operative Alliance
cooperatives to advance the construction of a
 C H A P T E R

1
Introduction
Morris Altman1, Yashavantha Dongre2, Akira Kurimoto3, Anthony
Jensen4, Robby Tulus5 and Seungkwon Jang6
1
Dean & Chair Professor of Behavioural and Institutional Economics & Co-Operatives, School of
Business, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom 2University of Mysore, Mysore, India
3
Hosei University, Chiyoda City, Tokyo, Japan 4Business School, University of Newcastle, New South
Wales, Australia 5Regional Director (Emeritus) for Asia Pacific, International Co-operative Alliance
(ICA). Founder and Chief Advisor, Federation of People-based Co-operative Enterprises (INKUR
Federation), Indonesia, and Credit Union Central Organization (CUCO), Indonesia 6Division of
Business Administration, Sungkonghoe University, Seoul, Korea

1.1 Cooperatives in the transforming United States, or in a certain state in India, it

Asian Pacific region does not mean that the same type of cooperative
adopting the same successful approach will suc-
The cooperative movement has long been a ceed when applied to a particular region in the
collective response to individual and community Philippines or in Vietnam.
disadvantage and exploitation. “Together we are It is clear that the context in which coopera-
stronger” has been followed by “Building a bet- tives emerge and succeed has and is changing
ter world” and “Leave no one behind.” These rapidly. And this context differs across coun-
mantras continue to define the vision of one of tries and regions across the globe. The Asian
the largest social movements in history. But for Century gathered pace and the moral and eco-
the collective response to be successful, there nomic leadership of the Unites States waned.
were considerable obstacles that had to be over- Free-market liberalism, with minimalist govern-
come. And these obstacles have differed over ment involvement led by investor-owned firms
time and space. Understanding the evolution of focused solely on profits and short-term gain, is
cooperative or member-owned organizations being questioned as the one true path to eco-
needs to be placed in the context of where and nomic and social success and improved wellbe-
when cooperatives evolved. Understanding the ing. Much of this critical thinking was triggered
successes and failures of cooperatives is context by the global financial crisis, which was embed-
dependent. Just because a cooperative succeeded ded in the extremes of free-market liberalism,
in the United Kingdom, in a certain state in the and the serious economic and social challenges

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2 1. Introduction

posed by climate change. Cooperatives are However, the emergence of stagflation in the
increasingly regarded has a means of achieving 1970s led to the belief by many global scholars
improvements in wellbeing globally whilst gen- and leaders that a return to “free” market-driven
erating success in the economic domain. economics and the further unleashing of the
Cooperatives now need to be re-evaluated for power of individualism would lead to an out-
their potential to provide a viable alternative for come with greater utility to society at large.
governments and policy makers. Collectivism fell into disrepute in many countries
The purpose of this book, which is the work and we saw the rise of what many have referred
of 34 academics in the Asian Pacific region, is to to as neo-liberal economics. In effect, this led to
provide a timely review of how cooperatives the gradual withdrawal of governments from
across the region have overcome difficulties, leadership roles in the economy, less provision of
succeeded, but also failed, and to point the way social goods, less regulation, and the market econ-
to the renaissance in cooperative research and omy being left to self-regulate. This transformed
analysis. This renaissance should impact on our the world economy; it being driven by globaliza-
understanding of cooperatives and member- tion on one hand, but coupled with serious ethical
owned organizations more generally in order to deterioration in business practices on the other.
better inform cooperators, governments, and the This culminated in the global financial crisis,
general public. This renaissance in thinking the heart of which was centered in the United
about cooperatives is reflected and highlighted States, one of the focal points of the call for
in an Asia Pacific compilation using 23 case unfettered, deregulated capitalism. This discre-
studies across 11 countries and 4 cooperative dited, for many, the free market economic
sectors. Underpinning these empirical studies model. In this current period of extreme dis-
are contributions to the theory of cooperatives. ruption, the calls for the transformation of capi-
The current theory, which remains dominant, talism and a rethinking of the “corporation”
maintains that cooperatives that are not econom- have reached a crescendo. Although capitalism
ically sustainable tend to be rather marginal and the freeing up of some markets from state
organizations, which from a developmental control have coincided with a dramatic reduc-
aspect are slow to get started and have problems tion of poverty in China and India, there is also
scaling up. The theoretical contributions, which more inequality and environmental damage.
are part of the current renaissance on the theory But the most successful Asian economies have
of cooperatives, demonstrate that the coopera- introduced a mix of markets and governments
tive model can equal or outperform rivals eco- and, in the West, amongst the most successful
nomically as well as generate superior social economies, this mix has been historic and is
and environmental outcomes. being maintained. Throughout these dramatic
The cooperative movement has been tied to changes in the world economy cooperatives
the cycles of capitalism for 200 years. have remained a strong and vibrant force,
Cooperatives have been an important riposte to demonstrating their resilience in the face of
mercantile, financial, and global capitalism and persistent economic and ideological challenges.
were introduced into the Asia Pacific by colonial In this period of disruption, when the intellec-
powers as part of their developmental strategies tual and political underpinnings of the free
or by local leaders who learned of successful market version of capitalism is being chal-
experiences in the West. In the second half of the lenged, even among leaders in the West, the
20th century, many states promoted and sup- sustainable cooperative model again offers a
ported cooperatives, which were often seen as credible and proven alternative to free market
engines for justice and economic development. capitalism and state socialism.

Waking the Asian Pacific Cooperative Potential

 1.3 Structure of this book 3
This book offers a thoughtful and well- are not thought to be innovative, dynamic, and
researched account on how the cooperative easily responsive to ongoing and dramatic
model works and what it can contribute to the changes in their economic and political envir-
sustainable development of the economy, soci- onments. But there remains the potential
ety, and the environment. It makes known to for Asian Pacific cooperatives to be dynamic
the international community the extraordi- engines of sustainable socio-economic and
narily successful cooperatives in Asia and the equitable development and growth. But we
Pacific—many of which are not known in the need to waken this potential and make more
West and, indeed, amongst many in the East. people aware of this viable cooperative
The targeted readers include cooperative lea- alternative.
ders, researchers, policy makers, and develop- In this book, we wish to address several
ment agencies in the Asian Pacific, while it can research questions to better understand the
provide lessons and inspiration to those inter- Asian Pacific cooperative potential, these
ested in the cooperative alternative and solu- include:
tion to the multifaceted socio-economic
• How have Asian Pacific cooperatives
challenges in other regions around the world.
evolved in diverse patterns (British/Indian,
Japanese/Korean, and Australian/New
Zealand)?
1.2 Waking the Asian Pacific • What are unique Asian Pacific cooperative
cooperative potential models? How have these been created/
evolved?
Before introducing the contents of this
• What challenges did Asian Pacific
book, it is important that we explain the
cooperatives overcome in order to succeed?
meaning of the title of this book. Asian Pacific
What lessons were learned?
cooperatives started under strong Western
• What are the factors involved in their
influence through colonialization, immigra-
success?
tion, and knowledge transfer. They have
• What is the future position of the Asian
evolved in specific patterns, often referred to
Pacific cooperatives of the world?
as the “British-Indian Pattern of Cooperation.”
• What potential role could Asian Pacific
Today, they exhibit huge diversity in size, sec-
cooperatives have in the Asian Pacific region
tor, and stage of development, reflecting the
in facilitating a more sustainable and
political and socio-economic diversity of the
equitable growth as compared to an
region. In fact, this is what one would expect
overarching reliance on the state and
and it parallels the diversity in the develop-
investor-owned firms?
ment of cooperatives in the West and, indeed,
• How can the potential of Asian Pacific
throughout the world. Asian Pacific coopera-
cooperatives be awakened?
tives’ membership has grown to such an
extent that their membership is the largest in
the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA);
but their share of business remains much 1.3 Structure of this book
smaller than that of other regions, as docu-
mented in the World Cooperative Monitor. Section 1.1 is the synthesis of Asian and
Although there exist a great number of Pacific cooperatives from various perspectives
cooperatives, members, and employees, these including political economy, economics, histo-
are often regarded as sleeping giants since they riography, and public policy, while debates on

