THE GUINEA FOWL, TURKEY & RABBIT PRODUCTION TRAINING

MANUAL

COMPILED BY

MICHAEL MZIREKELENGE NKOSI

(MSc (AnSc); BSc (Agric); DIP. (Agric); Cert. (Vet.Sc); Postgrad.Cert. (Poultry
Mgt))

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 NATURAL RESOURCES COLLEGE
AGRICULTURE PROGRAMME
P.O. BOX 143
LILONGWE
TEL. (265) 1 766644/007 09253551 (cell) Fax (265) 1 766652
E-mail: [email protected]

18TH MARCH, 2006

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... III

CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION TO NON-CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION1

WHAT ARE NON-CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK?............................................ 1

CONSTRAINTS TO THE PRODUCTION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL
LIVESTOCK (NCL) .................................................................................................. 2
CONSTRAINTS FACED WITH CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK (CLS) ............. 3
IMPORTANCE OF DIVERSIFICATION INTO NON-CONVENTIONAL
LIVESTOCK ............................................................................................................. 4
JUSTIFICATION FOR GUINEA FOWL PRODUCTION AS COMPARED TO
CHICKEN PRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 5
DISADVANTAGES OF GUINEA FOWLS ............................................................. 5
ADVANTAGES OF RABBITS................................................................................. 6
DISADVANTAGES OF RABBITS .......................................................................... 6
PROMOTION OF GUINEA FOWLS AND RABBITS PRODUCTION .................. 7

CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................... 8

GUINEA FOWL PRODUCTION .............................................................................. 8

2.1 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INDIGENOUS DOMESTIC GUINEA FOWLS .. 8

2.1.1 DOMESTIC GUINEA FOWLS (NUMIDA MELEAGRIS) ............................................ 9
2.2 SOURCES OF DOMESTIC GUINEA FOWLS .................................................. 9

2.3 MANAGEMENT GUINEA FOWLS ................................................................. 9

2.3.1 FEEDING .......................................................................................................... 9

2.3.1.1 FEED INGREDIENTS ................................................................................ 10
2.3.1.2 FEEDING SYSTEMS OF GUINEA FOWLS ........................................... 10
2.4.5 WHY NOT LET THE GUINEA FOWL HEN SIT ON HER EGGS OR.......... 15
INCUBATE HER EGGS?........................................................................................ 15

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 2.4.6 BROODY CHICKEN HENS / DUCK HENS REQUIREMENT FOR
INCUBATION OF GUINEA FOWL EGGS. .......................................................... 16
2.4.7 BROODING AND REARING........................................................................ 16
2.4.8 KEETS VERSUS CHICKS ............................................................................. 17
2.4.12 HOW TO MAXIMIZE GUINEA FOWL EGG PRODUCTION .................. 18

2.6.0 PESTS AND DISEASES OF GUINEA FOWLS ........................................... 22

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................... 28

3.0. RABBIT PRODUCTION ................................................................................... 28

3.1.1 SOME REASONS FOR KEEPING RABBITS .............................................. 28

3.2.3 MATING AND KINDLING: REPRODUCTION .......................................... 34
3.3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING VOLUNTARY FEED INTAKE ............................ 42

HOUSING RABBITS ................................................................................................ 53

3.5.0 RABBIT DISEASES ......................................................................................... 58

3.5.3 EAR CANCHER ............................................................................................. 59

3.6.4 RABBIT GRADING AND MARKETING..................................................... 63
3.7.0 IDENTIFICATION ......................................................................................... 64
3.8.1.1. Financial records .................................................................................... 66
3.8.1.2 ANIMAL RECORDS......................................................................................... 66

CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................... 68

TURKEY PRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 68

ANATOMY OF THE TURKEY ............................................................................ 68
ATTRIBUTES OF TURKEY MEAT ..................................................................... 69
BREEDS ............................................................................................................... 70
NUTRITION OF TURKEYS................................................................................. 76
TURKEY MARKETING AND GRADING ............................................................ 80

CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................... 82

DUCK PRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 82

Marketing ............................................................................................................. 84
BREEDS OF DUCKS .......................................................................................... 84

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 DUCK CLASSES.................................................................................................. 90

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO NON-CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

The most promoted non-conventional livestock species in Malawi are guinea fowls
and rabbits.

WHAT ARE NON-CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK?

Non-conventional livestock are those species of livestock that have the following:

We are not used to them

They are not developed for a specialized product and markets
There is much genetic variation within each livestock species
They are not highly selected during development
We do not depend on them for our living

Non-conventional livestock include:

Rabbits
Guinea fowls
Pigeons
Turkeys
Geese
Ducks

In contrast to conventional livestock species which are popularly known as the “big
five” thus cattle, pigs, goats, sheep and poultry, we are used to them, they are
developed for a specialized product and market, there is not much genetic variation
within each species, they are highly selected during development, and we depend on
them for a living.

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CONSTRAINTS TO THE PRODUCTION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL
LIVESTOCK (NCL)

Management Capacity

Extension workers, researchers, even educational institutions do not have

adequate knowledge on how best to assist farmers in rearing and producing
non-conventional livestock species.

Availability of technical solutions

There is limited information about the behaviour of NCLs about proper
disease control, marketing aspect, and even general management aspects
because there is not much research done on these aspects in Malawi.

Input and finance

NCLs have not attracted farmers and researchers so it would be difficult to
seek financial assistance from lending institutions by prospective farmers.

Policy and legislation

Much emphasis is on crop production, secondly on conventional livestock.

On legislation aspect, laws to protect some animals in parks and game
reserves prevent farmers to acquire breeding stock from these parks and
game reserves.

Other Factors

1. Production System
The production system could be qualified as small, backyard, so it is
difficult to access farmers as such disease outbreaks go unnoticed.
Extension service delivery becomes difficult.

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 2. Population Structure
The population structure for most NCLs is small, unstructured so
inbreeding becomes a problem as is common with small populations.

3. Infrastructure and organizational issues

Markets are informal unlike in conventional livestock. There are no
smallholder associations and schemes as such it becomes difficult for
farmers to get the attraction of policy makers.

CONSTRAINTS FACED WITH CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK (CLs)

1. Since CLs are large in size and require large space and owing to the dwindling
land-holdings farmers face in Malawi, prospects of incorporating them into the
agricultural farming system is becoming narrow.

2. Grazing land is difficult to find as such expansion of conventional livestock

production is limited.

3. Most conventional livestock compete with humans for food as such feedstuffs
become scarce.

4. Since prices for commercially made feed are high production cost for these
species are also high.

5. Frequent disease outbreaks limit expansion of conventional livestock.

6. The decision to sell or slaughter most of conventional livestock require a

wider consultation as such there is delayed benefit realization from these
animals.

7. Some conventional livestock diseases e.g. T.B., Rabies pause a healthy hazard
to public.

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 8. The initial capital investment is too high. This limits expansion of the
livestock sector.

9. The generation interval for some conventional livestock is big as such payback
of loan is delayed or slow; the farmer obtains the benefit after a long period
like for cattle.

IMPORTANCE OF DIVERSIFICATION INTO NON-CONVENTIONAL

LIVESTOCK

1. To supplement animal protein supply to the rural communities since

conventional livestock have failed to meet the demand for livestock and
livestock products alone.

2. Since NCLs are small in size they can easily be incorporated into agricultural
farming system owing to the current land-holding size continued shrinkage.

3. Since these NCLs do not compete with human beings for food, it is a
worthwhile venture to fight the food insecurity in rural communities.

4. The initial capital investment is small as compared to other species e.g. large
ruminants, goats and sheep even chickens.

5. They are highly prolific as compared to conventional livestock species hence

pay back of loan is faster, protein supply to the rural masses is rapid and
steady.

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JUSTIFICATION FOR GUINEA FOWL PRODUCTION AS COMPARED TO
CHICKEN PRODUCTION

1. Guinea fowls are more prolific than local chickens e.g. guinea fowl can lay
90 – 200 eggs per year where as a local chicken can lay 30 – 60 eggs per
year.

2. Guinea fowls are more tolerant to New Castle Disease (NCD) as compared to
chickens.

3. They have the ability to protect themselves from predation as compared to

local chickens.

4. Guinea fowls have more weight than local chicken such that meat yield is
high hence higher edible proportion.

DISADVANTAGES OF GUINEA FOWLS

1. They have poor mothering ability.

2. They can’t brood their eggs.

3. They are easily frightened and their noise becomes a nuisance to the society.

4. They have poor feed conversion efficiency as such you cannot raise them on
commercial basis economically e.g. for broiler production as compared to
broiler chickens.

5. Not much is known about their major diseases even medicines and dosages
specifically formulated for them are rarely available, as such veterinary
assistance becomes a problem when they fall sick.

6. Nutritional requirements for the Guinea Fowls are not known as such feeding
is on try and error basis.

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ADVANTAGES OF RABBITS

1. Rabbits can utilise almost any type of edible vegetation. Also despite their
small size, they can collectively produce as much meat per unit of forage as
large livestock, or even more e.g. a single male and four females can produce
as many as three thousand (3000) offspring in a year representing 1450kgs of
meat as much as an average sized cow.

2. The wide genetic base enhances the likelihood of success of selection

programmes.

3. Rabbits are easy to handle and can be raised under primitive conditions.

4. They require little financial investment and their husbandry is easily

accomplished in the home by women and children.

5. The animal’s rapid production is a big advantage.

DISADVANTAGES OF RABBITS

1. Diseases are common and unlike chickens, specific rabbit medicines are not easily

available. Moreover, veterinarians even in Europe and the U.S.A do not usually
have much

experience in the diagnosis and treatment of rabbit diseases.

2. Time factor of raising rabbits -keeping rabbits will take up some of your time. This
depends

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 upon how many rabbits you keep for example 5-10 rabbits will take you 1 to 2
hours / day

for Cleaning and feeding rabbits.

PROMOTION OF GUINEA FOWLS AND RABBITS PRODUCTION

1. To lobby for policy formulation on their category of livestock.

2. Sensitize farmers on the importance of Non-Conventional Livestock (NCL)

production versus Conventional Livestock (CLs) species.

3. Lobby authorities in Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation & Food Security

(MOAIFs) to set aside a national revolving fund for the promotion of Non-
conventional Livestock (NCLs).

4. Encourage other stakeholders to introduce soft loans to the rural communities

for promotion of Non-conventional Livestock (NCLs).

5. Encourage the government to establish marketing channels and link farmers

to these markets.
6. Promote stud-breeding (breeding stock multiplication) programmes in rural
communities to curb the problem of breeding stock scarcity in the country.

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 CHAPTER TWO

GUINEA FOWL PRODUCTION

Guinea fowls are categorized into two broad groups i.e. Indigenous guinea fowls
(wild) and Domestic guinea fowls.

2.1 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INDIGENOUS DOMESTIC GUINEA FOWLS

Domestic guinea fowls Indigenous guinea fowl

More tamer Completely wild

Do well in captivity and produce Do not breed in captivity

optimally in captivity

Larger and heavier birds Smaller and lighter

Have white faces Have bright blue faces

Wattles are larger and thicker Wattles are long and thin and hang
vertically

Male and female guinea fowls look Male and female guinea fowls look
different similar

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Have poor anti-predator skills Good anti-predator skills

2.1.1 Domestic Guinea Fowls (Numida Meleagris)

These are the guinea fowls commonly kept by people in Malawi. They were bred
from helmeted indigenous guinea fowls for domestic purposes. The first
domesticated guinea fowls came to South Africa from Europe around 16th to 17th
centuries by Dutch settlers.

2.2 SOURCES OF DOMESTIC GUINEA FOWLS

They are particularly plentiful in the following districts: Mchinji, Mangochi, Karonga,
Chitipa, Ntcheu, Mwanza, Dedza, Salima and Blantyre.

There are three strains of domestic guinea fowls known globally, but in Malawi only
two strains are present:

1. Pearl Guinea Fowl

- Most common in Malawi. It has purplish to gray feathers dotted with
white.

2. Lavender
- This strain is paler in colour, light gray in colour or lavender regularly
dotted with white. It is also present in the country.

3. Pure white Guinea Fowl

- Not present in Malawi

2.3 MANAGEMENT GUINEA FOWLS

2.3.1 FEEDING

Guinea fowls like other living creatures must eat and their feed is just the same as that
of chickens

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2.3.1.1 FEED INGREDIENTS
The diet of guinea fowls should contain the following proportions of nutrients:

Carbohydrates – 70% of the total diet

Sources: Maize meal, cassava flour, sorghum, millets e.t.c.

Protein – 20% of the total diet

Sources: Soya meal, Beans, sunflower cake, termites, fish (utaka/usipa).

Minerals/vitamins – 10% of the total diet

Sources: crushed eggshells, sunflower, salt, lime, and cabbages.

2.3.1.2 FEEDING SYSTEMS OF GUINEA FOWLS

 Guinea fowls have similar feeding habits to chickens.

