INTRODUCTION QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS To understand more, the following concrete examples of Public

Documents:
From the very earliest times, man has put down marks on Introduction • Civil Service Examination Papers and National Police
different materials to make a record or to send messages to Commission examination Papers including Notice of Admission.
other people. The first forms of writing were simple pictures on Document is any material which contains marks, symbols or
ex.: Handwriting
the walls of caves. Man soon found he could not express all of signs either visible or partly invisible that may presently or
• The Official Receipt required by the Government to be issued
his thoughts by means of pictures so systems of writing were ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone.
upon receipt of money for public purposes.
developed. Early writings were on stones and metal. Later skins • The cashbook of a public official, which entries made of
of animals were used. Paper was first invented by the Chinese A document in any written statement by which a right is
accounts of public money received.
more than 2,000 years ago but it was not common in other established or an obligation extinguished. (People vs. Moreno,
• A Residence Certificate.
countries for a long time. With the making of paper, writing C.A. 38 O.G. 119). A document is a written by which a fact is
2. Official Document is a document which is issued by a public
became more common to many people. Criminals were quick to proven and affirmed.
official in the exercise of the functions of his office. An official
learn that it was profitable to make false documents. A Usually, document is in the form of pencil, ink writing,
document is also a public document. It falls within the larger
knowledge of the methods of making these false documents is typewriting or printing on paper.
class called public document.
therefore necessary to the police investigator.
But before further, it I important that a common understanding
Examples of Official Documents
Documents make up a broad class of physical evidence that can of the term "questioned document" be established, James P.
come to the attention of police investigator, document examiner Conway refers it as "evidential documents". For Wilson Harrison 1. Register of Attorneys officially kept by the Clerk of the
or investigative agencies in variety of forms. Checks, passports, questioned document is referred to as suspect document, Supreme Court and in which is inscribed the name of each
automobile registrations, driver's licenses, wills and testaments, Hannah F. Sulner called it "disputed document". The common Attorney admitted to the practice of law.
identity documents letters, deeds, school records, military denominator maybe attributed to Conway's opinion: To him the 2. A document required by the NBI or any bureau to be filled up
records, marriage licenses, and many others may at some time phrase "questioned document", could be used interchangeable by its officers for purposes of its record and information..
become suspect and have to be examined by the crime with other level as mentioned above, like evidential, suspect or 3. Private Document is a deed or instrument executed by a
laboratory. The most common document-related crimes involve disputed documents to mean just one thing. To Osborn, private person without the intervention of a notary public or
some kind of falsification, either by forgery or by alteration of Questioned Document "refers to any document about which other person legally authorized by which document some
legitimate documents. Ordinarily, documents are falsified for there is some issue or which is under scrutiny (Osborn, 1992 р. disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.
fraudulent monetary gain, as in the case of forged check or will, 49). Examples of Private Document
but there are other motives. A suicide note may he forged to
cover up a murder. Driver's licenses, birth certificates, passport Kinds of Document 1-Theater Tickets: public records kept in the Philippines of
and other identity documents may be falsified in order to private writing are considered public document.
conceal a person's true identity. Documents may be mutilated In legal aspect, we have only four kind of document in the 4. Commercial Documents - is any document defined and
or, destroyed to prevent true facts from coming to light. For Philippines, such as: regulated by the Code of Commerce or any other commercial
example, if a true inventory of goods is destroyed in a fire, a 1. Public Document is a document created, executed or issued law.
building owner may try no claim the loss of items that never by a public official in response to the exigencies of the public Commercial document or papers are documents or instruments
existed. Other documents that may appear as evidence, includes service, or in the execution or which a public official intervened used by merchants or businessmen to promote or facilitate
anonymous, threatening, and obscene letters, anonymous (U.S. vs. Asensi, 34 Phil. 76). trade or credit instrument or transactions.
confessions, and occasionally even notes left by criminals at the Examples:
scene of a crime. 1-Letter of exchange
Examples of Public Documents 2-Letters of Credit
3-Trade of Acceptance
4- Checks 13. Holograph Document. A document entirely in the Documents being disputed should be handed and cared for in a
5-Note or payable notes handwriting of the author, as a "holograph". A will becomes manner that will not impair their value as evidence. Such as
questionable when one of the heirs questioned the genuineness precaution may seem unnecessary, but in frequently happens
Definition of Terms: of the signature or statements of their parents. that either through carelessness or ignorance the evidential
value of an important document is seriously impaired and
1. Characteristics. Any property or marks which distinguishes Classes of Questioned Documents important interest are thus imperiled.
from the other and in a document examination it is commonly The majority cases were questioned or disputed Documents is As early as possible the exact physical conditions of every part of
referred to as identifying detail. involved during the presentation in court due to some grounds a suspected document should be carefully observed and made a
2. Class Characteristics, Not all characteristics encountered in and for various reasons. matter of definite written record. Thereafter it should be a
questioned documents examination are peculiar to a single preserved, as far as possible in exactly the same condition it is in
person or thing, and one which is common to a group may be The following classes are: when first suspected. It is advisable that a plastic container or
described as class characteristics. 1. Document with questioned signatures covering should be provided.