Waking the Asian Pacific Cooperative Potential

4 1. Introduction

gender, youth, and the Sustainable Developing agricultural sector, the consumer sector, the
Goals (SDGs) are also addressed. credit sector, and the worker-owned coopera-
Akira Kurimoto has produced a definitive tive sector. Each sector-specific section is fol-
chapter entitled “Why Asian Pacific lowed by a summary of what has been learned
Cooperative Models,” which includes how in relation to building sustainable cooperatives
they evolved separately to the West. Morris in each country.
Altman argues, in the chapter “The Theoretical The section on “Agricultural Cooperatives”
Construct of Cooperative Comparative provides trends based on six case studies from
Advantage,” that the application of cooperative six economically, socially, and politically differ-
principles enabled cooperatives to achieve sus- ent countries. It would seem that states see agri-
tained comparative advantages and can serve cultural cooperatives as important in political
as engines of equitable growth and develop- terms and agricultural cooperatives see state
ment. Akira Kurimoto, in “The Asia Pacific support as inevitable for them to remain com-
Cooperative History,” presents a comprehen- petitive and sustainable amid a changing mar-
sive history of the evolution of Asian Pacific ket structure. These cases represent primary
cooperatives. Robby Tullus, a former director cooperatives, secondary or regional level coop-
of the ICA, Asia Pacific, in “Cooperatives and eratives, and sectoral cooperative apex organi-
Public Policy,” produces a lucid account of zations. Almondco from Australia is a primary
how government policy on cooperatives in the agricultural cooperative, but has not been
Asia Pacific region has typically not been sup- demutualized as is typical of the liberal market
portive of cooperative development. This defi- economy. Ruoheng Watermelon Cooperative
cit in government is an obstacle that Asian from China is a primary cooperative, but has
Pacific cooperatives must overcome to succeed. limited participative membership and, as is typ-
Balu Iyer director of the ICA, Asia Pacific, out- ical of the political and economic structure of
lines how cooperatives can assist the United the country, it has state supervision and patron-
Nations to achieve its SDGs. Sudha age. Again, the Rajaram Bapu Cooperative in
Kornginnaya outlines, in “Gender and India is a primary cooperative, but has now
Cooperatives,” the obstacles women face in grown into a cooperative conglomerate impact-
achieving gender equity and how the coopera- ing on all aspects of members’ lives. JA Hadano
tive movement has overcome these obstacles in of Japan is a primary agricultural cooperative,
many instances to assist women break through but is part of the JA Group using a common
the glass ceiling. Yashavantha Dongre, in the logo. Van Duc Cooperative of Vietnam was ini-
chapter “Youth and Cooperatives,” discusses tially a typically state-created and supervised
the role and importance of youth in the cooper- cooperative that has now been converted into a
ative movement and the development and sus- membership-based cooperative based on the
tenance of cooperatives. Anthony Jensen new cooperative legislation adopted in 2012.
presents a theoretical model that could form Unlike these examples, NACF from Korea is a
the basis for gaining an understanding of why federation of primary cooperatives that func-
the presence of cooperatives varies so dramati- tions in close proximity with the state.
cally across the different countries in the Asia The consumer cooperative section covers
Pacific region and what the macro and micro four cases in Japan, Singapore, South Korea,
factors are that tend to lead to success. and Vietnam, all of which have had extraordi-
Section 1.2 presents an analysis of 22 suc- nary success. It had been given a lower priority
cessful cooperative case studies in the 4 core compared with the agricultural sector; many
sectors of cooperative engagement, namely the governments have supported the sector when

Waking the Asian Pacific Cooperative Potential

 Further reading 5
foreign retailers tried to penetrate this huge 1.4 Creating the Asian Pacific
but unexplored market with mixed results. scholarship on cooperative studies
Singaporean and Vietnamese cooperatives
have succeeded in becoming the largest retai- Section 1.3 brings the book to a conclusion;
lers in their countries due to a variety of gov- this book is published as a first step toward
ernment support measures. In contrast, further enriching and growing Asian Pacific
Japanese and South Korean cooperatives have scholarship on cooperative studies. Largely,
developed as socially conscious entities from much of cooperative scholarship is owed to the
the bottom up without any government sup- West. It is quite natural that the cooperative
port. The macro and micro factors leading to studies have been developed in Europe and
success are analyzed. North America since these regions have wit-
Credit unions from humble beginnings par- nessed the emergence and evolution of coop-
layed peoples common desire to help them- eratives of various types since the 19th century.
selves through collective action into ever These studies and analyses have continuously
growing membership and financial resources. involved multidisciplinary approaches and
They overcame adverse political and market international perspectives. Cooperative ideas
conditions to create a space in their respective and practices had been spread from Europe to
countries financial system for people who oth- the Asia Pacific region, then followed by stud-
erwise could have been excluded had they not ies on Asian Pacific cooperatives. As we fore-
pooled their resources and endeavored to insti- see the potential of Asia as the growth center
tutionalize cooperation. The five credit unions of world, with China and India now playing
featured in this section from Indonesia, Sri increasingly important roles, we need to ana-
Lanka, Australia, the Philippines, and Nepal lyze the reality of cooperatives in the Asia
are success stories in their own right and a Pacific region as the nations and subregions
reflection of the historical, cultural, and socio- within the Asia Pacific face demographic, eco-
economic circumstances in which they took nomic, social, and environmental challenges.
root and prospered. Important ongoing questions include: To what
Worker cooperatives across Asia demon- extent have cooperatives dealt with these chal-
strate the various ways workers can secure lenges and played a leadership role in addres-
their jobs in democratic organizations that give sing these challenges? How can cooperatives
them control over their destiny and liberate contribute to meeting SDG targets whilst con-
them from being precarious workers. This sec- tributing to improving the wellbeing of cooper-
tor covers six case studies in five Asian states, ative members and potential members as
namely Kerala and Karnataka in India, Korea, defined by cooperators and potential
Japan, Australia, and the Philippines. Two cooperators?
extraordinary cooperatives have created thou-
sands of jobs, demonstrating the power of col-
lective action. These case studies illustrate the
impact of the political economy on worker Further reading
cooperative formation and the ability to stay Altman, M. (2014). Are cooperatives a viable business
true to its cooperative principles. The appropri- form? Lessons from behavioural economics. In S.
ate role of the state is examined, from Novkovic, & T. Webb (Eds.), Co-operatives in a post-
growth era: Towards co-operative economics. London: ZED
communist-leaning Kerala to collectivist Japan Books.
while including the impact of civil society in Birchall, J. (1997). The international co-operative movement.
the Philippines. Manchester University Press.

Waking the Asian Pacific Cooperative Potential

6 1. Introduction

Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (2011). A cooperative species: Human Novkovic, S., & Webb, T. (Eds.), (2014). Co-operatives in a
reciprocity and its evolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton post-growth era: Towards co-operative economics. London:
University Press. ZED Books.
Cook, M. L., Chaddad, F., & Iliopoulos. (2004). Advances in Nussbaum, M. (2003). Capabilities as fundamental entitle-
cooperative theory since 1990: A review of agricultural ments: Sen and social justice. Feminist Economics, 9, 33 59.
economics literature. In G. W. J. Hendrikse (Ed.), Pencavel, J. (2013). In The International Library of Critical
Restructuring agricultural cooperatives (pp. 65 90). Writings in Economics (Ed.), The economics of worker
Haveka: Erasmus University Press, Haveka. cooperatives. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
Münkner, H. (2013). Worldwide regulation of co-operative Witt, M., & Redding, G. (Eds.), (2014). The oxford handbook
societies: An overview. EURICSE Working Paper, n. 53. of Asian business systems. Oxford University Press.

Waking the Asian Pacific Cooperative Potential

 C H A P T E R

2
Why Asian Pacific cooperative models
matter?
Akira Kurimoto
Institute for Solidarity-based Society, Hosei University, Tokyo, Japan

2.1 Introduction applying the successful practices from their

homeland that they had left behind.
Asian cooperatives started in the 19th cen- Thus Asia Pacific cooperatives were created
tury by importing European models. under strong Western influence brought about
Consumer co-ops were set up to buy food at by colonialism, immigration, and learning
an affordable price following the Rochdale from advanced models. They, however,
model, while credit cooperatives were created evolved quite differently under the prevailing
adopting the Raiffeisen model to combat usury. political and socio-economic circumstances.
The Japanese Industrial Cooperative Act was Largely protected from competition by licenses
enacted by bureaucrats in 1900 to regulate all and trade restrictions and supported by subsi-
types of cooperatives, while the Indian Credit dies and tax concessions, they had accepted
Cooperative Societies Act was given by the stringent government control except for the
British Empire in 1904 and became the proto- British Dominions. Now they are in the process
type of the cooperative legislation in the devel- of transforming to become more independent
oping world. In both cases, a government top- and autonomous organizations to fulfill their
down approach was introduced in a wide area objective of serving their member’s needs,
in incorporation, governance, and finance. rather than the public good. In addition, there
Such an approach was applied by colonial are a variety of self-help groups or pre-co-ops
powers, then succeeded by new independent that may grow into more formal cooperatives.
states. Therefore cooperatives became parasta- In many industrial sectors, national representa-
tal entities under almighty cooperative minis- tive bodies are operating and are affiliated
ters/registrars in many countries. In the Pacific with the international co-operative alliance
region, immigrants started cooperatives (ICA) Asia and Pacific.