 An adult guinea fowl will require 18% crude protein while
keets require 28% crude protein.

The above requirements will give a good basis for feed formulation.

So far Production systems are as follows:

1. FREE RANGE SYSTEM

- Where birds are allowed to scavenge for feed

2. SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM
- Where birds are kept in an enclosure of wire meshing usually attached
to a khola or a house and birds are given supplements.

3. INTENSIVE SYSTEM

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 - Complete confinement of the birds and balanced ration is given to the
birds.

strains

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2.3.1.2.1 FEEDING ACCORDING TO AGE

From 0 – 4 weeks – a starter ration is given

From 4 – 8 weeks- grower ration is given
From 8 – 14 weeks – finisher ration is given

The above feeding regime is ideal for guinea fowl meat production. But for egg
production a similar feeding regime as for layer chickens would apply.

2.3.1.3 LOCAL FEED FORMULATION FOR GUINEA FOWLS

SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING
The following type of feed could be used for supplementation if guinea fowls are
raised under the free-range system:

- Measure two parts of maize meal, one part of treated Soya meal, one
part of ground fish (usipa / utaka) measure one teaspoonful of salt to
every ten kgs of mixture. Finally mix the above measured ingredients
thoroughly to have the feed ready

- Or you can make another supplementary ration as follows for the semi
intensive production:
Madeya 53.4% or Maize Bran, Beans / Roasted Soya Beans 31.3%,
fishmeal 15.3%.

FEED MIXING PROCEDURE

Grind the maize bran (madeya) in a hammer mill (where a sieve has been removed)
and then put the stuff in a separate bag. Then grind Soya beans /other beans and put
in another separate bag. Grind the fish and put in a separate bag. Measure the right
quantity of the three ingredients above and spread them in layers on a clean floor and
then mix thoroughly using hands or shovels or you can use a rotary drum mixer.

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2.3.1.4 HOW TO GET THE SUPPLY OF TERMITES FOR GUINEA FOWL
SUPPLEMENTATION

- Identify an active termite mound.

- Mix cow or goat dung with a handful of madeya.

- Add water so that the mixture is moist and not wet.

- Then put the mixture into a small bowl and dig a hole in the side of a
termite mound which will fit the size of a bowl and place the bowl
upside down in the hole so that the mixture is in direct contact with the
inside of the termite mound.
- Leave it there overnight. Collect the bowl the next morning, inside
you will find lots of termites because the dung / madeya mixture
attracted them. These termites can be used to feed guinea fowls.

2.4.0 BREEDING GUINEA FOWLS

2.4.1 MATING

- Guinea Fowls are shy breeders.

- Guinea fowls are naturally monogamous

- Breeding is normally restricted to the rainy season September/October

– March / April (they are seasonal breeders).

- Mating can be in pairs, but for breeding purposes use one guinea
fowl/cock to three or four -guinea fowl hens.

- Laying is done in secret or dark environment.

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 - If eggs are left intact, the guinea fowl hen goes broody, so encourage
removal and leave one egg in the nest. This egg should be marked for
identification.

- Once strange objects are found in the nests guinea fowl hens will
abandon their nests and move to other places.

- Guinea fowl eggs weigh about 40 – 50g while keets weigh about 25g
at day old.

2.4.2 SEXING GUINEA FOWLS

Sexing of guinea fowls can be done in two ways:

1. You can sex adult guinea fowls from the ages of 8 weeks and above.

2. You can sex guinea fowls using eggs.

2.4.3 SEXING ADULT GUINEA FOWLS

A male guinea fowl has larger wattles, which point forward and hang down on either
side of his face. The wattles are curly and loosely attached to the face. If you check
his casque / helmet, it is much bigger than that of a female guinea fowl. The casque
curves backwards and look like a lamb’s horn. If you look at a female guinea fowl
the wattles are smaller than the wattles of the male and are closely attached to the
face. The wattles point backwards. Her casque is smaller than the males. It points
directly upwards. Hens will produce a strikingly piercing sound while cocks produce
a hoarse sound. Males are always aggressive while females are not.

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2.4.3.1 SEXING OF GUINEA FOWLS USING EGGS

- Narrow based, elongated eggs with a sharp tip hatch into female keets.

- Broad based, short eggs with a blunt tip hatch into male keets.

2.4.4 INCUBATION OF GUINEA FOWL EGGS

Guinea fowl eggs can either be incubated naturally or artificially. Under natural
incubation broody Chicken Hens / Duck Hens / Turkey hens sit on the eggs of guinea
fowls. Chicken hens will set on average between 15 to 18 Guinea fowls eggs and
Turkey hens upwards from 20 guinea eggs. Incubation in guinea fowl takes between
27 to 28 days to hatch unlike in chickens where it takes 21 days. Hatching using
guinea fowl hens has proved to be poor. Therefore, it is recommended to use broody
chickens/ducks for more guinea fowls in Malawi. For large-scale production,
incubation of guinea fowl eggs using chickens/ducks is not feasible because of the
large number of eggs produced. A commercially made incubator will be needed to
incubate these eggs.

2.4.5 WHY NOT LET THE GUINEA FOWL HEN SIT ON HER EGGS or
INCUBATE HER EGGS?

1. Once guinea fowls sit on their eggs they stop laying and this can be for the
whole breeding season.

2. The guinea fowl may decide to quit sitting on the eggs earlier say a week or
two. Therefore eggs will not hatch.

3. If keets hatch out other female guinea fowls kill the keets out of jealousy.

4. Since guinea fowls are not good mothers, the keets will definitely die from
lack of parental care.

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2.4.6 BROODY CHICKEN HENS / DUCK HENS REQUIREMENT FOR
INCUBATION OF GUINEA FOWL EGGS.

The major problem with small and medium scale breeding of guinea fowls is lack of
chickens for incubation of guinea fowl eggs. You need to make sure that you have
adequate number of healthy chickens/ducks that are breeding and laying their own
eggs so that they can sit on your guinea fowl eggs. Local Malawian chickens are
recommended for this purpose. Improved chicken such as broilers, layers are not
suitable. The number of chickens required depends on the size of your guinea fowl
breeding stock. If you have less than 8 guinea fowls (small scale production), you
need 5 chickens (4 hens and 1 cock). If you have 8 guinea fowls, (medium scale
production), you need 9 chickens, (8 hens and 1 cock). If you have more than 8
guinea fowls (large scale production), then you need an incubator.

2.4.7 BROODING AND REARING

Keets needs to be brooded up to 4 weeks to avoid death by chilling

They should be stocked at 20 keets / square. metre

Both natural and artificial brooding can be followed. In any case, keep the
keets warm always.

Keets must be secured from predation

The brooding place must be draught free

Good feed and clean water must always be made available

The brooder or rearing house has to provide well-ventilated and lit

environment.

A period of 3 to 4 weeks in such condition will always reduce

mortality (rate of death).

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2.4.8 KEETS VERSUS CHICKS

- Keets are delicate than chicks

- Keets have fewer feathers than chicks and can catch cold easily. (Keets
of one month if they catch cold or become wet will certainly die.)

- Keets housed in dirty and overcrowded conditions will get sick and
die.

- Keets have no anti-predator skills and if not confined will get killed by
predators.

- Keets hatched from an incubator are even more vulnerable as they will
be hand reared.

2.4.9 CARE OF NEWLY HATCHED KEETS

Once all the keets have hatched out, remove the empty shell and any unhatched eggs
from the nest. The hen should be given feed and water after hatching. Keets do not
feed the first 24 hours after hatching, however, current research has proven that the
earlier you feed the keets the heavier they finish as broilers.

During the first week keets should be fed twice daily with madeya or the home made
balanced ration or broiler starter can be provided with clean water in shallow
container with some small stones inside to avoid keet-drowning to death and
preventing keets from getting wet and chill to death.

2.4.10 CARE OF KEETS OLDER THAN ONE WEEK

Keets must be kept with the hen in a suitable chicken house. If keets are housed in a
small badly ventilated dirty house, they will get sick and die.

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A smaller house similar in design as that for guinea fowl, consisting a play yard filled
with sand as bedding is ideal. Since chickens are very dirty, the chicken house should
be cleaned twice a week, to prevent the keets from getting sick.

During the first month of age the keets and the foster hen should be kept inside the
house. After one month the keets and the hen can be allowed access to the play yard
when it is not raining and the ground is dry. The keets and its foster mother should be
allowed to range once they are two months and order.

2.4.11 BROILER GUINEA FOWLS

Guinea fowls kept for meat production are usually butchered at about three months of
age when they should weigh from 0.9 kg to 1.4 kg. At this age they make delicious
broilers and if kept beyond this age their meat has a tendency to become tough. They
are butchered in much the same manner as turkeys and will keep very well in deep
freeze units. Guinea fowl meat is drier and leaner than chicken meat and has a gamey
flavour. It is a speciality meat which needs to marketed accordingly. Guinea fowl
producers need to be certain of the market before embarking on large scale
production.

2.4.12 HOW TO MAXIMIZE GUINEA FOWL EGG PRODUCTION

 Proper housing

Domestic guinea fowls will not lay eggs if they are not properly housed. If grass and
sand are not provided inside the house they will lay their eggs wherever they like in
the bush. Eggs will not be collected and will go bad and; be wasted.

 Good diet and treatment for parasites and diseases

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Guinea fowls will not lay eggs if they are not fed adequately. They should be treated
or protected from parasites. Male guinea fowls will not mate if they have fleas or lice,
females will stop laying eggs.

 CORRECT SEX RATIO

If the ratio of male to females is not 1 : 3, the proportion of fertile eggs will be very
small i.e. the number of non-viable eggs will be high. Incubation of such eggs will
result into few keets hatching out

2.5.0 HOUSING GUINEA FOWL

Guinea Fowls, like other poultry species need to be housed for fear of:

 Predators
 Extremes of weather
 Easy egg collection
 Reduction of their peculiar behaviour (shyness / timid and easily frightened
birds)

2.5.1. TYPES OF KHOLAS

There are three types of houses that can be constructed for guinea fowls depending on
the Intensity of the management system employed on the farm. In Malawi, production
is currently principally free range.

a) PIGEON TYPE OR RAISED SLATTED HOUSE

. Should be raised above 2 metres high

. This is a woven basket type of house

. Halfway high, cover the house with mud to reduce light

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. Construct near trees for perches during the day

ADVANTAGES
Self-cleaning khola

Reduces worm re-infection

Reduces predation i.e. dogs

Stands as perches at night

Well-ventilated type of khola

Under free range system of production guinea fowls can be stocked at 500 / ha.

DISADVANTAGES
Only few guinea fowls could be kept (up to 50 birds). Feeders and drinkers
could not be placed easily

Difficult to administer treatments for both disease and parasites.

b) DEEP LITTER HOUSE

The ground type of housing

Can be constructed to any size depending on number of the flock

Cheaper type of khola because most materials are found locally

Must be constructed on compacted clay floor and permeable soil for good
drainage

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 Thatched with a high-pitched roof to prevent leakage. Provide dark places and
some perches.

Provide nests made of grass for laying

Floor space 1st to 4 weeks for every 10 keets (chicks) 0.24m2.

And 10 adult birds, allow 0.5 - 2.0m2. :

If raising guinea fowl under broiler conditions, they need about .09 square
metre

of space per bird.

ADVANTAGES:

Large number of guinea fowls could be reared

Suitable for even commercial purposes

Suitable for all guinea fowl ages

Suitable for intensive, semi-intensive and extensive production systems.

DISADVANTAGES

It is slightly expensive due to cost of bricks and builder hire.

c) BATTERY CAGES

Battery cages are placed in deep litter house

Each cage keeps one to two birds depending on size.

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 Could be metal cages or locally from wood/bamboos

ADVANTAGES
Weight gains have proved very high up to 1.5 kgs per bird at 20 weeks of age.

Metal cages last for longer period of time

DISADVANTAGES

Very costly hence only well-to-do farmers could manage.

Eggs are infertile due to restriction of mating

Sufficient and well-balanced food must always be provided

Birds are very much restricted in cages as prisoners for the rest of their life.

The bamboo cages lasts very short period.

A waste of time using two types of housing at once for one flock

2.6.0 PARASITES AND DISEASES OF GUINEA FOWLS

Domesticated Guinea fowls have not yet been fully domesticated, so they have kept
the hardness of their wild relatives. Therefore they do not suffer from many parasites
and diseases as compared to fully domesticated species like chicken and other poultry.
The pests and diseases of guinea fowls are not many but if they go untreated they can
cause death. If guinea fowls are confined in
Overcrowded conditions they are likely to get sick. Keets are more susceptible to
disease than the adult guinea fowls and therefore must be housed in clean, warm and
spacious conditions.