3. Individual Characteristic. It is a characteristic which is highly Example: Commercial or legal papers, like checks notes, In this connection the following negative direct on are
personal or peculiar and is unlikely to occur in other instance receipts, drafts, agreement, wills, deed, etc. necessary:
which is best described as the above word.
4. Natural Variation. These are normal or usual varjations found 2. Document containing alleged fraudulent alterations. 1. Disputed document should not be cut, torn or in any manner
between repeated specimens of any individual's handwriting or Example: Alteration made by erasures, addition, interlineations mutilated in the slightest degree.
in the product of any typewriting. or substitution. 2. Document should not be touched with an eraser of any kind,
5. Quality. It is a distinct or peculiar character. It is used in nor with pen, pencil or sharp instrument.
describing handwriting to refer to any identifying factor which is 3. Holographs documents questioned or disputed. 3. Document should not be folded in any new place: it should
related to the writing movement itself. 4. Documents attached in the questions of their age and date. not be folded and unfolded unnecessarily.
6. Sample. It is a selected representative portion of the whole. 5. Documents attached on the question of materials used in 4. Document should not be wet.
7. Ultra-Violet Examination. Its radiation is not visible and it their production. 5. Except by special permission, no chemical analysis should be
occurs in the wavelength that below the visible blue violet and 6. Documents involving typewriting, and are investigated or made on the document of the opposing party as chemicals
of the spectrum (rainbow). These invisible rays will react on examined for purposes of determining the following: applied may injure or deface document. Test of this kind should
some substances so that visible light is reflected, a phenomenon a. the resource be made only by those properly qualified to perform them.
know fluorescence. Thus, ultra-violet or the visible radiation. b. their date 6. Portion of the document that are of particular importance,
8. Transmitted Light Examination. The document is viewed with c. whether or not it contains fraudulent alterations or such as signatures. amounts or dates, should not be encircled in
the source of illumination behind it and the light passing substituted pages. any manner that the strokes or portions are affected.
through the paper. 7. Document which may identify a person through handwritings.
9. Specimen. It is the standard handwriting used for comparing Example: Classes of examination
documents in the examination process. a. Anonymous letter such as extortion notes, letters of threat, The examination questioned documents falls into two broad
10. Exemplars. Are specimens of the handwriting of the suspect. ransom note. classes which are the following;
11. Writing System. The combination of the basic design of the b. Superscription, registrations, applications and other 1. Criminalistic Examination. This I intended for the detection of
letters and the writing movement as taught in school, make the miscellaneous writings. forgery, erasures, alterations, and obliteration. It is similar to
writing of the suspect or subject. other kinds of laboratory work and is strictly scientific
12. Significant Characteristic. The individual writing habit of a 8. Genuine handwritings are erroneously attached. procedure.
person which is repeated in the standards handwriting which is It uses ultra-violet lights, special photography, chemical and
permanent and conspicuous. Care and Handling of Documents microscopic test, to determine the age and kind of ink or the
composition of the paper.
The identification of typewriter specimens is also strictly a 1. When the questioned document is received by the suspected person's sample. He should take away from the
criminalistics operation. investigator, he should not add an additional contamination of suspected person handwriting he made and he will forget how
2. Handwriting identification. This is intended to find out who is his own. he made the letters in earlier examples and will go back to his
the author of a writing. Here the procedure involved is more 2. The investigator should place the document under a own personal habits or writing.
difficult and requires long study and no per on ever writes his protective cover as soon as possible. 5. The examiner will want to compare characteristics from the
letter exactly the same way every time. 3. He should always insist that he be given the original of the standard sample with the questioned document. Sometimes, it
The handwriting expert has to learn differences of from and document submitted for examination. It is difficult is not is not advisable to let the suspect know the nature of the
structure by a sort of intuition which is not easy to reduce to a impossible to make an accurate examination of a copy of a
document he suspected of forging. In this case, the investigator
science. For this reason, the police investigation or the document.
laboratory criminalistic should confine his work to the detection 4. He should photograph or arrange to have photographed any should prepare an artificial writing which contain the important
of forgeries and erasure and leave the identification of document submitted. characteristics. Among these should be any misspelled words
handwriting to a more qualified document expert. 5. He should do as much as possible in the way of examination which have been noted in the question document. The same
with duplicate, consulting the original only when necessary. misspelled words in both the standard and the questioned
Steps in Criminalistics Examination 6. Samples of copying machines are sometimes submitted for document are very good evidence.