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10 2. Why Asian Pacific cooperative models matter?

Currently, Japanese agricultural cooperatives ethnic and religious divides often generate seri-
are ranked at high positions in the World ous conflicts in many places. The level of eco-
Cooperative Monitor,1 while consumer coopera- nomic development varies from poorly
tives had 71% of the membership and 27% of the developed to highly developed, even though
turnover of the European counterpart in 2012. Asia has regained its share in the world’s GDP
Asia Pacific cooperatives had a predominant after 200 years since the Great Divergence. The
share of membership, that is, 57% of the ICA social construction is still immensely varied,
affiliates in 1998, while their share in the number reflecting dominant cultures, religions, and
of larger co-ops in the World Cooperative values, even the common trends transforming
Monitor was only 14.9% in 2010. However, from traditional agrarian societies to postindus-
given the growing population and the high trial societies are widely observed.
growth rate in the past decades, and since it is “Asian values” were advocated as a political
forecast that the Asian economy will occupy ideology of the 1990s, which defined elements
50% of the world’s GDP in 2050, they have the of society, culture, and history common to the
potential to become the mainstream of the global nations of Southeast and East Asia, aiming to
cooperative movement, if they can grow in par- use commonalities—for example, the principle
allel with the whole economy. of collectivism—to unify people for their eco-
This chapter starts with an overview of nomic and social good and to create a pan-
the vast diversity of the Asia Pacific region. Asian identity as contrasted with the perceived
Then it describes the emergence of the unique European ideals of the universal rights of
Asian Pacific cooperative models both at the man.2 The popularity of the concept waned
organizational level and the inter-cooperation after the 1997 Asian financial crisis, when it
level. Finally, it calls for studies to identify the became evident that Asia lacked any coherent
potential of Asian Pacific cooperatives. regional institutional mechanism to deal with
the crisis. Even now, the Asia Pacific region
lacks clear prospect for regional integration
2.2 Asia Pacific region’s vast diversity such as the European Union.
The diversity in the Asia Pacific region can be
First, one may be impressed by the vast explained by the perspective of Varieties of
diversity of the Asia Pacific region compared Capitalism (VoC). Hall and Soskice (2003) ana-
with other regions. Its area extends from the lyzed how firms coordinate through market or
Siberian tundra to New Zealand, from the nonmarket relations and set out two distinct
Arabian desert to the Pacific islands. Asia has types of capitalist economies, namely Liberal
been the cradle of ancient civilizations and the Market Economies (LME) and Coordinated
birthplace of all the world religions. The politi- Market Economies (CME). The former is applied
cal regimes range from capitalist to socialist to the United States, the United Kingdom,
political economies and the cold-war-type con- Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland,
frontation of divided nation states continues while the latter includes Germany, Sweden,
although it has ended in other regions. The Austria, and Japan. But it is not strictly

1
Zenkyoren was ranked No. 5, Zen-noh No. 11, and Norinchukin Bank No. 53 in the 2015 Global 300 ranking. Zen-noh
was the largest and the Fonterra Group was No. 6 in the agricultural sector while Saitama Medical Co-op was ranked No.
9 in the health sector.
2
The concept was advocated by Mahathir Mohamad (Prime Minister of Malaysia during 1981 2003) and by Lee Kuan
Yew (Prime Minister of Singapore, 1959 90).

1. Analytical framework of Asian cooperative models

 2.3 Emergence of Asian Pacific cooperative models 11
applicable to the Asian region due to historical Japan had industrialized under
and institutional differences. Witt and Redding government initiatives and maintains state
(2014) suggested five types of Asian capitalism control over industries (Aoki’s “bureau-
(postsocialist, advanced city-state, emerging pluralism”). Korea and Taiwan followed
Southeast Asian, advanced Northeast Asian, and Japan’s pattern of development even after
Japanese), but it is mingling the typology of independence from it. A
economies with geographic considerations. The contestable election, an independent
author would like to suggest a classification of media, and freedom of association are
economies in the Asia Pacific region based on ensured.
the institutional arrangements, that is, the role of 4. Liberal market economies: Australia and
state and freedom of association. Four types New Zealand
of market economies are identified in accordance This type follows the Anglo-Saxon
with the extent of state intervention/involvement pattern of LME characterized by the
in the economic and social life of people. common law tradition, governments’
laissez-faire economic policy, and unbridled
1. Socialist market economies: China, Vietnam, market competition. But these countries
etc. have established a wide range of social
Rigid central planning economies have security systems financed by tax to cope
given way to “socialist market economies” with market failure. A contestable election,
under the slogan of “Reform and Opening- an independent media, and freedom of
up” (China) or “Doi moi” (Vietnam) association are ensured.
since the 1980s, but it is still characterized
by a dominant public sector and strong
government intervention into economic 2.3 Emergence of Asian Pacific
activities while it lacks a cooperative models
contestable election, an independent media,
and freedom of association. Asia and Pacific co-ops exhibit huge diver-
2. Developmentalist market economies: India, sity, thus, reflecting the diversity of the region.
Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, etc. The level of development varies from start-up
Colonial-style top-down management was groups to the most advanced enterprises. The
inherited after independence. Nationalist industrial sectors in which cooperatives oper-
governments pursued developmentalist ate also range from agricultural supply and
policies and continue to dominate economic marketing, food retailing, banking, and insur-
activities while free association and the ance to industrial production and service pro-
media are often compromised. The plural vision. But the principal difference can be seen
political party system is taking over the in a given state’s policy and legislation on
“developmental dictatorship” in the cooperatives. In many countries, cooperative
Philippines, but authoritarian governments ministers/registrars exercise overriding power
still dominate the political economy in on cooperatives, while in other countries, coop-
Singapore and Malaysia. eratives are neglected or discouraged. In some
3. State-coordinated market economies: Japan, countries, cooperatives are dominated by polit-
Korea, and Taiwan ical parties or politicians, while the apex coop-
This type escaped from being colonized erative organizations often function as
by Western powers and developed into bureaucracy’s agents. These elements have put
a unique system based on bureaucracy. cooperatives on quite different national

1. Analytical framework of Asian cooperative models

12 2. Why Asian Pacific cooperative models matter?

trajectories. Many cooperatives had been estab- 1 2 cows. This model has been emulated by sev-
lished from the top down to implement public eral countries in Asia and Africa. On the other
policies in priority areas, while some coopera- hand, agricultural cooperatives in Australia and
tives had been created from the bottom up to New Zealand started producing meat and dairy
meet the unmet needs of people. They have the products for export. These export-driven co-ops
common problems of lack of member commit- have grown as major exporters of dairy. The
ment, entrepreneurial capacity, and capital. Fonterra group has been at the forefront of global
Against such backdrops, we could witness expansion for over 50 years making up 25% of
the emergence of successful cooperatives New Zealand’s exports.
grown from the grassroots. This book show- In the consumer sector, cooperatives have
cases some best practices and analyses the sought to provide safe and reliable products at
micro and macro factors attributable to success. a lower price. In Japan, consumer co-ops devel-
The former includes organizational and busi- oped a unique way of home delivery to
ness models, governance/management, human Han neighborhood groups (joint buying) and
resource processes, and adherence to the have made a rapid expansion since the 1970s.
Cooperative Principles, while the latter refers The active member participation in the gover-
to the enabling of state policy/legislation, the nance and business operations of co-ops
market, and society at large. has often been praised by ICA leaders and
Amongst these, some unique Asian Pacific researchers. Growing individualism has
cooperative models have emerged. Asia Pacific caused a challenge to which co-ops are adapting
cooperatives were created under a strong by shifting to home delivery to individuals.
Western influence. This does not mean, how- University co-ops have developed a wide range
ever, that they are just copies of their European of businesses involving students as full-fledged
forerunners; rather, they have evolved into members, while health co-ops have grown as
Asian entities adapting to the existing political user-owned co-ops with multistakeholder mem-
regimes, socio-economic structures, and tradi- bership involving a minority of professionals.
tional culture. The dominant shape is the hier- Korean cooperatives have grown from grass-
archal structure under state-controlled or state- roots taking a similar trajectory since the 1990s,
sponsored apex organizations in many coun- but iCOOP and Hansalim co-ops developed
tries, although there are a wide variation reflect- multistakeholder co-ops involving both consu-
ing the vast diversity of the region. However, mers and producers. Trade union-based con-
some successful Asia Pacific cooperative models sumer/insurance co-ops are thriving in
have emerged and need to be studied carefully. Singapore, while Saigon Co-op has developed a
In the agricultural sector, cooperatives were supermarket chain, strongly supported by the
expected to help small farmers to enjoy economy government in Vietnam. There exist a great
of scale by jointly organizing sales of produce at number of co-ops at workplaces set up by
a better term and jointly procuring inputs at a employees working in companies, government
lower price. Amul dairy cooperatives in India offices, etc., that are often supported by trade
provided a model for the development of a pro- unions and employers.
gram termed “white revolution” that began in In the financial sector, Grameen Bank in
1965. Deeply rooted in communities, highly inte- Bangladesh was praised by the World Bank as
grated at the village, district, and state levels, being a successful formula of micro credit
and under members control, they have proved empowering poor women at the grassroots
the worth of the system, which offers every nec- level, and it was awarded the Nobel Peace
essary service to small farmers breeding only Prize in 2006. Its model is being diffused in