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Guinea fowls suffer from:

Fleas and lice

Round worms

Coccidiosis

Trichomoniasis (only affects keets)

2.6.1 PREVENTION OF PARASITES AND DISEASES:

Provide good housing (clean dry and spacious )

Provide sand bedding in the house and change it once a month

Provide dry food and clean water

Check the birds daily and treat immediately

2.6.2 FLEA AND LICE

Guinea fowls do not cope well with fleas and lice. If guinea fowls have fleas or lice
they definitely get sick and die. Therefore treat promptly.

SYMPTOMS OF FLEA AND LICE INFESTATION

Parasites seen on the body, head and neck of the bird

Anaemia and weakness

Loss of weight

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 Egg production stops

Males are not interested in mating

PREVENTION

Provide good housing

Ensure regular cleaning and changing of sand in houses

Daily checking of birds for presence of parasites

Treat adult birds with actelic powder at the beginning of breeding

season

TREATMENT

Immediately you notice fleas or lice on your birds treat with actelic powder by dusting
and rubbing. Apply on the head, neck and under the wings of each bird. Houses will
need treatment -plenty of actelic dust must be sprinkled inside the house and on the
Play:
yard. You may not kill all the fleas or lice.

However, you can also burn all the sand in both the house and play yard or pour hot
water on the floors and walls, there after smear with clean mud and later apply clean
sand as bedding. Top-dress with Actellic powder or spray with concentrated liquid
actelic.

2.6.3 ROUND WORMS

This is a problem of guinea fowls especially when they are kept in dirty houses and
given a poor diet. The birds pick up infected droppings with their food and get
infected.

24
SYMPTOMS
Weakness
Diarrhoea

Low egg production

PREVENTION

Feed birds with a well balanced diet

Provide good housing

Regular cleaning and changing of sand

Allow birds on free range and avoid overcrowded conditions

TREATMENT

Upon noticing the symptoms give Ascarese or Ruzine,or Piperazine in water.

Follow instructions on the sachet or flip provided

Starve the birds for some hours before treatment. Repeat treatment after 3 weeks

PROPHYLACTIC TREATMENT

Adult birds- Treat before and after breeding season

Keets- Treat at one month old and again at 6months old

2.6.4 COCCIDIOSIS
A common disease of guinea fowls especially Keets die from the disease. It occurs in
wet and dirty conditions and is common in large-scale farms where birds are confined
and tend to be overcrowded.

SYMPTOMS

Bloody diarrhoea

25
 Loss of weight

Raffled feathers

Huddling in groups

PREVENTION

Provide dry feed and clean drinking water

Provide dry house and play yard-replace wet sand with dry sand and provide leak
proof houses

Clean and change sand regularly

Allow birds on free range and do not overcrowd them in a small house

TREATMENT

Give amidiostat in drinking water to the birds and follow instructions on the pack
or, slip

PROPHYLACTIC TREATMENT

Treat twice with any anti-coccidiostat before and after breeding season for adult
birds and one month old and again at 6 months for Keets. Keets of less than 3
months old do not respond well to treatment they normally die.

26
2.6.5 TRICHOMONIASIS

A disease closely related to coccidiosis and only affects Keets of two to three months
old.

SYMPTOMS

If keets are suffering from Trichomoniasis they will show the following symptoms:

Loss of weight

Drooling from the mouth

Produces bad smell

Wattles get darker in colour

PREVENTION

Provide dry feed and clean drinking water

Provide dry house and play yard- leak proof replace wet sand with dry sand

Regular cleaning and changing of sand

Allow birds to free range -do not over crowd birds in a small house

TREATMENT

Treat with Amidiostat when keets are one month old and again when they reach
six months old

27
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0. RABBIT PRODUCTION

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are suited to small-scale production and

backyard farming. It is easily maintained and requires scanty space.

People keep rabbits for several reasons. The main aim of this booklet is to give some
reasons for small-scale farmers, low-income families or children to do so and discuss
management, breeding, nutrition, pests and diseases and other problems for this type
of backyard farming.

3.1.1 SOME REASONS FOR KEEPING RABBITS

The meat from rabbits is tastier, of good quality and similar to chicken meat.

There are few religious or other taboos on rabbit meat except in vegetarian
cultures for example Islam does not prohibit rabbit meat eating

Initial capital outlay is minimal. With some scrap wood or bamboos a hutch can
be constructed

Animals all over the tropics are often used as savings bank accounts. When a
small sum of money is required it is easier to sell a small animal than for
example a leg of a goat.

The quantity of meat produced by the rabbit is big enough for a small party or a
family dish compared to the size of a chicken hence no need of refrigeration.

28
 Pay-back is faster in a rabbit business say within half a year as compared to many
years in larger animals

The rabbit business form a regular source of income because of regular production
of bunnies

Feeding rabbits can be very cheap. Even though supplementation with concentrate
or grain is sometimes necessary, roadside grass, kitchen offal, garden leaves
e.g. provide the main feed at almost no cost.

Rabbits can be tended by women, children or men unlike bigger animals, need no
force to be restrained

Manure from rabbi try does not smell too much and can be used for vegetable
growing

The skin of rabbit is valuable if there is market for it, possible in local hand crafts

Rabbits do not require routine vaccination or medication to prevent or treat certain

diseases.

Relatively low incidence of epidemic diseases when a high standard of hygiene

and careful management is practiced

3.2 BREEDING

Does usually, remain in heat for long periods of time during the breeding season.
They do not show regular oestrous cycles. Normally ovulation occurs in the does
about 10 hours after she is bred to the buck; the sperms fertilize the eggs shortly after

29
ovulation. The gestation period for rabbits is normally 30 to 32 days. Litter size will
vary with breeds and strains of rabbits. More prolific breeds will average about eight
young per litter. Poor nutrition will lower the litter size. The light weight breeds of
rabbits become sexually mature at an earlier age than medium and heavy-weight
breeds. They may be bred when they are four to five months of age. The medium
weight breeds may be bred when they are five to six months of age and heavy weight
breeds may be bred at eight to ten months.

3.2.1 BREEDS OF RABBITS

Breeds of rabbits are practically grouped into two:

(a) FANCY AND FUR BREEDS

These are not necessarily good meat producers. They do not produce large litters nor
are they resistant / tolerant to diseases. They have nice skins, colours, funny ears and
so on. One example that deserves mention is the Angora. The hair can become very
long and provides a very valuable fibre for spinning and weaving.

(B) MEAT BREEDS

Utility breeds are producers of meat either by fast growth rate (needing good feeding)
or Large and frequent litters.

Meat breeds could further be distinguished into three categories:

(1) Light breeds (up to 2-3 kg mature weight)

(2) Medium breeds (up to 3-5 kg mature weight)

(3) Heavy breeds (more than 5 kg mature weight),

30
3.2.2 WHEN CHOOSING A BREED KEEP THE FOLLOWING POINTS IN
MIND:

One should remember that often, Local crosses seem to be of lighter breeds. They
may have the genetic potential to grow but due to poor feeding, mating too
early and too often and sub-optimal care they do not get the chance to do so.
Before considering nice looking, large rabbits that are imported, one can do
well to try local breeds by giving them proper feeding and care. Imported
breeds may not tolerate diseases, they are expensive and transport stress might
cause diseases and mortality.

Even though big rabbits look nice and impressive it is not always advantageous to
have large animals. They mature later so they will start to produce offspring
late, let us say 9 months whereas lighter breeds do so at 6 months. Your choice
may be between 3 does of 3 kg producing 3 litters earlier whereas 1 doe of 9
kg produces 1 litter latter. What family can eat 4 kg meat at once realized from
a 9 kg rabbit?

A special word of caution should be made against the Flemish giant. It is a very
good show animal and does well for public relations. Mature weight of around
9 kg is not uncommon. But fertility is not very good, litter size is not high,
quite a few disease problems (sore hocks) occur and it has a lot of bone and
intestines compared with medium breeds like the New Zealand white and the
California black.

Do not forget that you have to choose a breed that is suitable for your .local
conditions.

3.2.2.1 SELECTING BREEDING STOCK OF RABBITS

When you cannot buy animals from a reliable source and you have to buy
from an unknown person or market, you need to consider the following:

31
 1. HEALTH

The animals have to be healthy. The main signs are a smooth skin; standing
ears, clear eyes, quite breath; no mange (forming crusts around the nose, eyes,
at the edge of the ears or inside the ears as a dirty mass). Put them on the
ground and let them jump to watch for irregular legs, inspect the anus to see
whether it is dirty from diarrhoea.

2. SEX

If only one testis of the buck shows, do not use him for breeding even though
he is fertile, because it is a hereditary defect.

SEXING THE RABBITS

The sexing of rabbits, even at a very young age is comparatively simple, but
like very many aspects of rabbit keeping, it is best learnt by a little practical
guidance from a knowledgeable person. Apart from the sex organs there is
generally little difference between the appearances of sexes although the buck
often has a broader head and is usually the smaller of the two. The easiest way
of sexing a rabbit is to hold the rabbit with the palm of one hand round the
back of the rabbit’s head, with the thumb in front of the ears and with the
rabbit lying on its back on the operators lap (ANNEX 2). With the other hand,
the thumb and the index finger (or the index and middle fingers) are used to
gently press on either side of the sex organ. At around six weeks of age, the
sex organ of the buck will appear rounded whilst that of the doe will be slit-
like or v-shaped. With increasing age these differences will become more and
more apparent (ANNEX 3 & 4). With a mature buck, the scrotal sac will
usually be apparent, but it should be noted that the buck can withdraw the
testicles into the body cavity (inguinal cavity) and the apparent absence is not
therefore a completely certain guide. The sexing of newly born rabbits
requires both experience and practice and except in special cases is unlikely to
be required by the new-comer.

32
 To sum it all, hold the rabbit on its back, put one finger on the tail side of the
genital apparatus and one on the abdominal side. Press gently down and
stretch the organ. If it is a doe a long slit or v-shaped opening will appear, if it
is a buck a small curved penis or rounded opening will show. Do not confuse
two small glands about the size of the sexual organ with testes.

3. RISKS

.Buying at the market implies risks and no guarantee can be assured.

.A market is a gathering and meeting place for diseases and generally farmers
are unlikely to take their best animals to the market to sell them. The salesman
does not keep rabbits him /herself, so he/she is also a poor adviser, moreover,
he/she will not know anything about the history of the rabbit or he/she will
pretend to know.

3.2.2.1.1 IMPORTATION GUIDELINES FOR SUCCESSFUL RABBIT

BREEDING STOCK INTRODUCTION

Obtain breeding stock from highly productive commercial sources.

Stock certified by licensed Veterinarian

Conduct culture for pasteurellosis

Treat stock for Coccidiosis according to drug dosage recommendations

and precondition stock onto fresh forage-based diet, prior to shipment.
Avoid stock from a viral Haemorrhagic disease area.

Procure documentation of health certification

33
 Ensure broad genetic base per breed (minimum of 15 bucks and 25 does
included in the shipment)

Shipment involves young virgin stock, ideally 3 to 4 months of age. Stock

should be shipped during the most favourable season to avoid undue
stress.

Delay breeding approximately two months after time of arrival at point of

final destination

Maintain high level feeding and management, including stock quarantine.

Closely monitor individual record performances to assess relative

adaptation

Retain adequate supply of young replacement stock

Select progeny from proven adapted and productive parental stock.

3.2.3 MATING AND KINDLING: REPRODUCTION

1. THE MALE/BUCK

The proper age at first mating depends on the breed and individual
development.

For small breeds, it is 4 to 5 months, for larger breeds 9 to 12 months.

One male (buck) can easily handle up to 10 or more does but this
depends on mating intensity, heat, stress, age of the male and
nutrition.

The optimum light (photo-period) requirement for breeding in males is

8 hours.

34
 Sometimes the buck is housed in a round hutch stable so that the doe
cannot sit with her hind end in a corner, which makes mating a
little bit difficult.

2. THE FEMALE DOE

The proper age at first mating depends on breed and individual

development.
Mate does (females) when they reach 75-80% of mature body weight
around 4 to 5 months of age for lighter breeds, 7 to 9 months for
the heavy breeds. Does mature early than bucks.

Rabbits have no clear reproductive cycle. Nevertheless, they do exhibit

periods of greater willingness to be mated. They do refuse the buck
sometimes.

The optimum light (photo-period) for breeding in female rabbits is 15

hours

3.2.3.1 SIGNS OF HEAT

Restlessness, noisy (she will scratch the hutch) rubbing her chin on the feeding
tray or drinking dish, the genital area will have a redder colour than usual.

To mate the rabbit you do not have to wait until these signs show; she can be
put with the buck at any time, as the ovum will come free after mating
(ovulation is induced by coitus). The Does maintained in good physical
condition should be able to produce litters until they are 2 to 3 years old.

3.2.3.2 MATING OF BUCK AND THE DOE

35
  Mating should be carried out during cooler times of the day, early in the
morning or late in the afternoon

 Always bring the doe to the buck and not vice versa. If you put the buck in
does' hutch she is likely to defend her territory and fighting ensues.