1. Preparation. All equipment to be used in the examination will examination to determine if certain document was copied on a
be prepared first before starting the examination. certain machine. He should find out if there are any other 6. The standard sample of writing should be collected with the
2. Methods. Study the standards whet her or not they come machines like it in the community. same type of instrument and the same kind of paper used for
from one handwriting. study the individual characteristic of the 7. In cases involving seals or stamps the investigator should get the forgery. If ruled paper is used in questioned document, ruled
specimens. the original stamp for standard sample. paper should be used to collect the standard.
3. Conclusion or result. This is the finding of the examiner as to 8. He should also secure samples of her same type of paper 7. No instruction should be given to the suspected person as to
whether or not the document is forged. used for the suspected document. how to put the material on the paper. He should be allowed to
observe how he makes his margin and how much space he
In the criminalistics examination of questioned document the Collection and Preservation of Standard Evidence leaves between lines.
following should be properly observed: 1. The best type of standard samples, is these made by the 8. Type writing standards can be collected by the
1. There must always something visible to be compared with or suspected persons for some other reason than the case in investigation/investigator himself without the knowledge of the
basis of comparison. questioned. suspected person.
2. The fear when the document was written is important 2. A good source of standard materials are school records, The best sample to get is an exact copy of the suspected
because every individual's handwriting or style varies as time drivers license papers, statements made to the police, letters document which will contain the same letters and punctuation
goes on. written to government agencies, application forms to marks that were used in the questioned document.
3. Determine whether the document was copied, i.e., when the employees, applications for passports, receipts signed for
writing is exactly the same as to original one, remember that no money or letters written to friends. The list is endless and the If the investigator is not a good typist, he should get an
person can write two times exactly the same. good investigator will think of many places he can find standards experienced typist to make the sample.
4. Determine whether it is simulated. There is a hesitation samples written by the suspected person.
stroke indicated by the pen point. The stroke is not continued 3. Sometimes it is necessary to collect dictated suspected A. Typewritten sample should be collected in several forms.
because the one writing hesitates his hand movement for he samples where it is not possible to obtain good standard A copy of the original document on the suspected machines
tries to remember the correct stroke of the signature he samples written for other purposes. In this case, the investigator using the same ribbon and without cleaning the keys.
memorized. should always dictate the sample and not let the person copy B. A standard a sample of all the letters on the typewriter, both
Collection and Preservation of Standard Samples from written or printed material in front of him. lower and upper case, including all punctuation marks and all
4. If a person thinks that he is suspected for forgery he may try numbers:
to disguise his handwriting. The investigator should have the
C. A carbon impression of the standard paragraph containing all Transmitted Light Examination - Documents are objected to this
letters numbers, and punctuation marks. The carbon type of examination to determine the presence of erasures, Photography on Document Examination
impressions is made by first carefully cleaning all the keys with matching of serration and some other types of alteration. There is probably no other area in law-enforcement
cleaning fluid and brush. Next, a piece of good bond paper but photography that has experienced the growth that has taken
in the typewriter and the ribbon control set to the stencil Oblique Light Examination - Decipherment of faded place in the field of document examination. Since around 1860
position. At least one paragraph of the suspected material is handwriting, determination of outlines in traced forgery, its spectrum has been gradually expanded, first, by the
then typed directly on the letters both upper and lower case, embossed impression, etc. are subjected to this type of ultraviolet fluorescent technique. Then with the increase of
the punctuation marks and the numerals. examination. color sensitivity of films, filters became useful. Infrared film and
D. A notation is made at the bottom of the page giving the the new high-speed infrared film opened up entirely new
make, model; and the serial number of the typewriter from Photographic Examination - This type of examination is very avenues. Extremely high-contrast Kodalith Film contributes
which the sample was taken, the date, time and place machine essential in every document examination. Actual observations much in photographic erasure and faded areas. Only within the
should be included. are recorded in the photography. past three years, infrared luminescence, dichroic filters and
masking have given the examiner techniques not fully
Rubber Stamps Samples Ultra-Violet Examination - This type of examination is done in a appreciated even yet.
