AIR POLLUTION

CONTROL

FABRIC FILTRATION

LELE Christian 19TP21777

SEIDOU NDE Billy 19TP22056
ZEMO NANGMO Lydianne 19TP21945
Fabric Filtration

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS.....................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................2
I. FILTRATION MECHANISMS.................................................................................3
1. Principle and theory..................................................................................................3
2. Application: Gas cleaning.........................................................................................7
a. The energy required..........................................................................................8
b. The fabric employed..........................................................................................8
c. Type of cycle...........................................................................................................9
d. The service..........................................................................................................9
e. Application...........................................................................................................10
II. ENGINEERING DESIGN.........................................................................................12
1. Fabric materials.......................................................................................................12
2. Pre-treatment of an emission stream.......................................................................12
3. Air- to-cloth ratio......................................................................................................12
4. Fabric cleaning design.............................................................................................15
5. Baghouse configuration...........................................................................................17
III. OPERATIONAL CONDITIONS AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION....18
1. Design Range of Effectiveness................................................................................18
2. Efficiency..................................................................................................................18
a. Dust properties..................................................................................................18
b. Fabric properties...............................................................................................18
3. System Pressure Drop..............................................................................................19
4. Power Requirements................................................................................................19
5. Filter Bag Replacement...........................................................................................20
6. Economics.................................................................................................................21
CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................24
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INTRODUCTION

Fabric filtration is a physical separation process in which a gas or liquid containing

solids passes through a porous fabric medium, which retains the solids. This process may
operate in a batch or semi continuous mode, with periodic removal of the retained solids
from the filter medium. Filtration systems may also be designed to operate in a continuous
manner. As with other filtration techniques, an accumulating solid cake performs the bulk
of the filtration. Importantly, an initial layer of filter cake must form at the beginning of the
filtration operation. Fabric filtration effectively controls environmental pollutants in
gaseous or liquid streams. In air pollution control systems, it removes dry particles from
gaseous emissions; in water pollution control, filtration removes suspended solids; in solid-
waste disposal, filtration concentrates solids, reducing the landfill area required. Often,
filtration processes simultaneously reduce air, water, and solid-waste disposal problems.
An air pollution control system might, for example, remove particles and/or gases from an
emission source and might consist of a scrubbing device that removes particulates by
impaction and the gases by chemical absorption. The reaction products of gases and
chemicals can produce a crystalline sludge. A fabric filter may also be used to remove
solids from water so that the water can be recycled. As a result, effluent slurry does not
present a water pollution problem. Effective use (optimization) of a fabric-filter system
would minimize problems with waste disposal.

Although fabric filtration is suitable for removing solids from both gases and liquids,
it is often important that the filter remain dry when gases are filtered, and likewise, it may
be desirable to prevent the filter from drying out when liquids are filtered. In the gas
system, many solids are deliquescent, and if moisture is present, these materials will have a
tendency to pick up moisture and dissolve slightly, causing a bridging or blinding of the
filter cloth. The result is a “mudded” filter fabric. In such cases, it is often impossible to
remove this material from the cloth without washing or scraping the filter. If the cake on
the cloth is allowed to dry during liquid filtration, a reduction in the porosity of the cake as
well as a partial blinding of the filter could result, which could then reduce the rate of
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subsequent filtration.

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I. FILTRATION MECHANISMS.

1. Principle and theory.

It was stated that the fabric itself provides the support, and true filtering usually
occurs through the retained solid cake that builds up on the fabric. This is especially true
for woven fabrics; however, felts themselves actually can be considered as the filtering
media. It has also been stated that the cake must be removed periodically for continued
operation. The resistance to fluid flow through the fabric therefore consists of cloth
resistance and cake resistance and is measured as a pressure drop across the filter. Cleaned
cloth resistance is often reported, although this in itself is not the new or completely clean
cloth resistance. Once the filter has been used and cleaned a few times, a constant
minimum resistance is achieved, which consists of the clean cloth resistance and the
residual resistance resulting from deposited material that remains trapped in the cloth
pores. This resistance may remain constant for the life of the fabric. Changes in this
resistance usually indicate either plugging of the pores or breaking of the filter. Clean cloth
resistances may be obtained from suppliers. However, it is best to obtain the steady state
values by empirical measurements.