 If she accepts the buck, she will sit down in her hutch and raise her rear-end.

 Mating will have taken place, only when the buck falls aside or backwards
after mounting the doe. He may mount again immediately and mate again. If
the doe is willing to be mated, effective mating takes place twice within the
first 5 to 15 minutes.

 The second mating is not necessary after a successful first mating. You would
rather use it for another doe

 If the female starts to run or fight it is better to try it again after a few hours, or
the next morning or evening.

 Do not leave the doe with the buck overnight or for few days (you may not
know whether mating actually took place or fighting may ensue). When the
doe totally refuses the buck, she could be pregnant or there could be antipathy
between buck and doe so try another buck later.

 Sometimes it may help to hold the doe during mating in the buck's hutch. One
hand to hold her head and body to prevent her from running away, the other
hand under her body, raising her hind a little bit thus initiating a posture that
she should naturally or automatically take.

3.2.3.3 KINDLING AND MOTHER CARE

 When the doe is almost ready for kindling (28 days after mating) put a nest
box in the maternity cage. Soft dry grass must be provided in the nest box to

36
 act as bedding for bunnies. The nest box must be ready a week before due
date of kindling.

 Kindling can take place at any time of the day but morning seems to be the
most popular time.

 Do not scare her during kindling time as she may eat her bunnies. Bunnies
are born blind and open their eyes after 10 days. Cannibalism may occur for
other reasons too, such as lack of drinking water, lack of minerals and
sometimes for no apparent reason.

 Never handle the bunnies as the doe shall abandon them, but check them
trying not to disturb them too much. Wash your hands first since the smell of
dogs, cats and rodents may upset the mother.

 Does suckle their bunnies once or twice a day and even then only for a short
period. So don't complain that the doe does not care for the young ones.

 The hutch/cage should be large enough for the nest box and leaving space for
the doe. If it is too small, she might accidentally hurt the bunnies by sitting on
them. After two weeks they will start to come out of the box depending on size
of the box, the amount of milk the mother has and other factors such as
temperature in the box.

 If the floor of the maternity cage is of wire mesh with big holes that make
bunnies difficult to walk, provide plywood or something similar.

 Weaning usually takes place after 4 weeks but should not be later than 6
weeks because milk production seems to stop at that time.

3.2.3.4 MATING AGAIN THE DOE.

Like rats, the rabbit can be mated the very day of kindling and she is likely to
become pregnant. However, results may be disappointing because litters will
be small, lighter and with high mortality rate and this would stress the mother

37
 seriously (being pregnant and lactating at the same time) as well. Mate again
after 3 to 4 weeks. In backyard farming practice, feeding can be assumed to be
less than good. Therefore, giving the doe more time between mating (10 to 12
weeks) will probably be better and result in larger healthier (although few)
litters. Prolific does that are in good physical condition can be rebred six
weeks after kindling, even though they are still nursing their young. This
makes it theoretically possible for a doe to produce five litters per year. Does
that are rebred after weaning their litters at eight weeks of age can produce
four litters per year.

Commercial rabbitries often use breeding intervals of 21, 28, 35 days to

increase production. Do not rebreed does that are in poor physical condition.
Feed a ration that improves their physical condition before attempting to
rebreed them. If the litter dies at birth or is small and the doe is in good
physical condition, she may be rebred about 3 to 4 days after kindling. In
commercial rabbitries a regular breeding schedule should be followed,
regardless of whether or not the doe shows signs of being ready for mating.

The doe is taken to the buck for mating. Mating generally occurs within a few
minutes of placing the doe with the buck. Return the doe to her cage as soon
as mating is completed. Records of matings that include the date and
identification of the doe and buck may be kept.

PSEUDO-PREGNANCY

Does sometimes exhibit pseudo-pregnancy (false pregnancy); this may result

from an infertile mating or one doe’s ridding another during a period of sexual
excitement. The Pseudo-pregnancy lasts for 17 days and the doe cannot be
bred during this period. Separating does 18 days before mating will allow
them to pass through any pseudo-pregnancy before breeding. The conception
rate for rabbits is higher during spring.

38
 Pregnancy should be confirmed by palpation of the doe 12 to 14 days after
mating. Restrain the doe by holding the ears and a fold of skin over the
shoulders in one hand, with the other hand, reach under the shoulder to the
area between the hind legs and in front of the pelvis. Place the thumb on the
right side and the fingers on the left side of the two uteri to palpate the
foetuses. Move the hand gently back and forth, exerting a slight pressure. If it
is pregnant, the foetuses may be felt as small marble-shaped forms, which will
slip between the thumb and fingers. Do not exert too much pressure. Use
caution when palpating to avoid bruising or tearing the tissue, which may
cause abortion.

3.3 FEEDING

3.3.1 Production Systems

At the outset it is important to think about the feeding system that is going to be
used and its advantages and disadvantages. These are the possible systems:

Extensive system: Rabbits totally depend on forage and kitchen wastes.

Intensive system: Rabbits totally depend on prepared concentrate feeds either

from the feed mill

Semi intensive system: Rabbits are fed forages supplemented with prepared
concentrate feeds

The advantages and disadvantages of each system are as follows:

1. EXTENSIVE SYSTEM

Advantages
 It is cheap
 Easy to provide the quality of feed required

39
 Disadvantages
 Supplies of forage may vary throughout the year.

 Feed quality is variable and is often too low for reasonable production.

 Everything depends on the keeper to choose the correct feeds.

 Needs a lot of labour.

 May introduce disease and health problems.

40
2. INTENSIVE SYSTEM

Advantages
 Needs little time for feeding.

 High levels of production can be obtained.

 Little risk of diseases brought in with the feed.

Disadvantages

 Very costly.

 Depend on the supplies from the feed mill which may not always be
available or of good quality

3. SEMI - INTENSIVE SYSTEM

The semi-intensive system falls between the extensive and intensive systems
in terms of advantages and disadvantages. It is also the system that is most
suitable for the small-scale producer because it can make best use of forages,
but also prepared concentrate feeds at the critical times i.e. the last third of
pregnancy and post weaning.

3.3.2 VOLUNTARY FEED INTAKE

Voluntary feed intake is important for two reasons:

 The first requirement of a feed is that the rabbit should eat. It does not
matter if the rabbit eats a lot of the feed.

41
  The rabbit eats first of all to survive. If its feed intake is low, most of the
feed is used for survival, for maintenance of its body. The more feed it
can take the more it will go to support production; milk, growth and
pregnancy.

3.3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING VOLUNTARY FEED INTAKE

There are many factors, which affect feed intake. The major factors are listed
below:

Water availability
Although rabbits are very efficient in their use of water, it is important
that they have a supply of clean water

Health
One of the signs of ill health is a fall in feed intake occasionally where
there is a deficiency of a nutrient; rabbits may have a deprived appetite,
meaning that they will chew excessively at their hatch. If fiber is lacking
the rabbit may chew each other’s fur

Temperature
Feed intake declines as the ambient temperature increases above 20
degrees Celsius and may be more than half at temperatures above or
around 30 degrees Celsius.

The Physiological status of rabbits

Pregnancy and lactation tend to stimulate feed intake, although in the last
days of pregnancy feed intake may decrease as the size of the fetuses
increase and the doe experiences increasing discomfort.

Feed quality
Rabbits can only eat more if the feed already eaten passes through the
digestive system.

42
 The higher rate of passage depends upon feed quality
The higher the quality of feed the more will be eaten

Level of choice
The greater the amount of choice the more the rabbits will eat. The
feeding of different grasses, herbs and weeds will encourage feed
consumption.

Freshness of the feed

Stale feed will reduce intake especially if it is contaminated with urine and
feaces, dirt, limp grasses will be ignored yet the rabbit may be hungry.
The rule is “feed little and often”

Trough design and space

Forage racks allow rabbits easy access so that they can withdraw pieces of
grass. Concentrate troughs should be designed so that they are not easily
tipped over and do not allow the rabbit to defecate in them. If there are
many rabbits in a hutch then there should be sufficient space so that every
rabbit can get its fare share of the feed.

FEEDING
Rabbits are simple-stomached animals and are herbivorous, meaning their diets come
mainly from plant sources. Rabbits have an enlarged ceacum and therefore, can use
more forage in their diet than other simple stomached animals such as pigs and
poultry. The relative cost of feeds and local availability are two important factors to
consider when selecting rabbit feeds.

Rabbits fed well-balanced rations are relatively efficient converters of feed into meat
having a conversion ratio of about 3:1 (three kilograms of feed for each kilogram of
meat produced.

3.3.4 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR RABBITS

Rabbits require the following nutrients: Proteins, vitamins/minerals and
carbohydrates

43
 Recommended crude protein requirements are as follows:
Over 18% crude protein for newly weaned rabbits.
16 – 18% crude protein for rabbits from 12 – 24 weeks
15 – 17% crude protein for breeding does
12 – 14% crude protein for all other stocks
The mineral requirements are as follows; calcium, phosphorus and salt.

For growth purposes, the percentage of minerals in the dietary dry matter
should be as follows:
Calcium – 1%
Phosphorus – 0.5%
Salt – 0.5 – 0.7%
For breeding purposes the minerals should be as follows
 1 – 1.2% calcium
 0.5% phosphorus
 0.5 – 0.7% salt

Here are some general requirements for feed for the rabbits:
For dry does, herd bucks and developing young, you should provide a
ration that has at least 12 –15% crude protein, 2-3.5% fat and 20-
27% crude fibre. For pregnant does and does with litter, the
percentages of the ration should include: Crude Protein 16-20%,
fat 3 – 5.5% and Crude Fibre 15 – 20%.

You can make your own feed based on these guidelines and you can do it by
using three sources: dry roughages, green roughages (including roots and
tubers) and concentrates.

ENERGY NUTRIENTS
Little research has been done on energy needs of rabbits. It is believed that rabbits like
other animals adjust their energy intake to meet their needs. Rabbits are efficient users
of starch, which is found in cereal grains. Rabbits show a preference for barley or
wheat over maize when given a choice of cereal grains. Diets based on maize have

44
produced poorer growth rates as compared to barley-oats based diets. Oats-based diets
appear to give the best results for lactation rations. Since the energy levels of oats,
barley and wheat are lower than maize it appears that other factors such as palatability
of ration influence the intake level and thus the growth rates in rabbits.

The palatability of the ration may be improved by the addition of fat. Vegetable oils
are good sources of fat in rabbit diets. Care must be taken not to have too high level in
the diet, because excess energy levels may increase the incidence of diarrhea and
enteritis.

FIBER
Research has shown that rabbits do not make use of plant fiber in the diet as do cattle,
horse and swine. However, data indicate that plant fiber is necessary in rabbit diets for
the normal functioning of the digestive tract. Crude fiber levels of lower than 6 to
12% of the ration have been shown to increase the incidence of diarrhea and enteritis
in rabbits.

Higher fiber levels in the ration lower its energy level, this may tend to reduce feed
efficiency. Lowering the fiber level during the cold weather will increase the energy
level of the diet and help to provide the needed energy intake for maintenance of body
temperature.

PROTEIN
Essential amino acids need to be included in the ration for rabbits. Lysine and
Methionine are usually the amino acids that are found to be deficient in rabbit rations.
While there is some bacterial protein synthesis in the caecum, it is not enough to meet
the essential amino acids requirements of rabbits.

Non protein nitrogen (NPN) sources such as urea should not be used in rabbit diets.
Research has shown that soybean meal and fish meal promote better growth rates than
other protein supplements when the alternative supplements do not have essential
amino acids added. When essential amino acids were added to protein supplements
such as cottonseed meal, raoeseed meal, horse beans and peas, growth rates similar to
those achieved with soybean meal and fish meal are attained. Rabbits do not make

45
efficient use of protein in plants. This means that large amounts of alfalfa can be used
in rabbit diets.

MINERALS
Calcium and phosphorus ratio of 1:1 in rabbit diets will meet the needs for these
mineral elements. Rabbits can tolerate high levels of calcium in the diet without
adverse effects. Levels of phosphorus above 1% of the diet reduce palatability of the
ration and may lower feed intake. Alfalfa and other legumes are good sources of
phosphorus. A combination of alfalfa and grains will generally supply the calcium
and phosphorus needed in rabbit diets. The use of iodized salt at the rate of 0.5% of
the diet will supply the needed sodium, chlorine and iodine for rabbits.

VITAMINS
While it is known that rabbits need fat soluble vitamins in their diet, there is little
available research information relating to quantities needed. Alfalfa is good source of
vitamin A. vitamin K is synthesized in the intestinal tract of rabbits therefore
deficiencies rarely occur.