Rubber stamp or seals should always be submitted to the dark room after the lamp has been warmed up in order to give a The photography of questioned documents can be divided into
laboratory. If this is not possible the investigator should collect maximum output of the ultra- violet light. Exposure to the ultra- two general classes:
standards samples in the following manner: violet light should be to the minimum duration in order to avoid (1) The erasure or alteration may be poorly executed and quite
A.) Make a series of standard imprint by inking the rubber stamp fading of some writing ink and typewriter ribbon. The exposure evident to be trained investigator but acceptable to the
heavily then make a series of imprints until the ink will no longer of a document to ultra-violet light s useful when it consist of untrained eye,
print. In this way the examiner will be able to note the effects of several pages and substitution is being suspected. The color and (2) The work of bleaching, erasing and alterating may have been
different amount of ink and pressure. intensity of fluorescence reaction very apparent in case of a done so cleverly that there is no visible evidence even to the
substituted page. Mechanical and chemical erasures will trained eye of an experienced investigator.
B) Clean the rubber stamp carefully with a solvent, dry certainly change the reflectivity and fluorescence of the area
thoroughly, lightly, and made another series of samples affected. Reproduction for Case Study
collected using different amount of pressure - heavy, medium, As soon as possible, photograph the document with either
and light. Examine both these impression and the original stamp Preparation of Court Exhibits - After the document examination black-and-white or color film-the choice depending upon
to be sure that any imperfections in the original stamp are a has complete his examination and the Laboratory report has whether or not the original contained any color other than
produced accurately on the standards. Advise the laboratory been submitted, he prepares the photographic exhibits for court black. This photograph is not intended to show that a forgery
about the location of any damage or imperfections. demonstration and illustration. has taken place. It is made with the intention that it will be a
record of a document as it appeared to the eye at the time it
Techniques in the Examination of Questioned Documents Electrostatic Detection Apparatus - Detects indention/indented was submitted for examination. The photograph can be used for
Microscopic Examination Stereoscopic examination with low writings. Records transparencies of any indentations. the study of signatures and other comparisons, thus relieving
and high power objectives is used to detect retouching, patching the original document from repeated handling.
and unnatural pen-lift in signature analysis. With proper angle Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) - Used in the examination of
and intensity of illumination, it aids in the decipherment of masked or obliterated text, watermarks, visible fluorescence Court Exhibit
erasures, some minutes manipulation not perfectly pictured to paper fluorescence and oblique illumination of indented writing Document examiner rarely gives the court an opinion
the unaided eye and the sequence of entries done by different and embossing. concerning a handwriting or typewriting comparison or
writing instrument. • Detects variation in the infra-red characteristics of inks. alteration without supporting their statement with photographic
• Reveals alterations by eliminating interfering background
luminescence.
exhibits. In no other type of expert examination is photography disturbed by any attempt at erasing. The effect of ink eradicators If a photographic negative and a positive made from the
used so extensively in explaining points of evidence to jurors. is usually quite noticeable under ultraviolet light. Any effect superimposed, all of the information will disappear, however,
seen by ultraviolet fluorescence can be photographed. the positive is made from a second negative which differs in
Preliminary Procedure Infrared Luminescence some respect from the first, then some information can be
If the standard visual techniques tall to reveal evidence of an made to disappear selectively while other information is
alteration, photograph the document using ultraviolet, Some materials used in the manufacture of inks and papers retained.
ultraviolet fluorescence, infrared and infrared luminescence. luminescence in the Invisible infrared region of the spectrum
Also photograph the document with Kodalith Film (both with when excited by blue-green light. This is the same kind of It is necessary to make two photographic negatives the same
and without a Kodak Wratten Filter No. 18 ultraviolet phenomenon as ultraviolet fluorescence except that occurs on magnification and that these negatives differ as much as
transmitting filter). If nothing shows up by any of these the opposite end of the visible spectrum. Since 1960, infrared possible in the ratio of image strength between the writing to be
techniques, it is not safe to assume that the document has not luminescence has revealed considerable information from deciphered (wants information) and that which is causing
been altered. The infrared luminescent technique suspected documents that went undetected by all other confusion. A film positively made by contact from the negative
demonstrated, as recently as 1960 that some material contained techniques. However, experience so far indicates that only 10 to containing the weaker imaged of the wanted information (or the
information which had gone undetected several years prior. 15 percent of minerals and elements luminescence. stronger image of the unwanted values) and processed so that
It is almost a necessity to make photographs by all of these Alterations and Differentiating Inks superimposition with the other negative will obliterated the
techniques. Sometimes negatives made by ultraviolet unwanted information. A print made by exposing through it
fluorescent and infrared techniques will reveal entirely different Alteration can be so expertly done that they may be almost as superimposed films will produce a greatly clarified picture of the
evidence from the same document. Now if these two negatives tough as erasures to brave. In some cases, the ultraviolet information desired.
are made at the exact same magnification, it is possible to techniques described above prove useful. Photomicrography
superimposed the two negatives, print them together, and thus may reveal differences in the drying pattern of the two inks In order that the two negatives be obtained with maximum
show information that is the result of both ultraviolet and used. Infrared luminescence is proving to be a valuable differences, the photographer should use ingenuity to
infrared examination. exaggerate on image of the other. If two different- colored inks
technique in detecting document alterations.