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In general, at low velocities, the gas flow through the fabric filter is viscous, and the
pressure drop across the filter is directly proportional to flow:

∆P1 = K1v (1)

Where ∆P1 is the pressure drop across fabric (inches of water [cm H 2O]), K1 is the
resistance of the fabric [in. H2O/ft/min (cm H2O/m/min)], and v is gas flow velocity [ft/min
(m/min)]. In practice, the fabric resistance K 1 is usually determined empirically. It is
possible to estimate a theoretical value of this resistance coefficient from the properties of
cloth media. Darcy’s law states that:

∆P1 = -(vK/μ) + ρg (2)

Where K is the Kozeny permeability coefficient, µ is viscosity, ρ is density, and g is

gravitational acceleration. Note that necessary constants need to be applied to make the
equation dimensionally consistent. Values of the permeability coefficient K found in
literature range between 10−14 and 10−6 ft2 (10−15 and 10−8 m2). Values of K may also be
estimated using the relation

K = ε3/cS2 (3)
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where ε is porosity or fraction void volume (dimensionless), c is a flow constant, K is

the Kozeny coefficients, and S is the specific surface area per unit volume of porous media
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[ft−1 (m−1)]. Values of the Kozeny constant can be estimated using the free-surface model
(2). Assuming a random orientation averaging two cross-flow fibers and one parallel fiber
and assuming that a cloth medium behaves like a bed of randomly oriented cylinders, the
constant for flow parallel to the cylinder is obtained by:

1
c = 2ε3 / { (1 – ε)×[ 2ln( ) – 3 + 4(1 – ε) – (1 – ε)2] } (4)
1−ε

and when flow is at right angles to the cylinder,

2
1 1−(1−ε )
c = 2ε3 / { (1 – ε)×[ ln( )– ] } (5)
1−ε 1+(1−ε )2

As the system is operated, cake deposits on the fabric, producing an additional flow
resistance proportional to the properties of the granular cake layer. The resistance to fluid
flow owing to cake build-up usually amounts to a significant portion of the total flow
resistance. This resistance increases with time as the cake thickness increases. This
additional resistance (∆P2) is typically of the same order of magnitude as the residual
resistance (∆P1) and can be expressed as

∆P2 = K2v2Lt (6)

Where ∆P2 is the change in pressure drop over time interval t [in. H2O (cm H2O)],
K2 is the cake-fabric filter resistance coefficient,

¿ .of water cm . of water

2 or 2
(lb m dust /ft )/(ft /min) ( Kgdust /m )/(m/min)

v is fluid velocity [ft/min (m/min)], L is inlet solids concentration [lb/ft 3 (kg/m3)], and t is
time (min). An expression for the cake–fabric filter resistance coefficient using the
Kozeny–Carman procedure has been derived for determining flow through granular media
(2):

1−ε
K2 = (3.2 × 10-3) × (k/g) × (µfS2/ρp) × ( 3 ) (7)
ε

where k is the Kozeny–Carman coefficient, which equals approx 5 for a wide variety
of fibrous and granular materials up to a porosity equal to about 0.8, ε is the porosity or
5

fraction void volume in cake layer (dimensionless), µ f is fluid viscosity [lbm/(s ft)], ρP is the
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true density of solid material (lbm/ft3 ), and the S is the specific surface area/unit volume of

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solids in the cake layer (ft−1). This equation shows that as the particles being filtered
become smaller in diameter, the porosity of the cake decreases and consequently, K 2
increases. The net result of the larger cake–fabric filter resistance coefficient (K 2) is that
the pressure drop increases as porosity decreases

a
¿ . of water 1.75 cm . of water
2 = 2
(lb ❑/ft )/( ft /min) ( Kg/m )/(m/min)

b
Theoretical size of silica, no correction made for materials having other densities.

c
Flocculated material, not dispersed; size actually larger.