Several water soluble vitamins, especially riboflavin, pantothenic acid, biotin, folic
acid and vitamin B12 are synthesized by rabbits in amounts sufficient to meet their
needs. No additional supplementation of the diet is usually needed for these vitamins.
Some fortification of the ration with Choline and niacin is suggested. Additional
pyridoxine is usually not needed, as this vitamin is found in cereal grains and forages
and synthesized in the digestive tract as well. No additional vitamin C is needed in the
ration.

WATER
Rabbits need a good supply of clean fresh water all the times. A commercial rabbitry
should use an automated water system to meet the water needs of rabbits. Rabbits
usually consume 2.5 to 3 times more water than dry matter. Water consumption
increases with both hot and cold temperatures. If water supply is limited feed intake is
reduced. A meat doe weighing 4.5 kg to 5.4 kg and an eight week old litter of seven
will consume about 3.8 L of water in each 24 hour period. Water intake increases
when the diet contains higher levels of protein and fiber.

46
FEEDSTUFFS

Hay
Dry forages such as hay usually make up between 40 to 80% of a rabbits diet.
Legume hays, especially alfalfa make good roughage feeds for rabbits. Grass-hays are
not as palatable for rabbits as legume hays, but may be used. The protein level of
grass hays is lower than that of legume-hays, therefore, protein supplementation of
ration is needed if they are used. Grass hays harvested before they are in bloom are
more desirable than those harvested after the bloom. Hay provides the bulk and fiber
in the diet and its use reduces the incidence of fur chewing in rabbits.

GREEN FEEDS/ ROOT CROPS

Fresh green feeds such as grasses, palatable weeds, cereal grains and leafy vegetable
crops may be fed. These feeds are high in vitamins, minerals and proteins. They are of
special value when feeding breeding animals. Root crops such as carrots, sweet
potatoes, turnips, mangels, beets and Jerusalem artichokes may be fed to rabbits. They
may be substituted for green feeds when these are not available. Green feeds and root
crops are supplements to the concentrate in the diet. They will produce choice
carcasses when fed to meat rabbits and may be used for maintenance for mature
animals that are not in production.

Do not over-feed green feeds or root crops to rabbits that are not accustomed to them.
If the feed is spoiled or contaminated, do not use it.

GRAINS
Oats, barley, wheat grain, sorghum, rye and soft varieties of maize may be fed, either
whole or milled. To reduce waste, flinty varieties of maize should be processed
(ground or cracked) before feeding. One cereal grain may be substituted for another in
the ration, although rabbits do show a preference for barley, wheat or oats over maize.
Bran, middlings, shorts and other cereal products may be used in mash mixtures or
pellets for rabbits.

PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS

47
Soybean, linseed, sesame and cottonseed oil meals are good protein supplements for
use in mash or pelleted feeds. They should not be mixed with grains because they will
settle out and be wasted. When feeding whole grains, feed the protein supplements in
cake, flake or pelleted form.

Soybean oil meal is the most widely used protein supplement for rabbit rations.
Cottonseed meal must be treated to remove gossypol, which is toxic to rabbits.
Cottonseed meal should be limited to no more than 5 – 7 % of the total diet.

STORING FEEDS
Feeds stored for over four weeks lose feed value and palatability. Keep rodents and
insects out of feeds to avoid contamination of the feed. Do not allow cuts or dogs in
feed storage areas, cats and dog droppings may contain tapeworm eggs that could
infest rabbits.

FEEDING RABBITS
Rabbits are generally hand fed in small rabbitries. Feed is placed by hand in feed
crocks or troughs. Regular feeding is more important than the number of times per
day feed is provided. Rabbits generally eat more feed at night than during the day.

Rabbits may be self-fed or full-fed by means of a hopper or self-feeder. Rabbits on

full-feed usually make more efficient use of feed, this results in more kilograms of
gain per kilogram of feed consumed.

MAINTENANCE FEEDING
Junior bucks and does, mature dry does and herd bucks that are not in service can be
fed a maintenance ration. A fine stemmed, leafy legume hay will provide the nutrients
needed for maintenance. Adding all-grain pellets or complete pellets to the
maintenance ration is recommended if coarse legume hay or grass hay is fed.

Medium weight breeds should be fed about 57 g of pellets several times per week.
Light weight breeds should be fed more pellets along with the course legume or grass
hay.

48
FEEDING THE HERD BUCK IN SERVICE
Allow herd bucks free access to high quality hay during the breeding season. Feed
113g to 170g of complete pellet if hay is not included in the ration. Do not allow
bucks to become too fat, but feed them enough so they stay in good condition while in
service.

FEEDING GROWING JUNIOR DOES AND BUCKS

A daily allowance of 57 g to 113 g of all-grain protein pellets and free access to good
quality hay will provide the proper nutritional level for rabbits of the medium weight
breeds. A daily ration of 113 g to 170 g complete pelleted feed is sufficient for proper
growth of medium weight breeds. Careful observation of the growing juniors is
required to make sure they do not become too fat. Decrease the amount fed to light
weight breeds and increase the amount fed to heavier- weight breeds.

Alfalfa pellets containing 99% No.2 or better grade leafy alfalfa meal and 1% salt
may be fed as the only ration to growing juniors from weaning until breeding. The
pellets should contain 15% protein.

FEEDING PREGNANT AND NURSING DOES

After they are bred, continue feeding does the maintenance ration until it is
determined that they are pregnant. Pregnancy may be determined about 12 to 14 days
after breeding by palpating.

Good quality hay or hay pellets may be fed. Limit the amount of feed when feeding
an all-pellet ration to keep the doe from becoming too fat. After pregnancy is
confirmed, does may be full-fed a complete feed. A ration of good quality hay with a
full feed of concentrates may also be fed. Grain plus protein pellets or all grain pellets
may be fed as the concentrate in the diet.

Pregnant does will normally eat 170g to 227 g of feed per day. Do not make sudden
changes in the diet or the doe may go off feed, any change in the diet must be made
gradually. Feed ¼ of the new ration and ¾ of the old ration for three days, then feed
50% of each of for 3-4 days; complete the change by feeding ¾ of new ration and ¼
of the old ration for another three or four days. On the day of kindling, the does

49
should be fed about one-half the normal daily ration. After kindling, gradually
increase the amount of daily feed until does are back on full-feed at the end of one
week.

Nursing does may be fed the same ration as pregnant does. Full-feed the does until the
litter is weaned at about two months of age. Satisfactory diets include hay with an all-
grain pellet, a grain-protein mixture or a complete pelleted feed. Nursing does will eat
170 g 227 g of feed per day until the litter is three weeks old. During nursing period
of three to eight weeks, does will eat from 0.45 kg to 0.91 kg of feed per day.

3.3.4.1 COMMON CONCENTRATES FOR RABBITS AND HOW TO MIX

THEM

A balanced concentrate feed should be fed at critical times

GROUP FEED STUFFS CRUDE

PROTEIN %
A Sunflower cake 26
Groundnut cake 40
B Boiled and dried beans 18
Cotton Seed cake (low gossypol) 22
Palm kernel cake 15
C Maize, sorghum, rice or millet meal 7
Maize, rice, sorghum or millet bran 9
D Dried cassava 2
Dried sweet potatoes 2

Mix 4 cups of C with 1 cup of A or

Mix 3 cups of C with 2 cups of B or
Mix 2 cups of D with 2 cups of B and 1 cup of A

NB. Any suitable container can be used instead of a cup

50
 Groups A and B include protein rich feeds
Groups C and D include energy rich feeds. However, all feeds contain
virtually all nutrients, but some times at low levels as to be of little value.

Make sure the different feeds are mixed well and pound them if necessary to
break down the big pieces. In addition, good quality forage, such as young
growing plants as hay made of the same material should be available at all
times.

3.3.4.2 DIETS FOR COMMERCIAL RABBIT PRODUCTION

KIND OF ANIMAL INGREDIENTS PERCENT OF TOTAL

DIET

Growth, 0.5 to 4kg Alfalfa hay 50

Corn grain 23.5
Barley grain 11.0
Wheat bran 5.0
Soybean meal 19.0
salt 0.50

Maintenance, Does, Clover hay 70

average 4.5 kg Oats grain 29.5
salt 0.50
Pregnant doe average 4.5 Alfalfa hay 50
kg Oats grain 45.5
Soybean meal 4.0
salt 0.5

Lactating Does, average Alfalfa hay 40

4.5 kg Wheat grain 25
Sorghum grain 22.5
Soybean meal 12

51
 salt 0.5

52
HOUSING RABBITS

3.4.1 INTRODUCTION

Like other livestock, rabbits must be housed for:

Protection against Predators

Protection against Extremes of weather

Easy control of Diseases.

Easy manure collection and

To show ownership

FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT

BUILDINGS

Climatic conditions, local building codes and available capital are factors to consider
when determining the kind of housing for rabbit hutches. Buildings of simple design
that protect the rabbits from the weather and provide adequate ventilation are
desirable. In mild climates, hutches may be outside if shade is provided. Trees or a
lath superstructure may be used for shade. Where the weather is hot part of the year,
some method of cooling the building is necessary. Overhead sprinklers or foggers
inside the building may be used for cooling. In hot, humid areas, evaporative coolers
with fans may be used for cooling in the building. High volume commercial
operations often use automated ventilation and cooling equipment. In areas where the
weather is cold part of the year, the building must be designed to provide more
protection.

53
HUTCHES: hutches are provided for individual rabbits. These may be made of wood
or wire construction. Hutches should be 0.76 m deep and 0.6 m high, length varies
with breed: small breeds need 0.9 m, medium breeds need 0.9 m to 1.2 m, and large
breeds need 1.2 m to 1.8 m. hutches may be arranged in one, two or three tier
configurations.

3.4.2 TYPES OF KHOLAS

a) GROUND KHOLA (LAPANSI)

Wet ground as opposed to dry conditions

Dig holes and keep hiding

Difficult to handle rabbits when needed for slaughter

b) RAISED KHOLA (LAMWAMBA)

It is constructed high off the ground for hygiene conditions

Provision of ventilation

Self cleaning and high level of hygiene is maintained

RECOMMENDED KHOLA

The khola (b) check FIG 3 is what is recommended for rabbit keeping

54
 Diseases like Coccidiosis, worm infestation and maggots (mphutsi) are dodged
by having raised khola.

Keep rabbits in a dry, warm, well ventilated and well protected against
draught.

2.4.2.1 RECOMMENDED DIMENSIONS FOR RABBIT

HUTCHES

The floor space provided for the rabbits should be sufficient enough to allow the
rabbits to move around, to feed and drink without difficulty and to lie on their sides.

Floor space  Small-scale forage systems 1 m2 per

rabbit, no extra for the litter.

 Large-scale intensive systems:

 0-4 kg live weight 0.35 m2 per rabbit

 4-6 kg live weight, 0.5 m2 per rabbit;

 0.2 m2 extra for the litter.

Floor design Floors should slope outwards if solid.

Wire floors should have 1-1.5 cm squares

and be made of thick galvanised wire.

Slats should be 2.5 cm wide with 1 cm

gaps.

55
Height Tall enough to allow the rabbit to stretch
fully; e.g. 50 –70 cm.

In summary therefore, the minimum space allowances are as follows:

Doe and litter up to 5 weeks of age 0.56 m2 total area

Doe and litter to 8 weeks of age 0.74 m2 total area

Rabbits 5 - 12 weeks 0.07 m2 total area

Rabbits 12 weeks and over (other than those used for breeding) in cages or
other areas in which several rabbits are kept 0.18 m2 per rabbit.

CAGES POINTS TO NOTE

Cages for rabbits over 12 weeks old should be not less than 45 cm high.

The provision of solid non-absorbent board (0.1 m2 to occupy 1/3 of the cage
total floor area) may assist to minimise injury in the cages.

If the floor is of wire mesh material it should be made of welded or flat

construction. Flat mesh is preferable as it is easily cleaned.

Square mesh should not exceed 19mm x 19mm and rectangular mesh should
not exceed 50 mm x 13mm. the wire mesh should be not less than 2.5
mm diameter (12 gauge).

56
 Drinkers and feeders should not be positioned too high or too low but at about
10 cm from the floor of the cage.

KINDLING BOX OR NEST BOX

The boxes should be built of non-absorbable material to facilitate cleaning

between batches.

Nesting material e.g. untreated wood shavings or shredded paper should be

provided.

Where kindling boxes are used they should be introduced at least 2 days before
litter is due.

57
3.5.0 RABBIT DISEASES

3.5.1 COCCIDIOSIS

The most common internal parasites of rabbits are coccidian. One species attacks the
lining of the liver and causes liver Coccidiosis that is recognised on post-mortem by
the presence of white spots in the liver. Most species of coccidian attack the lining of
the intestine and may cause lack of appetite and dullness followed by severe
diarrhoea, leading to dehydration and rapid death. The diarrhea may be blood stained.
Wet conditions are good environment for coccidian growth so keep the khola dry at
all times. Coccidian are commonly found in the intestine without causing any obvious
effects, but a period of stress, such as weaning or bad weather may result into them
multiplying rapidly.