The fact that we are able to predict in advance the use of any are involved, the use of selected filters will normally produce
specific technique of formula is perhaps one of the factors Obliterated Writing the desired result. The image may differ more in their reflected
which makes document examination so exciting and so ultraviolet or infrared characteristics, or in fluorescence or
fascinating to the persons who have chosen this field as a The obliteration may be both intentional and unintentional. luminescence, or in some other property, such as depth of
profession. Usually the writing is covered or obscured by marking, indentation or ink penetration into the paper. In these latter
Erasures overwriting, or haphazard scratching with ink, pencil, or crayon. instances, photographing the reverse side of the document
In the case of checks, bank stamp imprints may obscure the often leads to a usable negative. It may even be possible to
Writings which have been erased by either mechanical, chemical signature and other important data. Photographic separation of reproduce the overwriting (for instance, if a rubber stamp that
means present the most difficult problem. There are chemical color imprints by the new masking technique is proving very had been used to make the overprint were still available). A
methods to restore the writing; but before these are attempted, useful. photograph of a freshly stamped Impression will lead to an
every effort should be made to decipher the writing by visual Masking Technique for Data Separation excellent mask. Occasionally; documents will contain several
means or the photographic methods given here. When chemical different overprints and techniques that work for one overprint
methods are used, photograph the document immediately Multiple bank stamp imprints often combine to create complete are not good for another, a sandwich of a negative with more
because the results obtained chemically may not be permanent. obliteration of any single bit information. Masking is a than one mask will often be beneficial.
Ultraviolet Radiation photographic process which often permits separating the
individual information wanted from such a maze. The wide variety of situations which might be encountered
This is particularly helpful with sized paper and chemical precludes the formulation of a set of exact instructions.
erasures. Many papers have natural fluorescence which is easily However, if the main principle are understood, then filters,
choice of film, processing techniques, etc. will be found through A carbon paper discarded after the typing or writing of a a. By giving to a treasury or bank note or any instrument
a minimum of trial and error. document will sometimes reveal the original message. Try: payable to bearer or to order mentioned therein, the
The basic steps are: appearance of a true and genuine document.
1. Produce a negative with the strongest possible image of the Oblique Lighting b. By erasing, substituting, counterfeiting, or altering by any
wanted writing. With the carbon side of the paper facing the lens, direct a single means the figures, letters, words, or signs contained therein.
2. Produce one or more negatives which emphasize all of the lamp from the side until the light appears to be reflected from The penalty of prision correctional in its maximum period and a
overprinting and make a positive mask from each negative. the writing. This method is specially useful if the carbon has fine not exceeding 6,000 pesos shall be imposed upon any
3. Process the marks to a contrast so that registering each mask been used only once or twice. person who without proper authority therefore, alters any bill,
over the original negative will minimize the visual image of the Carbon as a Negative resolution, or ordinance enacted or approved or pending
overprint. A much-used carbon that is thin and evenly perforated in spots approval by the National Assembly or any provincial board or
4. Make a print through the registered combination films. may be used on the contact printer as a negative. The writing is municipal Council, (Art 170 RPC).
Registration of the masks will be easier if they are slightly then printed directly on photographic paper. This usually The penalty or prision mayor and a fine not to exceed 5,000
unsharp. This can be achieved by sandwiching a piece of Kodak requires a long printing exposure. pesos shall be Imposed upon any public officer, employee or
Diffusion Sheeting 0.003-inch thick) between the film and the notary whose taking advantage of his official position, shall
negative during exposure. The matte surface of the diffusion Transmitted Light falsity a document by committing any of the following acts:
sheet should face the negative. By illuminating the carbon from the rear and using red filter, a a. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or
satisfactory photograph of the writing or carbon paper maybe rubric,
Wetting Method obtained with Kodak Contrast Process Panchromatic Film. b. Causing it to appear that persons have participant in any. Act
Occasionally, the obliteration is made by pasting paper over the or proceeding when they did not in fact no participate.