The value of the dust–fabric filter resistance coefficient is necessary to predict the
operating pressure drop in new fabric-filter installations. This information, with filter
velocity and time between cleaning cycles, then may be used to estimate optimum
operational procedures, which affect both installation and operating expenses. Some
typical dust–fabric resistance coefficients for air–dust filter systems are given (2) in Table
1. The resistance coefficients calculated by Eq. (7) do not always agree with the values
obtained from operating systems using Eq. (6). Some engineering data (2–4) are
summarized in Table 2 for several particle sizes ranging from 0.1 to 100 µm for solids with
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a density of 2 g/cm3 . The specific area is estimated assuming spherical particles and
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standard conditions (SC) of 70°F (21.1ºC) and 1 atm pressure. These data are taken from
industrial cloth-type air filters.

The above equations and tables show that the various parameters of pressure drop,
velocity inlet loading, and time are closely coupled with the physical properties of both the
fluid and the solids being filtered. The value of K 2 also depends on the size distribution of
the particles, which is often neglected when estimating porosity. Particles usually exhibit a
log-normal (geometric) probability distribution. Two materials with the same mass mean
size could be quite different in size distribution (geometric deviation), which would affect
the porosity of the cake. The shape of the particles, which is not accounted for in the
theoretical equations, is also significant and influences both cake porosity and fluid flow
drag.

When no data are available, it has been shown that it is possible to estimate values of
the resistance coefficient; however, it is more desirable to obtain the coefficient by actual
measurements [operating data and Eq. (6)] when this is possible. Once the coefficient is
known, any one of the parameters in Eq. (6) can be determined by specifying the
remaining variables.

Empirically derived values for the resistance coefficient also may differ for similar
systems under different operating conditions. For example, if the cake is composed of hard,
granular particles, it will be rigid and essentially incompressible. As the filtration process
continues, there is no deformation of the particles and the porosity remains constant. On
the other hand, if the cake is extremely soft, it can be deformed, resulting in a different
effective porosity as filtration continues. The amount of cake buildup, which is a function
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of gas velocity, inlet solids concentration, and time, must be considered when attempting to
obtain a meaningful value of K2 for similar systems.

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An equally perplexing problem is the fact that there is no standardized filtration

rating test procedure. Ratings such as “nominal,” “absolute,” and “mean flow pore” serve
largely to describe filter systems, but they do not provide a rational basis for filtration
engineering and analysis.

Fabric filters consist of a porous filtration medium, in which the pores are not all
uniform in size. Therefore, attempts are made in the rating procedures to take this into
consideration; for example, the mean flow pore system exerts air pressure to one side of a
porous filter, and the pressure is noted at which the first bubble appears on the wetted
medium. This is called the bubble point and corresponds to the largest pore in the filter.
The distribution of pores in the medium would be expected to be log-normal and obtaining
the pressure corresponding to the smallest pore is quite a different story. Recently, Cole (5)
suggested a “summation of flow” rating, in which an attempt is made to define the pore
size at which about 16% of the flow goes through larger pores.

2. Application: Gas cleaning.

Filters used to clean gases are categorized in this section in five different ways
according to:

 the energy required;

 the fabric employed;
 the type of cycle;
 the service;
 the application.

a. The energy required

This category includes either high-energy or low-energy filters, depending on

whether the filters are operated at high or low filter pressure drops. For any given
application involving filters, a high-energy system is usually more efficient, but,
ultimately, this depends on the size, size distribution, and type of material being filtered.
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Energy and efficiency are not always directly related and will be discussed below.
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- High-energy systems generally consist of pulse-jet devices, whereas low-energy

cleaning systems utilize shaking and reverse flow. Note that this classification also
describes the cleaning method used to remove dust from the bags. In the pulse-jet
systems, blasts of air are blown through jet nozzles in pulses to free the dust from
the fabric, as shown in Fig. 1. Note that the cleaning jet is introduced into the
Venturi nozzle to expand and clean the bag.
- The low-energy systems are split approx. 50–50 between continuous and
intermittent type collectors. Shaking, as the word states, simply implies
mechanically flexing the bag to clean it. Reverse-flow applications consist of
introducing air into sections of the filter system in the opposite direction from
normal gas flow to blow the dust off the bags. There is a third category, in which
no cleaning energy is utilized. This applies to units designed for situations in which
the media are disposable.

b. The fabric employed

Fabric filters can be divided generally into two basic types, depending upon the
fabric:

 Felt (unwoven);
 Woven.