1. Analytical framework of Asian cooperative models

 2.3 Emergence of Asian Pacific cooperative models 13
many parts of the third world, but credit countries. Students are generally treated as
unions have provided financial services in customers, but they are encouraged to
much greater magnitude in many countries. become full-fledged members in Japan and
They have been created by farmers, workers, Korea where co-ops are run by multistake-
traders, and consumers based on the “common holders to support campus communities.
bond” in communities, work places, and Women’s co-ops have been formed exclu-
religious organizations. They largely contribute sively by women in Malaysia, Indonesia,
to the reduction of poverty and empowerment India, and Iran to encourage them to take
of women. Credit unions in Korea, the leadership positions, which would often be
Philippines, and Indonesia were created from difficult in mixed-gender co-ops due to the
the grassroots and extended to help establish prevailing culture of discrimination against
other types of co-ops. The labor banks in Japan women.
set up by trade unions and consumer co-ops to We need to identify the factors that are
cater to workers/consumers also display a attributable to successful co-op models.
unique model of labor-oriented co-op. Institutional arrangements have played an
In the worker sector, cooperatives are important role in facilitating co-ops to develop
emerging to cope with widely spreading business operations. Favorable conditions
unemployment and deteriorating working con- include the enabling legislation, tax relief,
ditions. Alpha Pro with 80,000 members is pro- licensing of specific businesses, training/edu-
viding a solution to the contracting problem cation of cadres, and so on. However, it
and precarious work in the Philippines. Also, should be noted the government support might
the Uralungal Labour Contract Cooperative have led to its having control over co-ops.
has 7000 worker members in south India, In many countries, cooperative laws contain
operating to secure jobs for unemployed work- the provisions of strong supervising roles by
ers. Workers cooperatives started to secure jobs cooperative ministers/registrars that might
for middle-age/elderly workers unions or to hamper the independence and autonomy of
meet the unmet community needs of female cooperatives.
members of consumer co-ops in Japan. A more important factor is cooperative lead-
In addition to these traditional types of co- ership creating innovative business models
ops, there are specific co-ops in Asia. responding to the unmet needs of producers,
Medical/health co-ops have been organized consumers, and workers. They play important
by users (Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, roles in capturing opportunities and mobilizing
and Singapore) or providers (India, Malaysia, resources of key stakeholders. They often built
Mongolia, and Sri Lanka) to provide medical supporting structures such as federations and
services at hospitals and clinics. In many intermediary institutions.
cases, these are run as multistakeholder co- We need to see the dynamics of cooperative
ops involving both healthcare professionals development in the Asia Pacific region. Many
and beneficiaries. They have proved to be traditional co-ops were built from the top
effective providers of indispensable health down, while new co-ops are emerging from
services that were otherwise not accessible to the bottom up in each sector. Cooperatives
ordinary people, thus, contributing to sustain- may thrive even under unfavorable conditions
able development. University/college co-ops as some cooperative models have demon-
have been organized mainly by faculty mem- strated. For example, Japan’s consumer co-ops
bers to provide textbooks, food, appliances, have developed their membership basis and
and credit/insurance in more than 10 business by persuading all customers to

1. Analytical framework of Asian cooperative models

14 2. Why Asian Pacific cooperative models matter?

become members and relying on their invest- industrialization strategy, and brought in the
ment to outwit legal restrictions prohibiting “thoughts of life” concepts based on traditional
nonmember trade and banking business. Korean culture. They promoted community-
based mutual cooperation between consumers
and farmers as well as a self-reliant develop-
2.4 Inter-cooperation as another Asia ment model. To date, 29 cooperatives have
Pacific cooperative model been created in Wonju and have worked
together as a part of the Wonju Network of
Asian Pacific cooperative models can be Social Economy. In this network, multiple
seen in the cooperation among cooperatives. cooperatives have developed common goals/
There are two types of inter-cooperation, visions and jointly invested in the development
namely cooperation in communities and in the of new cooperatives. This is acclaimed as an
supply chain. The first model is what Dr. innovative network, contributing to the devel-
Laidlaw described, “building cooperative com- opment of the social economy of Wonju.
munities,” as one of the priorities that the Another cooperative community can be
cooperative movement of the world should do found in the small town of Maleny situated
for the future, illustrated by an example of 100 km north of Brisbane, Australia. 4 The
Japanese rural multipurpose cooperatives. town has a high density of cooperative orga-
The first model can be seen in the coopera- nizations, for which it is internationally
tive community in Wonju, a local town situated known. Maleny has a long history of cooper-
140 km east of Seoul, which is widely seen as a ative enterprises. The “pioneer” phase was
typical cooperative community.3 In 1972, when marked by the Maleny Cooperative Dairy
the local river flooded, the farming lands Association started by settlers in 1903. The
around Wonju were devastated, resulting in second consolidation phase relates to the
there being no harvest. Responding to the local modernization and expansion of the dairy
bishop’s call for international aid, the Caritas industry from the 1930s and into the early
Internationalis and the West German govern- 1970s. Then came a “new wave” of coopera-
ment provided 2.91 million German marks in tive community organizations from the
total. The locals created the Balgeum Credit 1970s to the 2000s. In this period, Maleny
Union with the purpose of promoting self-help produced a number of social enterprises and
and cooperatives, rather than directly distribut- seven incorporated cooperatives, beginning
ing the aid to the poor. Soon this Credit with the establishment of a consumer coop-
Union established a mixed consumer/pro- erative store in 1980. These have grown into
ducer Hansalim cooperative and a medical a network of interdependent cooperatives as
cooperative. These cooperatives became the well as enterprises based on cooperative
institutional basis for today’s multiple coopera- principles including a credit union, a coop-
tives. The basic goals of the early cooperatives erative club, a workers’ co-op, a cashless
were a self-reliant local economy and a self- trading co-op, a local exchange trading sys-
governing local community. They criticized the tem, environmental cooperatives, and a

3
Sang-Il Han Moo-Kwon Chung Mun-su Park (2014) “Local stakeholder involvement and social innovation in Korean
cooperatives: the cases of Wonju and Ansung cities”, Community Development Journal, Volume 49, Issue 2, Oxford. The
cooperative community can be found in Sonmisan moul in Seoul where community businesses have flourished ranging
from a cooperative daycare to a school, a supermarket, a restaurant, collective houses, and a theater.
4
Ann El Khoury, “A Cooperative Town: Community Development in Maleny, Australia”, Refereed Abstract.

1. Analytical framework of Asian cooperative models

Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 Vavahtaen tunsi Thora nyt joutuneensa metsänhaltiattaren
valtaan.

Tulija saapui aivan hänen eteensä.

Silloin täytyi Thoran kumartua syvälle alas.

— Näethän että olen omasi, sinun täytyy auttaa minua, sanoi hän
hiljaa.

— Mitä tahdot minulta?

Silloin tunsi Thora sydämen hehkuvan povessansa.

— Tunnen kaihoa!

Metsänhaltiatar katsoi häneen, ja hänen silmänsä olivat tummat ja

täynnä voimaa.

— Mitä sinä kaihoat?

Thora kurotti kätensä häntä kohden.

— Sitä, jota en voi saavuttaa!… Sitä, joka on ikuista!

Silloin kosketti metsänhaltiatar häntä taikasauvallaan, ja hänen

katseensa oli käynyt lempeäksi.