. Treatment is just coccidiostats but prevention is better than cure

3.5.2 SNUFFLES DISEASE

Snuffles disease is a bacterial infection of the respiratory system, similar to a cold in

humans. Outbreaks are more likely where there is a lack of good ventilation,
overcrowding and a build up of ammonia from accumulated urine. Ammonia irritates
the lining of the respiratory tract and makes it susceptible to attack by the organisms
causing disease.

. Symptoms: Sneezing and snuffling plus nasal discharge leading to wet and matted
fur on the face and inside of the front legs as a result of the rabbit using its front legs
to wipe its nose and face.

58
. Control: General hygiene measures and antibiotics in drinking water will treat the
condition

3.5.3 EAR CANCHER

Caused by mites and brown scabs in the ears follow

Treat with linseed oil in the ear

After twelve hours apply tetracycline ointment

Use Actellic super dust to kill mites

3.5.4 COENUROSIS

This is a peculiar disease, but fortunately one, which does not occur too often. The
rabbit runs round and round in its hutch and sometimes screams. After a few minutes
it becomes paralysed and usually dies within 24 – 48 hours. The cause of the disease
is the cyst form of a dog tapeworm. The rabbit eats tapeworm segments when fed
grasses contaminated with dog faeces. The larvae stage of which develops in the
rabbit migrates through the body and occasionally comes to rest in the brain where it
forms a cyst. Many larvae form cysts in the muscular tissue and these usually have no
effect on the rabbit’s health.

TREATMENT: There is no cure. Care should be taken to avoid feeding grasses that
have been contaminated with dog faeces.

3.5.5 SORE HOCKS

59
Sore hocks are caused by bacterial infection of foot sores. Rough floors may cause
these foot sores, particularly those made of interwoven wire or very thin wire. The
sores should be cleaned, dried and treated with antibiotic ointment and the causal
factor should be corrected.

3.5.6 PASTEURELLOSIS:

This a bacterial disease caused by Pasteurella multocida, which affects nearly all
body tissues.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS: Signs of the disease include mucopurulent nasal

discharge, pneumonia, dermal abscesses, conjunctivitis, infertility and death.

TREATMENT: Treat with broad spectra antibiotics and sulpha drugs.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL: Proper design of houses, strict culling of infected

animals and / or selection of healthy stock and quarantine measures.

3.5.7 WORMS

Parasites dwelling and causing injury inside the intestines

Piperazine drug will do or any dewormer could be used

3.6 RABBIT SLAUGHTER AND PROCESSING

3.6.1 KILLING

60
Rabbits should be killed or slaughtered when they are at the correct stage of growth.
This means at the time when their live weight gain per week has slowed down for
rabbits on mainly forage feeding this will usually be around 6-9 months of age. It is
sensible to get everything ready before starting the killing and processing.

The requirements are as follows:

1. A generally clean place away from any obvious source of flies or dogs.

2. Something from which to hang the rabbit whilst cleaning it. e.g. a branch or a
specially placed pole or set of hooks.

3. Some string or thin wire.

4. A sharp knife.

5. A stick the thickness of a pencil smoothly rounded at one end.

6. A bowel or source of clean water

7. A container for the blood and guts and anything that is kept separate from the
meat.

8. A clean container with a cover for the rabbit carcass.

9. A skin-drying frame.

N.B. If you wish to calculate the dressing percentage you must weigh the live rabbit
just before you kill it.

Rabbits should receive water but not fed in the 24 hr period before killing. This will
partly empty the digestive system and will reduce the risk of it breaking during
cleaning of the carcass.

Killing should be carried out as quickly and as efficiently as possible with the
minimum of pain to the rabbit. There are two methods of killing rabbits. Both
involve making the rabbit unconscious and then removing the head to allow bleeding.

61
3.6.1.1 METHODS OF SLAUGHTERING

The methods of killing are as follows:

1. NECK BREAKING

In this method, the rabbit’s neck is broken in the same way as used for killing hens.
For a right-handed person both the rabbits back legs are held in the right hand. The
rabbit’s neck is then held from above the first and second finger (thumb and the first
finger of the left hand).

The rabbit is stretched over the upper part of the left leg and the rabbit neck is pushed
down, whilst at the same time its head is bent back with moderate force the neck will
suddenly give way indicating that the neck has been broken by dislocation. The
rabbit should immediately hang up side down by its back legs. Its head can be cut off
over the container for the waste or other suitable container if the blood is to be saved.
The cut can be made easily through the point of dislocation. Removal of the head will
allow all the blood to drain out of the body. An alternative method requiring more
skill is to make an incision into the side if the neck cutting the jugular vein. This will
lead to less blood draining away than the former method.

2. STUNNING METHOD

The neck breaking method above requires a little strength. Young people or those
without the necessary strength may prefer to use the stunning method. For a right-
handed person, the rabbit should be held upside down by its back legs with the left
hand. It should be held so that the ears fall forward exposing the back of the head.
The point at the base of the head should be hit sharply with a good-sized piece of
wood or metal. This will stun the rabbit and make it unconscious. The rabbit should
then be immediately hang and its head should be cut off to allow bleeding.

3.6.2 SKINNING

Skinning is most easily done with the rabbit hanging by its back legs at the shoulder
height. Cut off the front legs at their mid point and the tail. Cut the skin around each

62
hock below where the string is tied. Cut from the inside of one hock down, around
the anus and tail area and similarly down the inside of the other leg from the hock.
Now using the wooden stick and with care, gently move the skin downwards and off
the body. The stick is used to separate the skin from the body without cutting it as
would occur if a knife were used. Place the skin over the skin-drying frame, it can be
cleaned later.

3.6.3 CLEANING

Cut the body open taking care not to cut the intestines. All the guts of the rabbit can
now be pulled out. The kidney, the heart, the liver can be separated together with any
other parts required for eating. It can then be taken down from the hanging position
and tied up, ready for passing on to the cook.

3.6.4 RABBIT GRADING AND MARKETING

Commercial rabbitries usually sell fryers to processors who slaughter the rabbits and
market the meat. Processors usually use trucks to pick up the live rabbits at the
rabbitry. Rabbits with coloured pelts bring lower prices therefore, commercial
operations raise only white-pelted rabbits. The USDA defines a fryer as a young
domestic rabbit carcass weighing not less than 0.68 kg and rarely more than 1.59 kg
processed from a rabbit usually less than 12 weeks of age.

The rabbits are marketed when they reach fryer weight, which is live weights of 1.36
kg – 2.7 kg. Live weights of 1.8 – 2.1 kg, produce the best carcasses, with dressing
percent ranging from 50 – 59 %. Prime grade fryers have a yield of 57.7%; choice
grade fryers have a yield of 55.9% and commercial grade fryers have a yield of
52.2%.

USDA defines a roaster as a mature or old domestic rabbit carcass of any weight, but
usually over 1.8 kg processed from a rabbit usually eight months of age or older.
Roasters have a dressing percentage of 55% to 65%. Culls from the breeding herd
may be fattened and sold as roasters. It is usually not profitable to feed younger

63
rabbits to roaster weights because of the higher feed requirements and the possibility
of additional death loss

3.7.0 IDENTIFICATION

For an efficient record keeping at the farm the rabbits must be identified.
Identification means giving all rabbits a mark or number to distinguish it from all
other rabbits.

3.7.1 WAYS OF IDENTIFICATION

There are three possible ways of identification:

Writing in the ear

If the rabbit has a light coloured skin in its ear, a coloured or an indelible pen can be
used to write a number inside the ear. This will last for about a week and will be
renewed regularly.

Labels
The usual place for fitting identification to rabbits is around one of the back legs.
With care labels or leg bands can be hand made from tin or preferably plastic. The
important requirement is that they should not cut into or injure the rabbit’s leg.

Ear notching
This means chipping little pieces out of the rabbit’s ears at different places to indicate
different numbers. There are several codes for linking notches to numbers. Study the
insert of notched rabbits on the next page to familiarize yourself with linking notches
to numbers in rabbits (FIG 30).

64
 AN ILLUSTRATION FOR EAR NOTCHING

 Ear Tattoo branding method

The tattoo should be placed on the inside of the ear of white skin coloured
rabbits.

Hints on tattoo branding

o Make sure that the number and letters are in the correct order – stamp a
piece of cardboard or look at them in a mirror.
o Make sure that all needles on the brand are clean – grease, dirt, hair
and tattooing paste quickly build up on the needles. If not cleaned
regularly, the tattoo brand will become illegible and clogged needles
can also be a source of infection.
o Use a carbon based tattooing paste or ink
o Reapply paste or ink to needles before the pig is tattoo branded
o All needles must pierce the skin; take good solid swing making sure
that the face of the brand lands flat on the skin – it should leave a
rectangular mark on the skin surface.
o Rabbits with excessive dirt or soil may need to be washed on the
shoulder area before tattooing
o Brands worn out, broken or damaged needles should be replaced.

65
3.8.0 RECORD KEEPING AND ANALYSIS

3.8.1 TYPES OF RECORDS

Two types of records are required for a rabbitry and these are:
Financial records and
Animal records

3.8.1.1. Financial records

Financial records can be kept in a notebook. Label one page “expenditure” and the
opposite “page income”. Then simply enter the money you spend on the rabbits and
the money you earn from them.

3.8.1.2 Animal Records

The example given below shows an example of a doe record card. It has a column for
when the doe was mated, the date kindled, the number born alive, the weaning date,
and the number weaned. There is also a space to record any health or husbandry
details e.g. kindling on the hutch’s floor, the total litter’s weight at weaning.

Other animal records can be constructed for growing litter to monitor their live weight
and to record how often they have been used for mating.

Table 2. An example of a doe record card

Doe Name …………………………..Date of Birth ……………………………..

Date Buck Number Date Number Notes
mated used Born weaned weaned
alive/dead

66
67
CHAPTER FOUR

TURKEY PRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
It is a native bird of Central and South America kept by the Azitecs.

ANATOMY OF THE TURKEY

1. CARUNCLE: A red-pink fleshy growth on the head and upper neck of

the Turkey.

2. SNOOD: A long, red, fleshy growth from the base of the beak that hangs
down over the beak.

3. WATTLE: A bright red appendage at the neck.

4. BEARD: A black lock of hair found on the chest of the male Turkey.

5. FLOCK: Is a large group of turkeys.

6. TOM: Is the male turkey

7. POULT: Is the baby turkey usually tan and brown in colour.

8. STAG: The breeding male turkey.

9. GIBLETS: Turkey products consisting of the heart, liver and the gizzards.

10. GOBBLING: The sounding of the male turkey (tom) while the turkey hen
produces the “Clicking noise”.

68
ATTRIBUTES OF TURKEY MEAT

 Turkey meat is low in fat but high in protein.

Type of Energ Energy Tota Saturat Cholest Sodiu Protei Iron

meat y (cal) (Cal) l fat ed fat erol m n (g) (%DV)
from fat (g) (g) (mg) (mg)
Turkey 120 10 1 0 55 45 26 8
Breast
Chicken 120 15 1.5 0.5 70 65 24 4
Breast
Beef 180 70 8 3 65 60 24 10
(Top)

69
  Turkey meat produces 70% white meat and 30% dark meat. White meat is
preferred in the USA while other countries choose dark meat. The two meats
differ nutritionally in that white meat has fewer calories and less fat than dark
meat.

 The rich flavour of dark meat is especially valued in soup and stew recipes.

 Dark meat holds up well in rich marinades and is a perfect choice for grilling
and barbecuing.

BREEDS
 Broad breasted Bronze – but could also get unimproved bronze turkey
 Broad breasted large white
 Beltsville small white
 Naragansett
 Black – one of the finest turkeys in Europe
 Bourbon red
 Royal palm
 Slate – almost extinct now

The commercially important strains are (1) Broad Breasted bronze (2) Broad Breasted
Large White (3) Beltsville Small White. The Broad breasted large white is the most
commonly raised meaty turkey.

THE BROAD BREASTED LARGE WHITE

70
It was developed from crosses of the Broad Breasted Bronze and the White Holland.
The colour of the plumage is white. The males have a black beard. Some females
have small beards. The shanks, feet and beak are white to pinkish white and the throat
wattle is red.

Since the pinfeathers are white they are not easily seen and therefore do not lower the
market grade of the carcass. A pinfeather is a feather that is not fully developed. The
term generally refers to feathers that are just coming through the skin. White turkeys
can withstand the hot sun better than dark turkeys. The broad breasted large white has
the body conformation of the broad breasted bronze, but slightly smaller when fully
grown.

THE BROAD BREASTED BRONZE

Has black plumage and dark-coloured pin-feathers. The females have white tips on
the black breast feathers. The beard is black, but females usually do not have beards.
The shanks and feet are black on young turkeys and change to pinkish colour on the
adults. The beak is light at the tip and dark at the base. The broad breasted bronze is
the largest of the turkey varieties.