Felt media are normally used in high-energy cleaning systems; woven media are
used in low-energy devices. Felt fabrics are tighter in construction (i.e., less porous), and
for this reason, they can be considered to be more of a true filter medium and should be
kept as clean as possible to perform satisfactorily as a filter. In contrast, the woven fabric
is, in general, only a site upon which the true filtering occurs as the dust layer builds up,
through which the actual filtering takes place.

In addition, a third type of fabric filter is nonwoven disposable configuration

material, which is used as a vacuum cleaner with disposable bags
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c. Type of cycle
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Filter systems can also be categorized as:

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 Continuous collectors;
 Intermittent collectors.

In a continuous collector, the cleaning is accomplished by sectionalizing the filter so

that, while one part is being cleaned, the rest of the filter is still in operation. Under these
conditions, the gas flow through the device and the overall pressure drop across the device
are essentially constant with time. In contrast, there must be an interruption in the gas flow
while the cleaning process takes place in intermittent collectors. In these systems, gas flow
is greatest immediately after the filter medium has been cleaned and decreases as the cake
builds up. A typical cycle for an intermittent system is operating from 0.25 to 4 h and
cleaning for 5 min.

d. The service

Particulate removal is the major service performed by fabric filters. However, they
also can be used for gaseous control by adsorption and chemical adsorption
(chemisorption), which are well-proven industrial techniques. For example, solid alumina
can be used to adsorb chlorine; gaseous ammonia can be injected to react with sulfur
oxides to form a solid particulate, which can be filtered; sodium and/or calcium
compounds can be added as pre coats to react with and adsorb sulfur oxides; and activated
carbon can be introduced to remove odors.

There is another basic service distinction between process and non-process work.
Process functions may include the removal of material from air-conveying systems in
which product collection is the primary function. A non-process application would be the
removal of nuisance dust, where only a small amount of the product would actually
encounter the filter. However, because of pollution control considerations, the same care
and attention should be paid to non-process applications that have been given process
collectors in the past.

e. Application
10

The fifth and final classification of fabric filters is by application. These classes
include temperature solids concentration type of pollution in the inlet gas moisture content
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suction, pressure applications size of filter and filter efficiency. The use of glass fiber

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media makes it possible to operate filters at temperatures up to about 550°F (288°C). A

number of different fabric filter media and their characteristics are given in Table 3. Work
is currently in progress to develop higher-temperature media, as indicated in the table.

Dust loading is defined as the concentration of solids in the inlet gas stream.
Obviously, as dust loading increases, the amount of cake will increase for a given
volumetric flow rate of gas. In order to maintain the necessary gas approach velocity and
be able to operate an intermittent filter for a reasonable filter cycle time, it may be
desirable to reduce the inlet dust loading. One method of doing this is to install mechanical
collection devices in front of the fabric filter to remove large diameter solid material. Gas
conditioning, which can consist of introducing air as a diluent, could, in effect, reduce dust
loading. However, this process is used more often to reduce inlet temperature and/or
humidity.

It is a wise precaution to operate gas cleaning filter systems above the dew point
temperature. It has been pointed out that if some dusts become wet, they will bridge and
mud (plug) the filter. Methods of keeping the system above the dew point include
insulating the filter, heating either the filter and/or the gas, and using warm, dry dilution
gas.

Fabric filters can be used in systems that operate at either positive or negative
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pressures. Some systems are operated at pressures over 200 psi (1.38 × 10 6 N/m2), and
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vacuum systems commonly operate at up to 15 in. (0.38 m) Hg. The most common
operating range is ±20 in. (0.508 m) H2O
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II. ENGINEERING DESIGN

1. Fabric materials.

The most common material used in fabric-filter construction is carbon steel. In cases
where the gas stream contains high concentrations of SO 3 or where liquid–gas contact
areas are involved; stainless steel may be required. Stainless steel will increase the cost of
the fabric filter significantly when compared to carbon steel. However, keeping the
emission stream temperature above the dew point and insulating the baghouse should
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eliminate the need for stainless steel.

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2. Pre-treatment of an emission stream.