— Nouse ja käy, — muutoin et ehdi perille! sanoi hän, kulkien

edelleen.

Thora katsoi hänen jälkeensä, hänen käydessään yli nummen,

poistuessaan pitkien kanervalaineiden keskitse. Missä hänen
jalkansa oli koskettanut maata, siinä hohtivat värit, jommoisia Thora
ei ollut koskaan nähnyt, ja siinä kohdassa, missä hän oli kadonnut
näkyvistä, leimusi liekki mätästen yläpuolella. —

Silloin tuli vieläkin joku hänen luoksensa ja puhutteli häntä — nyt

ihminen.

Thora ei ollut huomannut hänen tuloansa; nyt näki hän hänen

istuvan vieressänsä. Mutta hän ei hämmästynyt; hän ei olisi voinut
hämmästyä mistään, istuessaan siinä nyt voimatta vapautua tuosta
haavetilasta, johon oli joutunut. Hän ei sitä koettanutkaan. Miksi olisi
hän sen tehnyt?

— Mitä sinä täällä teet? kysyi tulija.

Ääni oli lämmin ja lempeä ja se tunki hänen sydämeensä.

Hän tiesi että tulija oli Samuel Stern. Hän näki hänen kauniin
suunsa, jolla oli sama lempeä ilme kuin muinoin nuoruuden päivinä.

Hän ei ollut siitä ihmeissään, eikä siitäkään että Samuel Stern

sanoi häntä sinuksi. Hän istui tuijottaen suoraan eteensä.

— Mitä sinä teet täällä? kysyi hän uudelleen.

— Kuuntelen tuulia, vastasi Thora hiljaa.

Samuel Stern muuttautui hiukan eteenpäin. — Mitä ne sanovat?

— Surullisia asioita ne kertoelevat.

— Olet kuullut väärin! vastasi Samuel. Hänen äänensä kuului

hiljaiselta ja vavahtelevalta.
 — Ei, sanoi Thora, — merituuli tietää kaikki — ja tuo pikku
tuulonen, joka tulee laaksosta, sieppaa mukaansa kaikki unettomain
öiden huokaukset ja kuljettaa ne mukanansa tänne.

Samuel kumartui häntä kohden.

— Tiesin, että tulisitte tänne, sanoi hän.

Hän katsoi hiukan ihmeissään Thoraan, sillä hän huomasi ettei

hän ollenkaan tarkannut mitä hän sanoi.

— Metsänhaltiatar on ollut täällä! äännähti hän kuin unessa ja

nyökkäsi vakuuttavasti.

— Ja hän on koskenut teihin taikasauvallansa. Niin, tämähän on

hänen valtakuntaansa!

Samuel Sternin ääni kajahti siltä, kuin olisi hän ilahtunut jostakin.
Thoran tunnelma valtasi hänetkin. Hänestä oli äkkiä kuin nuoruuden
päivinä, kun he vaeltelivat yhdessä ja hän yhtyi Thoran haaveisiin.
Tämä oli rauhoitettua aluetta, jossa he voivat kohdata toisensa…
melkoisen matkan päässä arkielämästä.

— Huomaan kyllä, toisti Samuel Stern nauraen, että

metsänhaltiattaren taikasauva on koskenut teihin. Teistä säteilee
pimeyttä!

— Mutta täällä kaikki muuttuu, lisäsi hän, — kaikki näyttää

toisenlaiselta.

Hiljaa hymyillen katsahti Thora ylös ja pudisti päätänsä.

 — Täällä käyvät ilmi tunteet ja haaveet, koko sisimmän olennon
kaikupohja. Täällä täytyy olla rehellinen toisiansa kohtaan.

Thora katsoi häntä hiljaisella ihmettelyllä. Hän oivalsi vain

puolittain hänen puheensa.

— Katso, tuolla alhaalla on pimeätä ja ummehtunutta. Mutta täällä

metsänneidon kodissa on portti avoinna meille. Täällä vallitsee tyyni,
täällä olemme suojassa luoteistuulelta. Täällä voimme vaeltaa
vanhoja, tuttuja polkuja. Voimme kertoa toisillemme kaikenmoista —
pitentää sillä elämämme, kuten tuo kuolemaan tuomittu, joka kertoeli
sulttaanille! — — —

— Mitä sinä ajattelet?… Tiedätkö jotain, jota on ihana ajatella, kun

yö on pitkä?… Miksi tulit tänne jälleen?

Thoran kasvot vavahtivat, hänen silmänsä kävivät suuriksi ja

väsyneiksi.

— Hain jotakin, sanoi hän hitaasti. — Mitäkö se oli? Sitä en tiedä!

Ei, en luule tietäväni sitä — ajattelin että ehkä voisin saavuttaa sen
täällä, sillä muualla en sitä löydä.

Hän tuijotti eteensä. — Nyt sen tiedän. Tahdoin saavuttaa rauhan.

— Sinun pitää kertoa minulle jotain muuta, — onnesta, jonka olet

saavuttanut!

Thora säpsähti arasti, ja levottomuus näytti valtaavan hänet.

— Onnesta? En tiedä millaista se on. Olen unohtanut millaiseksi

sitä kuvailin.
 Hän laski kätensä kasvoillensa.

— Mitä tahdot minulta? Sinä kiusaat minua! sanoi hän hiljaa.

— Päivänpaisteinen unelmasi, jonka uneksit kerran, millainen oli

se?

Nyt kääntyi Thora häntä kohden ja nauroi.

— Ei pidä uneksia — se käy niin kalliiksi. Unelmat riistävät pois

kaiken sen mitä omistaa… ja haihtuvat itse olemattomiin.

— Mitä olet kokenut elämän ihanuudesta?

— Elämän ihanuudesta? kuiskasi Thora, katsoi häneen ja peräytyi

vavahtaen. — Niin, se saapui pimeyden täyttäessä mieleni — ja
poistui jättäen epätoivon. Siksi olen unohtanut senkin!

Hiljaisuus seurasi.

Samuel Stern katsoi Thoraa. Näytti siltä kuin tämä olisi unohtanut
hänen läsnäolonsakin.

Thoran miellyttävä asento liikutti häntä. Kuinka hän voikaan

näyttää noin lapselliselta? Kuinka hän oli tullut totuttautuneeksi
tuollaiseen päänasentoon? Se saattoi hänet ajattelemaan kukkaa.

— Kerro joku toinen pikku satu, pyysi hän lempeästi.

— Muista, että täällä on toisenlaista kuin tuolla alhaalla. Täällä

sulkeutuu se ovi, joka vie sinne, ja aukenee se, joka johtaa salattujen
ajatusten ja haaveitten tykö!… Hohtavin valkoisin siivin liitelevät
kevätunelmasi ympärilläsi!… Täällä ei tiedetä ajasta, joka kiitää
tiehensä, täällä ei mikään ole ohitse!
 Thora kävi jälleen levottomaksi. Hän nousi äkkiä — mutta istuutui
jälleen. Samuel Sternin ilme vaikutti häneen omituisen
vastustamattomasti.

— Tiedäthän, jatkoi tämä, — että se, johon tuo vihreä taikasauva

on koskenut, näkee salatunkin, — näkee toiset ihmiset oikeassa
valossa… Sano, mitä näet nyt!?

Thora istui hetken, punniten mitä sanoisi.

— Minun täytyy tosiaankin nauraa! Tiedän erään henkilön, joka on

niin iloinen, ettei edes näe kyynel- ja veripisaroita… Se johtuu siitä,
ettei hän koskaan ole lahjoittanut sydäntänsä kokonaan.

— Kerrot aivan väärin!

— Ei, olen oikeassa. En ole mies, niin että voisin unohtaa — — —

— Olet unohtanut tuon vanhan laulun:

»Tuskan tuikeen riemun ääniin

Kätken, poika poloinen!»

Et tiedä, että on olemassa mies, joka on taistellut, kunnes päivä

kävi helteiseksi, ja yhtä monta kertaa kuin meren rannalla on
hietajyväsiä, ja joka sanoo itsellensä: »Tuota, mitä tänään olen
tehnyt, olen ajatellut, en tee enää koskaan, se oli viimeinen kerta!»…
Mutta hän tekee sen yhä uudelleen. Viimeinen kerta ei tule koskaan.
Se tekee hänen mielensä niin raskaaksi. Kerro nyt jotain muuta,
jonka tunnet paremmin… Missä olet ollut koko tuon pitkän ajan?