71
 The Bronze turkey is named for its unusual
color, a shimmering green-bronze which
appears metallic in the sunlight. It is found
in two types, the Broad-breasted which has
commercial uses, and the Unimproved (or
naturally-mating), for small-scale
production. Both are rare in North America.

The North American turkey industry has

built its current success on broad-breasted
white turkeys. Broad-breasted turkeys
(whether White or Bronze) require artificial
insemination to reproduce, a result of the
meaty breast which presents an obstacle for natural mating. In addition,
processors have favored the white-feathered birds, whose pinfeathers are
harder to detect after cleaning. This has left the Bronze in decline, even though
many producers say this breed is calmer and easier to handle than the White.
The Broad-breasted Bronze is now bred at only five or six hatcheries in the
United States. It is sometimes crossed with the White turkey and also sold as a
backyard hobby bird, but has an uncertain future.

The unimproved Bronze is rarer still, with only one hatchery breeding flock
and a few scattered university flocks known.

The turkey is native to North America and was domesticated by the Aztecs in
Mexico 500 years ago. Turkeys were taken to Spain beginning in 1500 and
rapidly became known across Europe. The Pilgrims and other settlers brought
turkeys with them to New England where they were crossed with wild
indigenous stocks. This hybrid type was itself taken back to England where a
game keep named John Bull began to select for a broader breast. He emigrated
to Canada and brought turkeys with him, selling them in North America as
"broad-breasted" turkeys.

The reproductive ability of the broad breasted turkey strains is not as good as the
Beltsville small white. Fewer eggs with lower fertility and hatchability (number of

72
young produced) are produced. Artificial insemination is generally used with all
strains of broad breasted turkeys because the heavy males are not good breeders.

BELTSVILLE SMALL WHITE

It was developed by the United States Department of Agriculture. It is similar to the
broad breasted large white in colour and body type. It averages about 4.5 kg less in
mature body weight than the Broad Breasted strains.

THE NARRAGANSETT TURKEY

THE ROYAL PALM TURKEY

73
THE BLACK TURKEY
The Black turkey should have a lustrous
greenish black plumage. It is not
extensively bred in America, but in
Europe is considered one of the finest
turkeys for table qualities, and is bred
with success in Eastern England and
Normandy in France. The French Blacks
are pure, rich black, while the Norfolk
Blacks in England are dull black, with
brown and even white tips showing. The
French blacks are the hardiest. In middle
Europe the Black turkeys are smaller in size. The desired weights for the
variety in America are: Adult cock, 27 lbs.; yearling cock, 22 lbs.; cockerel, 18
lbs.; hen, 18 lbs.; pullet, 12 lbs.

74
THE BOUR BON TURKEY

THE SLATE TURKEY

The Slate turkey never attained any

standing as a popular variety and is
now practically extinct. The color
should be an ashy blue, sometimes
dotted with black. Its size should be
the same as that of the Black Turkey

INCUBATION
Turkeys take 28 days to hatching of poults. After hatching the poults beaks are
trimmed at five days using hot iron or micro-waves.

75
NUTRITION OF TURKEYS

FEEDING TURKEYS
The general principles of feeding turkeys are similar to those for feeding chickens.
Major differences are in the protein levels required and the importance of vitamins
biotin and pyridoxine in turkey diet.

FEEDING TURKEY POULTS

Poults (young turkeys) must be fed and watered as soon as possible after hatching.
When feeding and watering is delayed beyond 36 hours, the poults have difficulty
learning to eat. It may be necessary to force feed them to get them started. Start poults
on a turkey pre-starter or starter ration. The protein content should be 28%. Pre-
starters are generally used only for the first week. They contain higher levels of
antibiotics, vitamins, amino acids and energy than do starter feeds. Pre-starters are
especially useful if the poults are under unusual stress conditions. From four to eight
weeks of age, the starter should contain 26% protein and a higher energy level.

FEEDING GROWING TURKEYS

Turkeys may be moved to range or fed in confinement at eight to ten weeks of age.
Confinement feeding results in faster gains. However, range feeding may result in as
much as 10% feed savings. A good range contains forage or grain crops. The stocking
rate for range varies from 100 – 250 turkeys per acre.

Growing turkeys should be separated by sex because toms have a higher protein
requirement than hens. Turkeys generally give better conversions when fed complete
mixed rations. Pelleting the ration gives the best results. As the turkeys become older,
the energy levels of the ration are increased and the protein level is decreased. Water
consumption will increase in hot weather. For male turkeys at eight to twelve weeks
of age and females at eight to eleven weeks of age, the ration should have a protein
content of 22%.

Rations for male turkeys at 12 weeks to 16 weeks of age and female turkeys at 11 to
14 weeks of age should have a protein content of 19 %. Rations for male turkeys at 16
to 20 weeks of age and females turkeys at 14 to 17 weeks of age should contain

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16.5% crude protein. Rations for male turkeys at 20 to 24 weeks of age and female
turkeys at 17 to 20 weeks of age should have a protein content of 14%. Male turkeys
are usually marketed at about 24 weeks of age and females at 20 weeks of age.

FEEDING BREEDING TURKEYS

Turkeys should be selected at about 16 weeks for breeding flock. A holding diet
containing 12 % protein and a medium energy level is usually fed female breeding
turkeys from 16 to 30 weeks of age and males from 16 to 26 weeks of age. Breeding
flocks are fed a breeding ration beginning at about 26 weeks of age. To control the
weight of males in the breeding flock, they may be fed a limited diet.

BROODING TURKEYS
The brooder house must be cleaned and disinfected before the poults are placed in it.
Older litter is removed and the house is allowed to dry out. Fresh litter is spread on
the floor. Shavings, wheat and beardless barley straw, peat moss, shredded cane, rice
hulls, processed flax straw and cedar tow may be used as litter. The litter should be
covered with a strong rough-surfaced paper for the first few days. Enclose the area
with a poult guard about 0.45 to 0.90 m from the edge of the brooder hover. The paper
cover is taken up after five to six days. Add fresh litter as needed after removing the
cover. Keep the litter dry. The poult guard should be 41 – 46 cm high.

It may be made of wire or heavy corrugated paper or light weight aluminum.

Temperature under the brooder for the first two weeks should be 35Oc for the dark
poults and 37.8 Oc for the light poults. The brooder temperature should be lowered 2.8
O
c each week until heat is no longer needed. Provide ventilation without draughts.
Lights are kept on for the first two weeks of brooding. After two weeks, houses with
windows need only dim light at night. Windowless houses need about one foot candle
of light for 16 hours and one half foot candle during the other eight hours. Roosts are
seldom used when brooding turkeys up to eight weeks of age, a minimum of 0.09 m 2
of floor space is needed per poult. Large type poults require slightly more floor space.

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Turkeys that are to raised in confinement should be debeaked at three to five weeks of
age. Turkeys that are to be raised on range should not be de-beaked unless picking or
fighting occurs. Desnooding is the removal of the tubular fleshy appendage on the top
of the head. Desnooding helps prevent head injuries from picking or fighting.

Small or medium type turkeys that are to be raised on the range should have the flight
feathers of one wing clipped to prevent flying. It is not necessary to wing clip
confinement raised turkeys. Toe clipping is done on day old poults at the hatchery. It
prevents scratched and torn backs. Trough type feeders and waterers can be used for
turkeys. Mechanical feeding and watering equipment is available.

RANGE GROWING TURKEYS

Turkeys can be raised on range although confinement raising is becoming more
common. Feed costs are somewhat lower on range. However, losses from diseases,
predators and weather are high. Poults are moved to range at eight weeks of age.
Poults should be moved to range only when the weather is good. The number of
turkeys per acre will vary depending on the type of range. One acre can carry from
125 to 250 birds. On very sandy soils, up to 1000 turkeys may be put on one acre.
One system of range raising involves moving the turkeys to a clean area every one to
two weeks. This helps to prevent diseases and parasites. Range should be rotated with
other crops. A three or four year rotation is used. Legumes or grass or mixture of two
may be used for turkey ranges. Turkeys raised on range require shelter and protection
from predators such as dogs and wild animals. Double strand electric fences provide
protection against many predators.1.8 m high, heavy gauge poultry fencing provides
protection from dogs, cayotes and foxes. Confinement of turkeys at night also protects
against predators.

CONFINEMENT GROWING TURKEYS

Poults may be moved to confinement houses when they are six to eight weeks of age.
Check the poults the first few nights to be sure that they have settled down. Use lights
for the first few nights. Be sure that the house is properly ventilated. Large type toms
require 0.5 m2 of floor space per bird. Hens need 0.3m2 and mixed flocks need 0.4 m2
of floor space per bird. Softwood shavings or wheat straw are often used for litter.

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Feed Consumption and Conversion:

Weight (kg) Age when Amount of feed

Total feed consumed
when marketed needed to produce
in lifetime (kg)
marketed (weeks) 1 kg of turkey.

Broiler 4.08 9 – 10 1.65 7.6

Hens 7.4 13 – 14 2.06 16.01

Toms 10.52 13 1.92 20.2

14.11 16 2.18 30.76

Turkeys eat a mixture of maize, wheat and soybeans that are ground up. Drink 2L of
water per kilogram feed eaten or about 0.5L per day at 10 weeks or 1L per day at 20
weeks of age.

MANAGING BREEDING TIRKEYS

Breeding stock should be blood tested for pullorum disease, Fowl typhoid,
Paratyphoid, Infectious sinusitis and Arizona and Mycoplasma meleagridis infections.
Vaccinations are based on the requirements of the hatching egg buyer. Low fertility is
a problem when natural mating is used. Because of this artificial insemination is
widely used with turkey breeding. The first insemination is given when egg
production begins. A second insemination is given one week later. This is followed
with insemination at two week intervals. Breeding flocks may be kept on limited
range or in confinement. Confinement allows better disease control and management.
The labour cost is lower in confinement. Breeding flocks require more floor space
than market turkeys. Toms should receive artificial light two to three weeks before
they are used with hen. A fourteen hour day is used for normal spring lighting.

Broodiness of hens is a problem with breeding flocks. Broodiness is when a hen stops
laying eggs and wants to sit on a nest of eggs to hatch them. Remove broody hens
from the flock and confine them separately. Use slated floors in pens, keep the pens

79
well lighted. Eggs should be gathered at least every two hours. Eggs are fumigated
with formaldehyde gas immediately after gathering. Hold eggs at room temperature
for twenty four hours (24 h). Store these eggs at 13 – 16 Oc until they go into the
incubator. Store eggs with large ends up or place them on their sides in trays. Eggs
stored more than one week must be turned. Dirty eggs lower hatchability.

TURKEY MARKETING AND GRADING

Fryer roaster turkeys are marketed through out the year. Large broad breasted male
turkeys are usually ready for market at 24 weeks while females are ready at 20 weeks.
Small scale medium type turkeys are ready at 22 weeks. Fryer roasters are ready to
market at 12 to 13 weeks and light roasters at 17 to 20 weeks.

PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE MARKET

Turkeys are not usually taken off of feed and water before being moved to market for
slaughter. Care must be taken when handling turkeys to prevent injuries and bruises
that will cause a lowering of market grade. Turkeys may be handled with less
confusion and injury to the birds if they are confined to a small area, such as a chute
or pen, when loading them for market. In confinement systems, a small-darkened
room works well for catching turkeys.

CLASSES OF LIVE TURKEYS

The USDA sets standards for six classes of live turkeys as follows:

FRYER OR ROASTER
A young immature turkey of either sex, usually less than 16 weeks of age, that
is tender-meated and has soft pliable, smooth-textured skin and flexible breast
bone cartilage.

YOUNG HEN TURKEY

A female turkey, usually less than five to seven months of age, that is tender-
meated with soft pliable, smooth-textured skin and a breastbone cartilage a
little less flexible than that of a fryer-roaster.

YOUNG TOM TURKEY

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 A male turkey usually, five to seven months of age, with the same carcass
traits as a young hen turkey.

YEARLING HEN TURKEY

A fully matured female turkey, usually les than 15 months of age, a little less
tender-meated and smooth-skinned than the young hen turkey.

YEARLING TOM TURKEY

A fully matured male turkey, usually less than 15 months of age, with the
same carcass traits as the yearling hen turkey.

MATURE TURKEY OR OLD TURKEY (HEN OR TOM)

A turkey of either sex, usually over 15 months of age, which has coarse skin
and toughened flesh.

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 CHAPTER 5
DUCK PRODUCTION

Product
Ducks may be kept for meat or egg production. In recent years specialist duck egg
markets have been developed for both fresh and pickled duck eggs which are popular
in Chinese cuisine. The main egg laying breeds lay similar egg numbers to laying
hens but they need additional feed intake, so it is important that growers are sure of
their market before starting production. Most duck meat is produced by processing
companies, with the main market being Chinese restaurants, and special occasions
such as Christmas and Easter.