The temperature of the emission stream should remain between 50 and 100°F
above the stream dew point. An emission stream too close to its dew point can experience
moisture condensation, causing corrosion and bag rupture. Acid gases (e.g., SO 3)
exacerbate this problem. Procedures for determining the dew point of an emission stream
are provided in Chapter 1. If the emission stream temperature does not fall within the
stated range, pre-treatment (i.e., emission stream preheating or cooling) is necessary,
alters emission stream characteristics, including those essential for baghouse design:
emission stream temperature and flow rate. Therefore, after selecting an emission stream
temperature, the new stream flow rate must be calculated. The calculation method
depends on the type of pre-treatment performed and should use appropriate standard
industrial equations. Also, emission streams containing appreciable amounts of large
particles (20–30 µm) typically undergo pre-treatment with a mechanical dust collector.

3. Air- to-cloth ratio.

The filtration velocity, or air-to-cloth (A/C) ratio, is defined as the ratio of actual
volumetric air flow rate to the net cloth area. This superficial velocity can be expressed in
units of feet per minute (ft/min) or as a ratio. A/C ratios of 1:1 to 10:1 are available in
standard fabric-filter systems. Low-energy shaker and reverse-flow filters usually operate
at A/C ratios of 1:1–3:1, whereas the high-energy reverse-pulse units operate at higher
ratios. Particulate collection on a filter fabric occurs by any or all mechanisms of inertial
impaction, interception, and diffusion, as shown in Fig. 2. Inertial impaction occurs for
particles above about 1 µm in diameter when the gas stream passes around the filter
fibre, but the solid, with its high mass and inertia, collides with and is captured by the
filter. Interception occurs when the particle moves with the gas stream around the filter
fibre, but touches and is captured by the filter. Diffusion consists of random particle
motion in which the particles contact with and adhere to the fibre filters. Diffusion
increases as particle size decreases and is only significant for submicron-diameter
particles.
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A high A/C ratio (filtering velocity) promotes particle capture by impaction. On the
other hand, an excessive velocity will blow captured material off or through the fabric, in
many cases the only support for the cake. This would reduce collection efficiency. As for
filtering by diffusion, a higher air-to-cloth ratio reduces the residence time available for
particle collection. “Normal” air-to-cloth ratios are about 3:1; “high” air-to-cloth ratios
are 6:1 and above. New filter fabrics having no build-up of solid material will often
exhibit a pressure drop of 0.5 in. (1.27 cm) H2O at normal air-to-cloth ratio ranges. This
is called the fabric permeability and is often the same for woven and felted fabrics,
although woven bags usually have a weight of 5–10 oz/yd2 (170–340 g/m2), and the
much heavier and fuzzier felted bags have a weight of 10–20 oz/yd2 (340–680 g/m2).
A/C ratios are not based on theoretical or empirical relationships, but on installation
experience of industry and fabric-filter vendors. Recommended A/C ratios usually
depend on a specific dust and a specific cleaning method.

In addition to evaluating a particular fabric filter application, the A/C ratio and the
emission stream flow rate (Qe,a) are used to calculate net cloth area (Anc)

Qe ,a
A /C ratio ¿ = Anc (8)
¿

where Qe,a is the emission stream flow rate at actual conditions (acfm), A/C ratio is
the air-to-cloth ratio, (acfm/ft2 or ft/min) (from Table 4), and A nc is the net cloth area (ft2).
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The net cloth area is the cloth area in active use at any point in time. Gross or total cloth
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area (Atc), by comparison, is the total cloth area contained in a fabric filter, including that

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which is out of service at any point in time for cleaning or maintenance. In this text,
costing of the fabric-filter structure and fabric filter bags uses gross cloth area. Table 5
presents factors to obtain gross cloth area from net cloth area:

Anc × Factor = Atc (9)

where Factor is the value from Table 5 (dimensionless) and, A tc is the gross cloth
area (ft2). Fabric filters with higher A/C ratios require fewer bags and less space, and may
be less expensive. However, the costs of more expensive (felted) bags, bag framework
structure, increased power requirements, etc., may reduce the savings of high-A/C-ratio
systems.

4. Fabric cleaning design.

One removes the cake from the fabric by mechanically disturbing the system. This
can be done by:

 Physically scraping the fabric;

 Mechanically shaking it;
 Pneumatically or hydraulically reversing the flow of fluid through the fabric to
clean the pores.