— Missäkö? Olen käyskennellyt hakien… olin kadottanut jotain…

en löytänyt koskaan rauhaa. Yöllä minusta oli kuin en olisi levännyt
vuoteessani, vaan kuljeskellut pimeässä. — — — Joku tahtoi auttaa
minua, mutta ei kukaan voinut sitä tehdä. »Antakaa minun mennä»,
pyysin minä, »rukoilen teitä, antakaa minun mennä! Tahdon mennä
sinne, jossa ei ole ketään… tahdon kuihtuneiden lehtien tykö, kaiken
tykö, joka on kerran kukoistanut, mutta lakannut olemasta.» —

— Ja minä tulin suureen erämaahan… Silloin saapui yö luokseni.

Se sulki raskaat silmäluomeni. Ja minä pyysin, ettei kukaan häiritsisi
minua.

— Silloin sanoi minulle joku: »Miksi suret sitä että ruoho lakastuu
ja laulu vaikenee ja kynttilä palaa loppuun. Sellaista on elämä!» —

— Mutta käyskentelin vain tuolla ulkona. En löytänyt missään

rauhaa… Silloin tuli luokseni joku pimeässä ja sanoi: »Mitä haet sinä
täältä? On parempi että seuraat minua, niin löydät kenties jotakin,
jota voit käyttää!»… Suru otti minut siten huostaansa ja vei minut
omaan maahansa. Siellä on niin monta kuilua, ja tie vie aina
alemmas.

— Niin olin siis siellä… Siksi tulin tänne viime kesänä, että olin
ollut siellä, — minun täytyi levätä hiukan. —

Samuel Stern aikoi sanoa jotakin, mutta Thora esti sen. Hän laski
kätensä hänen käsivarrellensa.

Sitten kohotti hän jälleen kätensä ja painoi ne vasten otsaansa.

— Väsyin niin kovin! En löytänyt mitään, jota olisin voinut käyttää,

— silmäni eivät nähneet mitään!

Hän pudisti päätänsä. — Ja nyt en enää tahdo hakeakaan!

 Hän oli puhunut soinnuttomasti ja epäselvästi, ikäänkuin sanat
olisivat väkisin pyrkineet esiin, — ja kun hän ehti viime sanaan,
katkesi ääni, päättyen epäsointuun.

Hän nousi. — Tahdon nyt lähteä, kuiskasi hän melkein

kuulumattomasti.

— Ei! — Samuel Stern sai hänet jälleen istuutumaan. — Nyt

kerron minä vuorostani, ja jotakin, joka on oikein totta.

— Oli muuan ilta täällä nummella. Eräs mies tuli tänne

tervehtimään ja kiittämään viimeisestä. Ja hänet lausuttiin
tervetulleeksi ja hänelle kerrottiin, että joku toinenkin oli tullut tänne.
Hän oli aavistanutkin, että tuo toinen tulisi. Ja mies käyskenteli täällä
ihanan luonnon yksinäisyydessä. Hän tarkkasi kuunnellen nukkuvia
lintuja ja kukkasia. Hänestä tuntui että niiden täytyisi kaikkien
uneksia tuosta olennosta, joka täytti hänen mielensä. — — —

— Tuo mies oli elänyt hyvin hurjasti. Hän ei uskaltanut pysähtyä

tuon naisen kasvojen eteen. Sillä nainen tahtoi kostaa, tahtoi yllättää
hänet hänen ollessaan väsynyt ja voimaton — ja saattaa hänet
kauhun valtaan. Mies käyskenteli myöskin synkkiä polkuja, — tuskan
tiet ovat monenlaiset. Ja hänkin haki. Hän oli kadottanut jonkun ja
tutkisteli vaellusretkellään: »Minne jouduitkaan?» Mutta ei kukaan
vastannut milloinkaan! —

Thora oli istunut liikkumatonna, eteenpäin kumartuneena, kädet

ristissä toisen polven ympärillä. Nyt nousi hän hitaasti.

— Sinun täytyy antaa minun mennä. En tahdo kuulla enempää! —

Kaikki käy niin kummalliseksi! —
 Samuel Stern nousi myöskin.

— Osaan toisen kertomuksen, joka on paljon hauskempi! Sen

kerron sinulle huomenna, kun päivä sammuu. Muista, että sinun
pitää tulla tänne minun kertomukseni takia, — ja siksi että sen, joka
on metsänhaltiattaren vallassa, täytyy tehdä niin!

Thora ei vastannut. He eivät enää puhuneet kumpikaan. Samuel

Stern saattoi Thoran aivan hänen ovellensa saakka.

Sitten pyysi hän vain että Thora nukkuisi, sillä niinhän oli tapana
tehdä tähän vuorokauden aikaan.

Tultuaan ylös huoneeseensa, seisoi Thora hetkisen aivan hiljaa.

Sitten meni hän akkunan luo ja aukaisi sen katsoaksensa ulos.

Pikemminkin oli hänen huolehdittava siitä että heräisi, hänen

pitäisi pelastukseksensa takertua johonkin luotettavaan ja todelliseen
———

Syvänteistä kohoova sumu verhosi tunturit ja piilotti nummen.

Pehmoisena ja valkeana se kiertyi talojenkin ympärille. Sitä, mikä oli
suurta, ei Thora enää voinut nähdä, mutta kaikki vähäpätöinen —
talot, veräjä, pikku puut — kasvoi kasvamistaan tuon valkoisen
hulmuavan hunnun keskellä ja kävi kammottavaksi.

Oli kuin koko todellisuus olisi muodostunut joksikin sanattomaksi,

unelmaksi, joka liikkui sielun syvyydessä. Hän ei päässyt siitä
selville.

— Mitä minun tarvitsee siitä välittää, ajatteli hän lopuksi,

päästyään vihdoinkin vuoteeseen. — Vieras ihminenhän hän vain
on!

*****

Seuraavana päivänä oli Thora Thammersilla niin tummat varjot

silmien alla, että ruustinna vaati hänet tilille lämpimän veden
käytöstä.

Ruustinna muistutti hiukan rouva von Astenia siinä, että huolehti

niistä, joille soi hyvää, erinomaisen rasittavalla, itsevaltaisella tavalla.

Hänen onnistuikin saada rouva Thammers käsittämään, mikä

hänelle olisi hyödyllistä, vieläpä käsittämään että hänen siveellinen
velvollisuutensa oli olla saapuvilla illalla vietettävässä juhlassa.
Basaarin jälkeen aiottiin vielä tanssia.

Illan tultua oli Thora tosiaankin toisten mukana. Hän istui katsoen
heidän huvitteluansa. Hänen mielensä kävi aina niin alakuloiseksi,
kun hän kuuli tanssimusiikkia ja näki ihmisten tanssivan. Hän voi
saada kyyneleet silmiinsä. Hulluahan se tietysti oli.

Samuel Stern tanssi rouva Iversenin kanssa ja näytti huvittelevan

oivallisesti. Sitten tuli hän Thoran tykö.

— Mitä te istutte ja mietitte? Teidän pitäisi tanssia ja tehdä hyvää!

Thora vastasi heikolla hymyilyllä. — Täällä ovat kaikki niin hilpeitä.

Mutta minusta olisi niin rasittavaa nauraa ja jutella tuolla tavoin —
eiväthän kaikki nuo ihmiset sentään voi olla niin iloisia.

Tätä sanoessaan ei Thora kylläkään tarkoittanut toisia, vaan

ainoastaan
Samuel Sterniä.
 Tämä nauroi. — Kyllähän me olemme iloisia, vaikkemme silti ole
sitoutuneet tuntemaan samaa iloa tunnin kuluttua — tuskin viiden
minuutin kuluttuakaan! —

— Te pudistatte hiukan halveksivasti päätänne, näyttää minusta,

— arvelette että sellainen on rehellisyyden puutetta. Te erehdytte, —
kaikki riippuu vain mielemme hetkellisestä virityksestä. Se on
näyttämöllistä koristelua meidän elämässämme. Kauan ei sitä kestä,
mutta tämä riippuu varojemme niukkuudesta — ihmisethän ovat aina
köyhiä tavalla tai toisella. Täytyy käytellä järkevästi sitä, mitä on
tarjona. Katsokaapa tuota ylioppilasta, joka saa tanssia Thamar
rouvan kanssa, — hän on ylen onnellinen. Ja noiden toisten
pyörivien parien joukossa on varmaan muutamia, jotka ovat melkein
onnellisia. Hyvä Jumala, jospa kerrankin pääsisi niin pitkälle!

Thora nauroi. Tuo nauru sopeutui niin hyvin hänen matalaan

hillittyyn ääneensä, jolla oli niin tummahko, pehmoinen sointu.