writing. To leave the past-over intact try wetting the reverse side Blotting Paper c. Attributing to person who have participate in an act
of the original document with a volatile fluid, such as invisible as A blotter applied by the suspect to his ink writing sometimes proceeding statement other than those in fact made by them:
the fluid evaporates. Be prepared to photograph it as soon as pick up a legible copy of the text. Try a photograph with d. Making untruthful statement in a narrating of facts;
the image appears. panchromatic filter. If the blotter is colored, use a filter of the e. Altering true dates;
same color. If different ink have been blotted, the more f. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine documents
Indentations sophisticated techniques, may separate the different writings. which changes its meaning;
The impressions left upon a pad of paper by writing on an upper The blotter writing is, of course, a mirror image of the original. g. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be
sheet which has been removed will sometimes provide a legible Therefore, for court exhibit, make two prints: a straight print a copy of an original document. When no such original exists, or
copy of the message written on the missing page. By directing a which will duplicate the appearance of the writing on the blotter including in such copy a statement contrary to, or different from,
beam of light from the side (almost parallel to the plane of the and a reverse print of the negative so that the court or jurors that of the genuine original; or
paper), the indentations can be brought into relief and the can read the message. h. Intercalating any instrument or none relative to the issuance
writing revealed. No special treatment of the paper is necessary. therefore in a protocol registry, or official book.
This should be done in a darkened room so that only the grazing The same penalty shall be imposed upon any ecclesiastical
light illuminates the paper. FORGERY minister who shall commit any of the offenses enumerated in
Handle the pad very carefully before photography, never put the the proceeding paragraphs or this article; with respect to any
suspect paper document between pages of a book or under any Forgery is a legal term which involves not only a non-genuine records or document of such character that its falsification may
other pressure because any pressure will tend to smooth out document but also an intent on the part of its maker to defraud. effect of civil status of person.
the indentures and make it more difficult to photograph. It is similar to spurious signature of fraudulent signature.
As provided in Art. 169 R.P.C. SPURIOUS HANDWRITING
Carbon Paper Forgery is committed by any of the following means:: Spuriousness, fraudulence, and forgery are three the same
things. When we say spurious handwriting, we mean the
document is forged the maker of which has the intention to to say that the signature is a forgery but he will not be able to a. Genuine tremor may be caused by old age, sickness,
defraud. tell who did it. sleepiness or condition of writing.
Types of Forgery b. Fraudulent tremor may be caused by fear, wrong places,
In the examination of forged document, the investigator and the C. Disguised Writing wavering and zigzag writing.
laboratory have certain limitation. They may be able to say that The aim of the forger is to prevent his own writing from being 2. Hesitation. There is hesitation movement of the pen if the
a document is a forgery but not who actually wrote it. detected. He does not try to imitate the genuine handwriting of writer only copying the signature.
In general, there are four types of forgery. Simply forgery or the person in whose name he makes the document. 3. Pen-stop and pen-lift on unusual places.
writing something in the name of another person without trying 4. Blunt initial and terminal strokes.
to disguise the handwriting; drawn forgery, traced forgery; and Primary Indications of Spuriousness 5. Absence of flying start and flying finish. (This is caused by
disguised writing. 1. Broken stroke and wavering lines. drawing movement).
2. Retouching of a parts of a letter when there is obviously 6. Careful retouching and patching over the writing.
A. Simple Forgery unrelated to the condition of the writing material, and when it 7. Divergence in form of, or close similarity. (Deviates from the
This type of forgery is "writing something in the name of does not adds to the legibility of the letter. genuine form)
another person without trying to disguise the hand writing". 3. Contradictory signs of the degree of speed. First the forger 8. Change of slant.
This is the common type of forgery with checks. The forger relies started fast but somewhere in the middle his hand-movement 9. Abrupt change of direction.
on the fact that the bank in which he cashes the check may not becomes too slow because he is only stimulating other's 10. Unusual distribution of ink or defective line quality.
know the genuine signature. signature. The starting point of the slow movement is the
The forger's success in this forgery depends on the surrounding contradictory sign. Classification or General Characteristics of Handwriting
circumstances rather upon the quality of the signature; describe 4. Accentuation at the end of the word, syllable, or stroke. This Basis in making the finding
a fraudulent signature in which there was not an apparent means extra stroke at the end of the word, or a sign added to 1. Form. Every person has his own form of writing such as
attempt at simulation or limitation. give more emphasis to the stroke. arrangement of letters and different appearances of words.