For gas cleaning systems, the common cleaning methods include:

- Mechanical shaking;
- Pulse cleaning;
- Reverse flow.

Fabric shaking combines stress in a normal direction to the dust–fabric interface

(tension), stress directed parallel to the interface (shear), and stress developed during the
warping, binding, or flexing of the fabric surfaces. Mechanical cleaning studies (10)
indicate that dust removal efficiency is a function of:
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- the number of shakes;

- shaking frequency;
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- shaking amplitude;

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- bag movement acceleration.

In general, more dust is removed each time the bag is shaken. However, after about
100 shakes, very little extra dust can be removed, and 200 shakes are recommended as
being optimum. At this point, often a maximum of only about 50% of the dust is removed.
The shaking frequency is significant in that a resonance frequency can be set up when the
fabric is mounted as a bag in a baghouse. More dust is removed at the resonance
frequency, but, otherwise, it appears that the higher the frequency, the greater the amount
of dust that is removed. In the shaker amplitude range 0–2 in. (0–5.08 cm), dust removal is
increased with increased amplitude.

Filter capacity increases with bag shaking acceleration, up to 10 g. Beyond the

acceleration range of 1.5–10 g, residual dust holding varies approximately with the
inverse square root of the average bag acceleration. Other factors also affect fabric
cleaning and filter capacity. These include:

- Initial bag tension;

- Amount of cake deposited on the fabric;
- Cohesive forces binding dust to the fabric.

The initial bag tension values should range between 0.5 and 5 LBF (2–20 N). Over
cleaning requires additional energy and causes undue wear on the bag fabric. However,
under cleaning a filter (e.g., by shaking less than the recommended 200 times), decreases
system filtration capacity and adversely affects operating costs.

The amount of cleaning by pulsed-jet air varies directly with the rate of rise of the
pressure differential across the bag. This should range from 1000 to 4000 in. (2500–
10,000 cm) H2O pressure drop per second. Residual resistance values after cleaning also
depend on the dust–fabric combination. Mechanical shaking often augments the reversed-
airflow cleaning of bags. This is especially applicable to woven fabric bags. Dust removal
in woven bags during reverse flow is usually attributed to bag flexure. Reverse-flow
cleaning is, in general, not a satisfactory cleaning technique. In fact, data indicate that in
combined shaking–reverse-flow systems, mechanical shaking is responsible for
essentially all of the cleaning. The main role played by the reverse air appears to be
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prevention of projection of dust into the clean air side of the system. Reverse-air cleaning
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velocities typically range from 4 to 11 ft/min with 0.3–3 ft 3 of gas required per square
foot of bag area.

Selection of a cleaning method depends on:

- The type of fabric used;

- The pollutant collected;
- The experiences of manufacturers, vendors, and industry.

A poor combination of filter-fabric and cleaning methods can cause premature failure
of the fabric, incomplete cleaning, or blinding of the fabric. Blinding of a filter fabric
occurs when the fabric pores are blocked and effective cleaning cannot occur. Blinding can
result from moisture blocking the pores, increased dust adhesion, or high-velocity gas
stream embedding of particles too deeply in the fabric. The selection of cleaning method
may be based on cost, especially when more than one method is applicable. Cleaning
methods are discussed individually below (13,14), with Table 6 containing a comparison of
methods.

5. Baghouse configuration.

Baghouses have two basic configurations, with gases either pushed through the
system by a fan located on the upstream side (forced draft fan) or pulled through by a fan
on the downstream side (induced draft fan). The former is called a positive-pressure
baghouse; the latter, is called a negative-pressure or suction baghouse. Positive-pressure
baghouses may be either open to the atmosphere or closed (sealed and pressure-isolated
from the atmosphere). Negative-pressure baghouses can only be of the closed type. Only
the closed suction design should be selected for a hazardous air pollutant application to
prevent accidental release of captured pollutants. At temperatures near the gas stream dew
point, greater care must be taken to prevent condensation, which can moisten the filter
cake, plug the cloth, and promote corrosion of the housing and hoppers. In a suction-type
fabric filter, infiltration of ambient air can occur, lowering the temperature below design
levels.
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III. OPERATIONAL CONDITIONS AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION.