— Olette oikeassa, sanoi hän, — tunnelma vaikuttaa perin

juhlalliselta!

— Nyt soittaa Don Miguel sietämätöntä valssiansa. Sitä te

tietenkään ette halua tanssia! Olen myöskin luvannut näyttää rouva
Iversenille pari taulua, jotka minulla on tuolla alhaalla asunnossani.
Tuletteko mukaan?

Samassa tuli rouva Iversen, ja he menivät alas pieneen taloon

tauluja katsomaan.

Toinen niistä oli Crivellin madonnankuva. Se esitti hentoa, hiukan

kumaraa vartta, kalpeita, surumielisiä kasvoja. Mutta tuossa
olennossa oli salaperäistä viehätystä, ja puolittain maahan suunnattu
katse oli täynnä suloutta.

— Kaunis ei hän tosiaankaan ole! virkahti rouva Iversen. —

Anteeksi, mutta minusta hän muistuttar rouva Thammersia.

— Niin minustakin. Ja tämä tässä on pyhä Fransisko. Tarun

mukaan hän tulee käymään luostarissa, jossa viljellään
orjantappuroita itsekidutusta varten. Hän muuttaa ne ruusuiksi! —

— Se oli kiltisti. Minä olen myöskin sitä mieltä että on ennen

kaikkea pyrittävä tekemään elämää miellyttäväksi. Ja on oikein
hauskaa että joku keksii maalata jotain tällaista noiden ainaisten
madonnojen asemesta. Mies sentään aina koristaa paikkansa!

Tukkukauppias Stern meni rouva Thammersin tykö, joka seisoi

yhä vielä madonnan edessä.

— Te näytätte siltä, kuin ette aikoisi tulla tänä iltana. Muistakaa

että olette taian kahleissa!

— Kertomuksenne haluan kyllä kuulla, sanoi Thora tyynesti. — Se

varmaankin huvittaa minua. Minunkin on ennen kaikkea pyrittävä
tekemään elämäni mahdollisimman miellyttäväksi.

*****

Mutta tämä ilta ei jäänyt ainoaksi. Satu ei ehtinyt päähän saakka.

Eikä vielä toisenakaan iltana. Aina siitä jäi jotain jäljelle vielä
seuraavaksi.

Kaksi viikkoa oli kulunut — ja vieläkään ei Thora Thammers ollut

saanut sanottavaansa lausutuksi.
 Mutta nyt tuosta täytyi tulla loppu. Sen oli Thora aikonut sanoa jo
toisena iltana. Mutta hän ei saanut sitä huuliltansa.

Muutoin — miksi ei hän oikeastaan olisi tätä jatkanut? Häntä

huvitti tarkata Samuel Sterniä, verrata hänen olentoansa päivisin
täällä alhaalla ja illoin ylhäällä nummella. Täällä — kuinka arasti hän
salasikaan, että mikään voi järkyttää hänen tunteitansa! Kaiken
vakavan hän lykkäsi luotansa, jutteli tyhjiin!

Ja sitten — kun alkoi melkein näyttää siltä kuin he kiintyisivät

toisiinsa tavallisina hyvinä ystävinä — tuli aina äkillinen, käsittämätön
käänne. Samuel Stern perääntyi arkaillen, ikäänkuin olisi alkanut
häntä pelätä. Hetkisen tuntui Thorasta, kuin pelkäisi hän Thoran
käsittävän hänen sanansa liian merkitseviksi, luulisi hänen ehkä
arvelevan, että Samuel Stern voisi rakastua häneen uudelleen.

Hän ei tiennyt, kuinka viisaaksi Thora oli tullut ja kuinka hyvin hän
nyt ymmärsi maailmaa. Hän ei tiennyt, ettei Thora luottanut
ainoaankaan hänen sanaansa niin, että olis kätkenyt sen
sydämeensä. Oli vahinko ettei Samuel Stern käsittänyt, kuinka täysin
levollinen hän olisi voinut olla, ja kuinka tarpeettomia kaikki
varovaisuuskeinot olivat Thoraan nähden.

Mutta siitä huolimatta Thora kärsi — ja tätä hän ei tahtonut

myöntää itselleenkään — nähdessään kuinka hänen mieltänsä
kiinnitti nuo kaksi nuorta tyttöä, jotka niin ujostelematta häntä
hakkailivat. Thora ei rohjennut itselleenkään tunnustaa, kuinka häntä
hermostutti Samuel Sternin hilpeä, häikäisevä huikentelevaisuus.

Mutta tuolla ylhäällä — siellä voi tapahtua, että Thora unohti tuon
kaiken… unohti kuluneen ajan… kaiken, mitä välillä oli ehtinyt
tapahtua…
 Silloin voi hänestä tuntua, ettei ollut olemassakaan muuta kuin he
kaksi ja että kaikki oli kuten muinoin. Ja hänestä tuntui, kuin voisi
hän istua siellä alati, antaen elämän hiljaa mennä menojansa. —

Se oli noiden nummen iltojen syy! Kun aurinko laski ja tuli tyyntä ja
hiljaista, kun veripunaiset säteet virtailivat yli nummen, värittäen sen
hehkullansa…

Kesäöitten syytä oli kaikki tyyni! Ne houkuttelivat esiin nuoruuden

valoisat haaveet. Ne asettivat heidän eteensä ongelmoitaan
arvattaviksi. Metsänhaltiatar kosketti heitä taikasauvallansa.

He olivat vähitellen alkaneet elää jonkinmoista satuelämää täällä

ylhäällä, rinnan päivien koruttoman arkimaisuuden kera. Päivisin
täyttivät tuhannet seikat Omar Pashan mielen, illoin nummella,
luvatun maan rajalla, olivat hänen kasvonsa muuttuneet. Silloin oli
hän hänen kaltaisensa, josta Thora kerran oli uneksinut. Oi, miksi ei
hän ollut silloin puhunut noita syvällisiä sanoja, jotka nyt niin
omituisesti elvyttivät Thoran sielua! —

Ja kuinka hän voikaan istua ja kertoella tuhansista nummella

tekemistään pikku havainnoista, sekoittaen mukaan muistoja
menneiltä ajoilta ja sijoittaen ne taustalle, joka väritti kaiken!…

Nuo hetket olivat Thoralle kuin suloinen elämys, jonka iän kerran
ennen oli kokenut unessa.

Ja hänen tuli sääli kaikkia ihmisiä, jotka saivat kärsiä, saamatta

tulla tuonne ylös lepäämään.

Nyt hän oli ihmeissään pelosta, jota aikaisemmin oli tuntenut

Samuel
Sterniä kohtaan, — ja varovaisuudestaan.

Mutta kun tämä sanoi: — Tuletteko illalla auringonlaskun aikoina

nummelle, minulla olisi hiukan kerrottavaa, — niin ajatteli hän
kumminkin joka kerran, että olisi parempi olla menemättä, — sillä
mitä se hyödytti?

Mutta hänen täytyi sittenkin mennä. Hän oli joutunut hiljaisen

virran vietäväksi.

Ja päivisin oli kaikki niin omituisen pikkumaista. Hän väsyi siitä niin
kovin. Väliin oli hänestä kuin ei hän olisi ollut täysin tajuissansa.
Nummella hän virkistyi. Hän unohti — ja se tuotti lohtua. Ja sitäpaitsi
— pianhan kaikki olisi lopussa!

Hän ei piitannut enää muusta. Todellista elämän onnea ei hän

omistanut. Eikö hän siis voinut suoda itselleen näitä entisyyden
haaveita, jotka haihtuivat päivänkoitteessa. Haaveet olivat sentään
parasta mitä hän omisti.

Heille molemmille tuotti seurustelu toistensa kanssa erikoista

huvia, — siinä kaikki.

Hehän olivat kaksi vanhaa ihmistä, jotka leikkivät satujansa,

omituisia, viattomia satuja, elämän tuskan esiinloitsemia… Kalpeita
pikku kukkasia ne olivat, jotka vain nummen valo purppuroi…

No niin — narrimaisestihan he menettelivät — sekä hän itse että

Samuel Stern myöskin. Epäilemättä hän salaa sydämessään nauroi
Thoralle. Ja samatenhan Thora puolestaan myöskin teki.

Hauskaa pitämäänhän tänne itse asiassa oli tultukin.

 12.

Eräänä päivänä aikoivat kaikki parantolan vieraat lähteä

huviretkelle metsään, eräälle tunturimajalle. Siellä saataisiin syödä
marjapuuroa kerman kera ja nähdä muutamia vanhoja kaappeja.