5. The presence of strong initial emphasis. 2. Shadings. A representation of darkness in painting or writing
B. Drawn Forgery 6. Accentuation of a conspicuous feature. Things which you can are LESS BRIGHTLY LIGHTED. A fast speed has less shading while
This is also known as "simulated" or "copied" forgery. The forger readily see but cannot point it out right away. slow speed has more shading.
tries to imitate the genuine handwriting of person by copying it 7. Lack of difference between up and down stroke. 3. Skill. It is a person's mastery in writing.
free-handly. If done by a skilled forger. This is a very difficult 8. A drawn appearance of the writing. When a person or forger 4. Proportion. If is a comparative relation between letter in a
form of forgery to detect., any government agencies empty this is copying other's handwriting, there is always a drawing word, involves mathematical computation. In the examination
method to sign the name of important officials to large number movement. of questioned documents the letters are measured to determine
of documents. In these cases these are not criminal forgeries. 9. Other indications of effectiveness such as flourishes. their proportion
Simulation by memory of practice, the speed and freedom 10. Abrupt ending strokes. 5. Writing. By drawing and labor processes or fast, writings.
movement has smooth line quality effect. In simulation by 11. Meaningless punctuation marks. 6. Pen Position or Pen hold. The pen maybe held towards from
action the effect is not smooth line quality. Careful retouching is a sign of forgery. Erasure at the point of the the body or towards any from the body. Or maybe the pen is
retouched portion can be seen by the naked eyes or under an toward the left side of the writer.
c. Traced Forgery ultra-violet examination. In careless retouching there is no 7. Line quality. It is a line character or attributes or degree
In this forgery the criminal puts the document he wishes to copy erasure at the point of the retouched portion, and this is a sign excellence of the writing. The line quality maybe straight,
behind a new sheet of paper and traces the writing. This type of of genuineness. narrow wide.
forgery can usually be detected easily because the writing show 8. Size. This refers to the size of the letters.
signs under magnification. The lines are not sure and smooth Other Symptoms of Forgery 9. Slant. This refers to the inclination of the letters.
and there is evidence of patching. The investigator may be able 1. Tremor on wrong places. There are two kinds of tremor or
waver writing:
10. Terminals. It is an end or extremity of the writing. There are awkward position. Unnatural refers to the condition which rhythm, movement pressure, sized, spacing and legibility are
four types of terminals namely; flying, vanishing, flourishing, writer is not normal position while writing. Or it may be can well delineated.
and blunt, faulty pen, paper, or other. 6.
11. Alignment. It refers to the alignment of the letters and words 2. Highest and lower level of writing capability. In highest a. Speed of writing. Not everyone write at the same rate, so
in document. It is an arrangement of words in straight line. capability the writer is skilled in writing like a college grade. consideration of the speed of writing may be a significant
12. Arrangement. This refers to how the general format of the Lowest level pertains to unskilled writer. May be he is only grade identifying elements. Writing speed cannot be measured
document or writing it being arranged, including letters, writer that it is hard or difficult for him to form the letter. precisely from the finished handwriting, but can be interpreted
spacing, paragraph indentation, etc. 3. Extent of disguise if present. Disguised writing is one which in broad terms of slow, moderate or rapid.
13. Punctuation. There people when writing letter the horizontal writer deliberately tries to alter his usual writing habit in writing
does not touch or cross the vertical stroke. Or the appearance of his identity. It may be accomplished by writing opposite hand b. Rhythm. It is that element of the writing movement which
putting of comma, period, question mark, etc. may be different from that which habitually used, i.e., let writing or wrong- marked by regular or periodic recurrent. It may be classified
other. handed writing. Any writing which is executed the opposite smooth intermittent or jerky.
14. Retracing. It is the line of the stroke or letters. The writings hand form normally used can be termed as mention above. It
have been traced more than once. may be very effective disguise if no standards of the write hand c. Movement. It is also a factor and important element
15. Straight Lines. The penmanship, paragraphs are in straight are available. handwriting. It embraces all of the factors which are related to
line. A disguised cannot disguise other's signature but he forge. He formation of the writing instrument, skill, speed, free hesitation,
16. Curves. It is the line having no straight part, in banded lines. can disguise his own writing or penmanship but he can forge. rhythm, emphasis, tremor and etc.
In the curving of every stroke. Symptoms of Disguise
17. Angles. The singles of curving stroke. A disguised handwriting usually contains the following: d. Pressure. It has a relation to the pen or instrument contacts,
18. Connection. How the letters is being connected from the 1. Evidence of conflict. (Struggle between persistence and which is the roper which is described as pen pressure. It may
proceeding or the letter following it. natural habits, and the effort to suppress them). estimate from an examination of writing. Pen pressure as
19. Embellishment. The beauty of writing. It is an ornament of 2. Irregularities and inconsistencies tend to appear such as average force involved in the writing father than the periodic
decoration. following: increase.