Physical Requirements

Basic principles of poultry shed design should apply. Housing may be intensive or
semi-intensive. With semi-intensive housing the birds would be allowed access to
outside runs during the day. Intensively housed birds are permanently shedded. The
buildings should be clean, dry and well ventilated, with adequate drainage and shade.

Each bird should have about 0.2 square m of floor space and the floor should be
covered with litter to a depth of about 10 cm. Litter can be wood shavings, rice hull or
any other absorbent material. The litter helps prevent egg damage, absorbs moisture
and is comfortable for the birds. The ducks should be encouraged to use nest boxes,
for ease of collection to reduce breakages and the eggs are cleaner. Nest boxes can be
built of wood and should be about 30cm by 30 cm by 40 cm deep.

Chicken feeders are suitable as specialist duck equipment is not made in Australia.
Plenty of water is needed although swimming is not essential. Water should be kept
outside or suspended over a grid.

Production

The main factor in selecting for meat ducks is body weight. It is highly heritable, so
individual birds can be selected when they reach marketing age. One breeding meat

82
duck can produce about 100 marketable ducklings per season. The number of ducks to
a drake varies on breed, although less can be mated when they are intensively housed.
Average ratios are between 5 and 10.

The main meat production breeds are Muscovy, Aylesbury, Pekin and Rouen.
Muscovy is the most popular pure bred. Most ducks produced commercially in world
are Pekin/Aylesbury crosses. Technically the Muscovy is a member of the goose
family as it grazes in the same way as geese, and it also hisses rather than quacks.
Unlike the other breeds the Muscovy goes broody after laying a clutch of 20 or so
eggs, and it will hatch eggs of other breeds as well as its own.

There are two main egg producing breeds, the Khaki Campbell and Indian Runner.
Some birds are outstanding egg producers, laying nearly every day of the year. They
are difficult to manage in large numbers however as they become nervous and are not
as economical as hens. All the breeds hatch in 28 days except the Muscovies which
take 35 days. Ducklings can be successfully hatched in chicken incubators as long as
they are adjusted for ducks. Ducklings are generally easier to brood than chickens.

Clean drinking water must be available, and ducklings should be able to immerse their
heads in it. Ducklings can die if they are without water even if only for a short time.
After brooding the ducklings are raised in intensive or semi-intensive sheds, or in
colony cages with a grid floor.

There has been little research into duck nutrition in Malawi, but basic principles of
poultry nutrition should be applied to maximise growth rates. Ducks are fairly disease
tolerant as long as good management, hygiene and husbandry techniques are
practised. Ducks are susceptible to round worms and body lice and should be treated
as needed, as breeding and production performance will be adversely affected by
parasite infection.

Quality assurance and product safety

The maintenance of a high safety standard of the product is essential, and as a code of
practice is for hen eggs. Can extrapolate from this for ducks, but is not code specific

83
for duck eggs. for shell egg production, grading, packing and distribution is available.

Marketing
Before producing duck meat or eggs a market outlet should be found for a given
number of birds, preferably at a price per kilogram live weight or kilogram of eggs.
Negotiate directly with a processor, or if wholesale markets are established have birds
contract slaughtered. The only reliable market is before Christmas when there is a
constant demand for larger meat birds. On farm sales can be a good source of income
if a regular clientele can be built up. This is best achieved by establishing a reputation
for reliable supply of premium quality birds.

Financial aspects

It is essential that producers know their costs of production and monitor profitability
closely. There are limited opportunities to enter the industry because of the
dominance of producer/processors and the volumes required to achieve economic cost
of production.

BREEDS OF DUCKS

1. Cayuga

The Black Cayuga is of American origin, and takes its name from Cayuag county,
New York state. It carries the blood of the wild black duck, the Black East India, and
probably some Rouen blood was
introduced for the purpose of
somewhat larger size. The Cayuga
should be bred to the meat type.
Desired weights are: Adult drake, 3.6
kg.; adult duck, 3.2 kg.; young duck, 6
lbs. Some Cayugas fail to attain these
weights, and specimens of decidedly
deficient size should not be bred.

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2. Crested
The Crested White ducks are probably of Pekin and Aylesbury breeding, the tuft of
feathers on the head, which occasionally appears, having been recognized as a point
of attraction, selected and bred for. The breed has not been extensively bred. The best
specimens usually run about 1 lb lighter in weight than the best Pekin. In type they
follow the Pekin.

3. Muscovy
Originating from Brazil, Muscovies are the only domestic ducks that is not derived
from mallard stock. Wild muscovies
coloration is black and white, but
domestication has produced many
different colors. These colors are; blue,
blue and white, chocolate, chocolate
and white, white, black, black and
white, lavender, and calical. The males
can grow to be quite large, weighing
4.5-6.8 kg. Most of the females are 2.3
-3.2 kg but can reach up to 4kg and sometimes 4.5 kg. Their feet are equiped with
strong sharp claws for grabbing tree branches and roosting. Muscovys are unique
because of their bright red crest around their eyes and above the beak. They do not
swim much because their oil glands are under developed compared to most ducks.
Muscovy hens can set three times a year, and the egg clutches can vary from 8 to 21
eggs. The egg are incubated for 35 days. The white Muscovy is the best meat duck of
the Muscovy strains. The meat is of excellent quality if ducks are marketed before 17
weeks of age.

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4. Orpington
The Buff Orpington duck, sometimes called the Buff duck, is of English origin. The
color should be buff or it is sometimes described as seal brown or rich fawn. These
ducks should follow the Pekin in size and shape

5. Khaki Campbell

The Khaki Campbell was developed in

England during the early 1900's by Adele
Campbell. It was admitted to the
American Standard in 1941. Though
originally a cross of Indian Runner,
Mallard, and Rouen, Campbells exceed
all of these and most chicken breeds in
egg production, with some strains
averaging 300 eggs per year. They do not
require special care or artificial lighting to produce a large number of eggs,
which are white and weight about 70g (not much larger than a Leghorn egg).
Thought not usually raised for meat, Khakis make high quality, lean roasters
of 1.4 -1.8 kilograms; they average 1.8 – 2.3 kilograms as adults. Campbells

86
 are extremely hardy, are excellent foragers, and are at home on land as well as
in water. They eat large quantities of slugs, snails, insects, algae, and
mosquitos from ponds, but do not require swimming water to stay healthy.
The ducks are mainly khaki colored and the drakes have greenish-bronze
heads with brown-bronze tails, backs, and necks. They have green bills.

Status: Minor. Though still not common, the Khaki Campbell is thought to be
growing in popularity as an egg-layer and backyard duck. Exhibition Khakis
do not have the same characteristics as production types.

5. Pekin
The most popular market duck in America is the Pekin. It is bred in one
variety, white; and a creamy white plumage and orange shanks and toes are
desired. The bill should rich yellow in color, and black in the bill or bean is a
serious defect. Pekin ducks should weigh not less than, adult drake, 4 kg.;
young drake, 3.6 kg.; adult duck, 3.6 kg.; young duck, 3.2 kg. The correct
shape is of a long, broad, deep and full breasted type, to carry an abundance of
meat. The Pekin breed is of Chinese origin, a country in which duck raising is
extensively followed, especially in some districts. The first Pekins were
imported to the United States about 1873.

6. Call
There are two varieties of Call ducks, the Gray and the White. They are bantams in
the duck family, and are bred for smallness of size. They should have short legs, an

87
upright, almost horizontal carriage of body, slender neck, and comparatively short,
well rounded body.

7. Pommeranian Duck

Origin: From various European countries. They were named after the main breeding
area, Pommerania, and have been bred since 1920 in Switzerland.

Characteristics: The Pommeranian Duck has a weight of approx. 2.3 to 2.7 kg; the
drakes reach on average 3 kg. They are tireless snail hunters and despite their size not
plump. Besides a good laying ability, approx. 150 eggs (70g) per year, the young
ducks are very secure in all weather and at eight to ten weeks ready for butchering.
Even perennial ducks perform well and often reliably raise a brood before the
beginning of moulting in summer.

Endangerment and Distribution: Despite these virtues, the pleasing appearance

(green-glowing black or blue-gray with a white breast pinafore) and their trustful
nature, there are only a few breeders in Switzerland and Germany who purposefully
take on this breed.

Goal: To find additional breeders for this breed who have the will to contribute to the
maintenance of the Pommeranian Duck for many years. The breeding goal is the
maintenance of good management and the marking (of the goose). These present
some challenges for the breeder.

88
8. Rouen

The Mallard duck is the ancestor of almost all domestic breeds of ducks and
clearly that of the Rouen. Though marked with the same color pattern as
Mallards, with drakes having green heads, white collars, claret breast and a
blue patch on the wing, Rouens are even brighter in color and larger in size
than Mallards. The Rouen was developed in France and was admitted to the
American Standard in 1874. It is still considered the superior meat bird in
Europe, where much more duck is consumed than in America. In the U.S.,
Rouens are raised primarily for the restaurant market. These ducks are
excellent foragers, calm in disposition and unlikely to fly. Drakes mature at
about 8 pounds and ducks at about 3.2 kg. Laying rate varies; some strains
average 100 eggs per year and other over 150.

Status: Watch. The Rouen is one of the more common non-commercial ducks
in the U.S. Its market seems to be growing since it produced leaner meat than
the Pekin, the standard commercial duck in the U.S. Exhibition Rouens do not
have the production qualities that production types do.

8. Runner
The Runner ducks are the Leghorns of the duck family. They are prolific layers. Three
hundred egg Indian Runner ducks were described and illustrated in the poultry press

89
of 1912 to 14, and preceded the future for 300 egg hens which came later. In England,
duck egg laying contests are carried on.

There are three varieties of Indian Runners, the Fawn and White, the White, and the
Penciled. The breed has a distinctive type, the long, flat, straight head and long,
slender neck forming, in shape, and umbrella handle and stem; the back should be
long, straight and carried upright, and with the body should take on almost horizontal
bearing. The type should be clean cut, there being little indication of a keel. The entire
bearing should be upright and racey.

As would be expected in an active, profile breed of this kind, the specimens should
not have too much size. The desired weights are: Adult drake, 2 kg.; adult duck, 1.8
kg.; young drake, 1.8 kg.; young duck, 1.6 kg. This breed originated in India, was
introduces into England as early perhaps as 1830, but was little known in the United
States prior to 1900. The Indian Runner produces a small to medium size carcass, but
one of good quality. The ducks are practically non-sitters and are popular because of
their prolific egg production which rivals the 200 egg strains of chickens.

DUCK CLASSES
The USDA sets standards for three classes of ready to cook ducks as follows:

1. DUCKLING: A young duck, usually less than eight weeks of age of either sex,
that is tender-meated and has a soft bill and soft windpipe.

2. ROASTER DUCK : A young duck usually less than 16 weeks of age of either sex
that is tender-meated and has a bill that is not completely hardened and a wind pipe
that is easily dented.

3. MATURE DUCK OR OLD DUCK: An adult duck usually more than six months
of age of either sex, with toughened flesh, a hardened bill and a hardened wind pipe.

90
3.10 REFERENCE
1. Bennet, B. 1975. Raising rabbits the Modern Way.
Garden Way Publishing. Pownal Vermont 05261
2. Bivin, S.; Murray, K.A. and Olsen, G., 1989. Raising Healthy
Rabbits Under Primitive Conditions. Christian veterinary
Missions. World Concern. Washington. U.S.A.
3. Anne, Downes. 1999.A guide to Guinea Fowl farming in Malawi.
Department of National Parks and Wildlife, Lilongwe, Malawi
4. Fielding, D. 1999. The Tropical Agriculturalist: Rabbits
University of Edinburgh. Macmillan Publishers Limited.
5. Micro Livestock; Little known Small Animals with Promising
Economic Future. 1991. Board on Science and Technology
For International development. National research Council.
National Academy Press. Washington D.C.
6. Moody, E.G. 1991. Raising Small Ruminants
Ezra Taft Benson Agriculture and Food Institute. Fanning Press
7. Gillespie, J. M. 2004. Modern Livestock and Poultry production. 7th Edition,
Thomson & Delmar Learning, New York, USA. PP 846-866.

91
 ANNEXES

ANNEX 1

92
 ANNEX 2

RESTRAINING OF RABBITS FOR SEXING

3.14 ANNEX 3

93
94
 ANNEX 4

SEXING OF A YOUNG FEMALE RABBIT UP TO 4 MONTHS

Guinea fowl house 1: WOODEN HOUSE WITH SHORT PLAY YARD

95
 GUINEA FOWL HOUSE 2: PIGEON TYPE HOUSE

DEEP LITTER HOUSE 3: WOODEN HOUSE ATTACHED TO A PLAY

YARD

96
 WOODEN DEEP LITTER HOUSE PLAY YARD ATTACHED

97
98