1. Design Range of Effectiveness.

A well-designed fabric filter can achieve collection efficiencies in excess of 99%,

although optimal performance of the system may not occur for a number of cleaning cycles
as the new filter material is “broken in.” The fabric filter collection efficiency depends on
the pressure drop across the system, component life, filter fabric, cleaning method and
frequency, and the A/C ratio (13,14,26). Performance can be improved by changing the
A/C ratio, using a different fabric, or replacing worn or leaking filter bags. Collection
efficiency can also be improved by decreasing the frequency of cleaning or allowing the
system to operate over a greater pressure drop before cleaning is initiated.

2. Efficiency

Fabric filters are extremely efficient solids removal devices and operate at nearly
100% efficiency. Efficiency depends on several factors:

a. Dust properties
 Size: particles between 0.1 and 1.0 µm in diameter may be more difficult to
capture.
 Seepage characteristics: Small, spherical solid particles tend to escape.
 Inlet dust concentration: The deposit is likely to seal over sooner at high
concentrations.
b. Fabric properties
 Surface depth: Shallow surfaces form a sealant dust cake sooner than napped
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surfaces.
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 Weave thickness: Fabrics with high permeabilities, when clean, show lower
efficiencies.

Also, monofilament yarns, without fibrils protruding into the yarn interstices, show
lower efficiencies than “fuzzier” staple yarns having similar interstitial spacing

3. System Pressure Drop.

The pressure drop across the fabric-filter system depends on the resistance to the gas
stream flow through the filter bags and accumulating dust cake, amount of dust deposit
prior to bag cleaning, efficiency of cleaning, and plugging or blinding of the filter bags.
Normally, the design pressure drop is set between 5 and 20 in. of water.

In practice, variations in pressure drop outside the design range may indicate
problems within the fabric-filter system. Excessive pressure differentials may indicate (1)
an increase in gas stream volume, (2) blinding of the filter fabric, (3) hoppers full of dust,
thus blocking the bags, and/or (4) inoperative cleaning mechanism. Subpar pressure
differentials may indicate (1) fan or motor problems, (2) broken or unclamped bags, (3)
plugged inlet ducting or closed damper; and/or (d) leakage between sections of the
baghouse. For these reasons, continuous pressure-drop monitoring is recommended. As the
dust cake builds up during filtration, both the collection efficiency and system pressure
drop increase. As the pressure drop increases toward a maximum, the filter bags (or at least
a group of the bags contained in one isolated compartment) must be cleaned to reduce the
dust cake resistance. This cleaning must be timed and performed to (1) maintain the
pressure drop and thus operating costs within reasonable limits, (2) clean bags as gently
and/or infrequently as possible to minimize bag wear and to maximize efficiency, and (3)
leave a sufficient dust layer on the bags to maintain filter efficiency and to keep the
instantaneous A/C ratio immediately after cleaning from reaching excessive levels, if
woven fabric with no backing is used. In practice, these various considerations are
balanced using engineering judgment and field trial experience to optimize the total system
operation. Changes in the process or in fabric condition through fabric aging will shift in
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the cleaning requirements of the system. This shift may require more frequent manual
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adjustments to the automatic control to achieve the minimum cleaning requirements.

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4. Power Requirements.

The cost of electricity depends largely on the fan power requirement. The equation
below can estimate this requirement, assuming a 65 % fan motor efficiency and a fluid
specific gravity of 1.00:

Fp = 1.81 × 10-4(Qe a) (P)(HRC) (10)

Where Fp is the fan power requirement (kWh/yr), Qe a is the emission stream flow rate
(acfm), P is the system pressure drop (in. H 2O), and HRS is the operating hours (h/yr). For
mechanical shaking, Eq. (11) provides an estimate of the additional power:

Pms = 6.05 × 10-6(HRC)(Atc) (11)

Where Pms is the mechanical shaking power requirement (kWh/yr) and A tc is the gross cloth
area (ft2). The annual electricity cost is calculated as the sum of F p and Pms, multiplied by
the cost of electricity.