Rouva Thammers oli luvannut ruustinnalle, että tulisi mukaan, ja

kun sitten tukkukauppias Stern pyysi samaa, lupasi hän uudelleen.

Mutta sitten valtasi hänet katumus. Hänestä tuntui äkkiä aivan

mahdottomalta lähteä mukaan.

Puuhattiin lähtöä. Marit Hennerud oli jo ylhäällä majassa,

ottaaksensa vieraat vastaan.

Thora Thammers kohtasi rouva Iversenin pihassa

— Tahdotteko tehdä hyvin ja sanoa että olen lähtenyt matkaan

edeltä, sanoi hän.

Mutta mäen juurella hän poikkesi tieltä ja haki itselleen paikan,

josta voi piilossa pitää tietä silmällä. Salainen ilo täytti hänen
mielensä, kun hän näki kaikkien poistuvan.

Aivan oikein, Samuel Stern ja rouva Thammar pitivät seuraa

toisillensa. Ja Samuel Stern näytti olevan peräti hyvällä tuulella.
Oikeastaanhan hänen olikin paljon hauskempi Thamar rouvan kuin
Thoran seurassa.

Thoraa huvitti hänen pieni petoksensa. Nähtävästi ei Samuel

Stern ollut huomannutkaan ettei hän ollut mukana.
 Mutta samalla hän tunsi omituista tuskaa siitä, ettei enää koskaan
uskaltanut ottaa osaa mihinkään.

Sillä illat tuolla ylhäällä… nuo saippuakuplat, joita he puhaltelivat

toistensa huviksi, — joilla Thora huvittelitte, siksi että hänellä ei ollut
mitään muuta…

Ehkä Samuel Stern nyt juuri laski leikkiä Thamar rouvan kanssa
siitä, että tuo iltahuvittelu niin kiinnitti Thoran mieltä.

Hänen epäluulonsa kävi äkkiä niin voimakkaaksi, että se himmensi

kaiken hohteen.

— — — Mutta nyt olisikin tuo kaikki lopussa!

Hän kysyi itseltään ivallisesti: Minne hän nyt jälleen oli joutunut?
Tiesihän hän, että kaikki tuo ei ollut minkään arvoista. Miksi oli sitten
elämä käynyt hänestä jälleen mielenkiintoiseksi? Tulisikohan hän
koskaan järkeväksi!

Hän nojasi päänsä käsiinsä. Nyt tahtoi hän tarkastaa kaikkea

oikeassa valossa.

Näin hän oli ajatellut: Kun nuo pikku sadut häntä huvittivat, miksi
halveksisi hän niitä? Kernaasti olisi hän vaihtanut niihin päivän pitkän
tarinan…

Sillä nuo illat olivat kuin ylösnousemus, kuin maan uumenista

pulppuava virvoittava lähde!…

Kimmeltävän pimeyden täyttivät he sydäntensä haaveilla, —

sanoilla, jotka olivat olleet unhoon vaipuneita, jotka toivat muistoja
mukanansa! Epäröiden, arastellen ne tulivat ja ohiliitävä nummen
tuuli vei ne mukanansa.

Ja niihin liittyi toisia sanoja, — sanoja, joita ei koskaan lausuttu,

vaan jotka silti olivat olemassa.

Hän puolustelihe sillä ettei niitä lausuttu, mutta mitä se auttoi, kun
ne sentään olivat olemassa?

Aivan hän väsähti tuota kaikkea ajatellessaan!

Hän oli väsynyt omaan itseensä! Kuinka voikaan hänen

sydämensä pelastua kaikesta hädästä ja tulisesta tuskasta alati
yhtenä ja samana, aina yhtä vahingoittumatonna ja eloisana, elämää
isoovana ja janoovana…

Mitä olikaan hän kuullut puhuttavan vanhuuden rauhasta? Missä

se oli löydettävissä?

Hyvä että hän nyt oli päättänyt, että tuosta kaikesta piti tulla loppu.

Poski käden nojassa istui hän hiljaa hymyillen — — —

Oi nuo illat tuolla ylhäällä — hän ei saanut niitä mielestänsä… Oli

kuin nummen hiljaiset henget olisivat kosketelleet heidän sielunsa
soittimia, sulattaen epäsoinnut sulosoinnuksi.

Ja yhä uusia, täyteläisempiä säveleitä sieltä soinnahteli… Valoisa

yö kasvatteli uusia kukkia. Ja muiden keskellä oli satuhohteessa
versonut esiin harvinainen kukka… nimetön nuppu!

Ah — hänen täytyi nauraa — sillä päivällä oli kaikki ollutta ja

mennyttä. He olivat kaksi vanhaa ihmistä, jotka eivät välittäneet
vähääkään toisistansa — — —

*****

Hän nousi ja läksi kulkemaan rinnettä ylöspäin.

Tänään tiesi hän ainakin saavansa olla yksin — huomenna voi

hän kenties kohdata Thamar rouvan ja Omar Pashan nummella.

Alkoi sataa. Hän istuutui hongan alle. Mielihyvällä kuunteli hän

sateen hiljaista suhinaa, sillä koko luonto odotteli janoisena.

Lämpöisenä kohosi höyry kypsästä ruohosta, — marjakosta

saapui viileä lemu…

Niin kauas kuin silmä kantoi leveni lakeus tummansinisen meren

kaltaisena.

Sää kirkastui. Ilma kävi kevyeksi, taivaankansi kohosi Syvältä

maan povesta oli hän kuuntelevinansa hiljaisia, vakavia ääniä,
kohoavia ja laskevia — kuin olisi maa hengittänyt —

Ja kaukaa kuuli hän joen vakavan äänen. Kuuluihan se ainakin,

mutta nyt se suorastaan tunki hänen korviinsa. Se kuului niin syvältä.

Ja joka suunnasta suhahteli kuiskeita. Omituinen raskasmielinen

mumina täytti ilman.

Pimeni jälleen. Hän näki kuinka kaikki ikäänkuin kävi huonolle

tuulelle.

Äänetönnä aaltoili järvi alhaalla. Vesi nousi ja laski, nousi ja laski…

Oli kuin nuo synkät äänet olisivat kohonneet ylös nummelle saakka,
huuhdellen kanervikkoa, saapuneet hänen luoksensa ja saattaneet
hänen mielensä ahdistuksiin. Hänen pitäisi kaiketi lähteä kotiin, tulisi
varmaankin lisää sadetta. Mutta hän ei tullut lähteneeksi. Hän istui
katsoen kuinka järvi liikehti hiljaa, hitaasti, raskaasti… Silloin muistui
hänelle mieleen tarina, jonka hän oli kuullut kerran maailmassa,
lapsena ollessaan.

Oli kerran merimies, joka oli ollut kauan poissa ja palasi jälleen.
Hän kiiruhti kotiseudulleen, nuoruutensa maahan. Ilolta ei hän
saanut nukutuksi yöllä. — Hän ajatteli pientä tupaa, jonka seinämää
kukat peittivät korkealti… ja äitiänsä, joka asui tuossa tuvassa, ja
Dordia, mielitiettyänsä.

Niin kulki hän yötä ja päivää. Vastaantulijoilta hän tiedusteli,

tunsivatko he hänen kotiseutunsa. Ja jos hän kohtasi jonkun, joka
tunsi, loisti hän ilosta. Millaiselta nyt näytti hänen nuoruutensa
maassa? Paistoiko aurinko kuten ennen sisään hänen äitinsä
akkunasta? Kasvoiko porraskivillä vielä sammalta? Ja tuvan
ympärillä kasvavat pienet kukkaset, olivatko ne vielä yhtä raikkaita ja
sinisiä kuin ennen? Tulivatko ne esiin joka kesä, kuten muinoin?

Ja entä kansa siellä ylhäällä, oliko se uljasta ja voimakasta kuten

muinoin, vilpille vierasta? Oliko se säilyttänyt mielensä lämpöisenä,
järkkymätönnä, kuten hänen äitinsä ja Dordi?

Kukaan ei tiennyt tuohon vastata. Hänen täytyi kiiruhtaa ottamaan

itse siitä selkoa. Hän kulki yötä ja päivää. Hänen jalkansa olivat
pöhöttyneet, mutta hän ei huomannut sitä. Ilolta ei hän voinut
pysähtyä ennenkuin sinä aamuna, jolloin saapui pienelle
tunturiselänteelle, joka oli vastapäätä hänen äitinsä tupaa.

Ja aurinko nousi — mutta se ei paistanut tuvan akkunaan. Hän ei

nähnyt äitinsä tupaa.
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