A pulse-jet system uses about 2 scfm of compressed air per 1000 scfm of emission
stream. Thus, a 100,000 scfm stream will consume about 200 scfm. Multiplying by both 60
and HRS gives the total yearly consumption. Multiplying this value by the cost of
compressed air gives annual costs. For other cleaning mechanisms, this consumption is
assumed to be zero.

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5. Filter Bag Replacement.

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The cost of replacement bags is obtained as follows:

CRB = [CB + CL] × CRFB (12)

where CRB is the bag replacement cost ($/yr), CB is the initial bag cost ($), CL is the bag
replacement labor [$ (CL = $0.14Anc)], and, CRFB is the capital recovery factor, 0.5762
(indicates a 2-yr life, 10 % interest). Because the bag replacement labor cost is highly
variable, a conservative high cost of $0.14/ft2 of net bag area has been assumed.

6. Economics.

Fabric filtration systems are attractive in that they are highly efficient collection
devices that can be operated at low-energy requirements. In addition, they usually have no
water requirements so that the solid-waste-disposal problem may be significantly less than
that for wet systems. On the other hand, fabric filtration systems are expensive in that they
require a large amount of space for installation [about 1 ft 2 (0.1 m2) of floor space per each
5 ft3/min (0.14 m3/min)] and have a large capital investment. The highest maintenance
component of fabric-filter systems is the fabric itself. In baghouses, the bags have an
average life of 18–36 months and account for 20–40% of the equipment cost. If the system
is expected to have a 10-yr life, this means that the bags must be replaced anywhere from
three to seven times during this lifetime.

Causes of bag failure include blinding (mudding), caking, burning, abrasion,

chemical attack, and aging. Prior discussion in this chapter indicated how these problems
can be reduced by proper operating and maintenance procedures. The Industrial Gas
Cleaning Institute (IGCI), representing about 90% of all fabric-filter gas cleaning device
manufacturers, estimated that about half of the filter systems in the United States are low
energy and half are high energy. This chapter mentions factors affecting the economics of
filter systems. These factors include the composition of both the solids and the gas, the
type of filter system desired, requirements for gas conditioning, and proper operating and
maintenance procedures. Other factors that also influence the cost of fabric filtration
systems are, for example, special properties of the gas stream (toxic, explosive, corrosive,
and/or abrasive), space restrictions in the installing facility, and the nature of ancillary
equipment, such as hoods, ducts, fans, motors, material-handling conveyors, airlocks,
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stacks, controls, and valves. These costs (Tables 8–10) are averages of all industries, and
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actual operating and relative costs would depend on the specific application. Abrasive,
corrosive, hot applications may have greater total costs plus proportionally greater

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replacement and labour costs. Equipment costs for a fabric-filter system can be estimated
by either obtaining quotations from vendors, or using generalized cost correlations from
the literature.

Total capital costs (see Table 9) include costs for the baghouse structure, the initial
complement of the bags, auxiliary equipment, and the usual direct and indirect costs
associated with installing or erecting new structures. The price per square foot of bags by
type of fabric and cleaning system appears in Table 8 (3rd quarter 1986 dollars). The prices
represent a 10 % range and should be escalated using the index provided in Chemical
Engineering (27). The annual costs (see Table 11) for a fabric-filter system consist of the
direct and indirect operating costs.

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CONCLUSION

Fabric filtration is a complex process that relies on a deep understanding of

theoretical principles, engineering design, operational conditions, and performance
evaluation. By grasping the fundamental theories and principles underlying fabric
filtration, designers and engineers can create systems that optimize filter performance,
efficiency, and longevity. The careful consideration of engineering design elements,
such as filter media selection and housing configuration, ensures effective particle
capture and minimal pressure drop. Moreover, controlling operational conditions, like
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flow rate and pressure, enables optimal filter performance. Finally, rigorous
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performance evaluation methodologies facilitate continuous improvement and

troubleshooting.

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The interconnectedness of these aspects underscores the multidisciplinary nature

of fabric filtration. As industries strive for cleaner air, water, and sustainable processes,
advancements in fabric filtration will play a vital role. Future research and development
should focus on innovative filter media, improved design methodologies, and
integrated monitoring systems.

By pushing the boundaries of fabric filtration technology, we can mitigate

environmental impacts, enhance industrial efficiency, and promote a healthier
environment for generations to come.

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