20. Trade Marks. It is a symbol or words used by a manufacturer a. Prominent changes in slant of capital letters, but which small
dealer to distinguish his products from that of his competitors letters are less. e. Size. The size of individual letters.
should be duly registered. b. hesitations
21. Muscular habits. It is the unusual movement of the muscles; c. variations in slant f. Spacing. Pertains to the spaces of letters, how the letters
to the usual way of doing. d. odd letters form spread within the word whether far, close, or wide.
22. Spacing. The distance between letters, words, paragraphs. e. parched up position
23. Instrument. Are writing materials such as ball pen and f. slow down strokes are typical g. Legibility. The words or letters can be read easily in the
papers. g. undergone modification in: size, slant, pressure, form formation.
24. Calligraphy. Elegant or beautiful handwriting, similar alignment, continuity, connections, proportions and dot.
embellishment. Usually, the modes or points of disguise are slant, size, and 7. Rarity of letters Forged. Division zone letters.
25. Words or terms. Words or terms used in the document are speed. In size, letters are not even as compared to usual-writing a. Upper zone letterh, b, t, d, k, L.
also for to be determined whether the writer is a woman or a hand. As to speed, the line quality is affected. Hesitation may b. Central zone letters - a, c, e, u, r, s, I, n, m, o, v.
man, although not conclusive. occur and usually lies on the initial stroke. c. lower zone lettersg. y, p, z, q, j, f
4. Highest ratio and letter proportion.
Questioned Writing Diagnosis 5. Degree or graphic maturity. Graphic pertains to the art of 8. Punctuation habits. As already explained herein.
1. The natural and unnatural line quality condition. It is natural writing delineating. In graphic maturity, speed, fluency,
THE WRITER IS IN NORMAL POSITION WHILE WRITING. It is in
9. Natural hesitation or presence of suspicious pen-lifts and c. Furnish the subject with paper and writing instrument similar 2. Indicate in the sample handwriting the time, place, date,
retouch Natural hesitation I caused by faulty pen or paper. The to those used in questioned writing. That is the paper should be signatures of the writer as well as the witness.
pen-lift pen-stop can be clearly determined with the use of of the same size, rolled or unrolled as the questioried
suspicious close impression, pencil, carbon deposit in outline document. If it is inked written the same with ink also. Caring, Handling and Preserving Questioned Documents
signature. d. Never permit the subject to see any writing on the 1. Questioned documents must be placed in protective
questioned document. envelopes.
Relationship Between Genuine and Forged Handwritings e. Dictate the materials to be written hand printed as the 2. Early submission to the laboratory for examination.
questioned. Give no assistance in spelling or arrangement on 3. Proper storage.
1. Genuine Handwriting the pages. The speed should be that will produce the subject's 4. Avoid excessive handling.
natural writing habit. Too slow dictation will not produce normal 5. Do not mark.
a. It shows freedom and unconsciousness. writing 6. Do not fold, cut or clear, staple or pin.
b. Written with speed. f. Remove each specimen upon completion by the subject. 7. Do not allow amateur testing.
Number them in sequence, date, time, and identify by initiating 8. Do not bring fingerprint technician right away, have it
c. Speed is symmetrical and free movement for good lines and each specimen, and request the subject to sign appears to be photographed instead.
natural to normally right on left-handed and etc.) each specimen.
9. Observe all writing as whether the subject appears to be
normal writing. d. Show occasional carelessness. normally right or left handed and etc.

e. Unconscious strokes. Special Procedures for Taking Requested Handwriting Principles of Handwriting Comparison and Identification
Standards Where Check Forgery is Charged or Suspected
2. Forged handwriting. As explained in the previous topics. 1. Furnish the subject with blank checks similar to the Physiological Basis of Handwriting
questioned check.
Factors that change the Normal Handwriting of Individual
The impulse to form a letter begins in the cortex. This center is
2. Dictate the following entries to be made in the specimen. a kin to brain areas that control vision, hearing, talking and
The following factors must be carefully studied in the a. Date-the same as in questioned check. walking, and it guides the muscles of the hand as they weave
examination of a questioned document because they might be b. Payees the same as in questioned check. through the complex movements that make the words. Since
interpreted as fraudulent writings or signatures: c. Amount the same as in questioned check. writing begins in the mind, emotions and attitudes, both of the
1. When the hand is suffering from certain disease or when the d. Sigriature the same as in questioned check. mind, influence how we write just they influence how we walk
write seriously ill. e. Endorsement-the same as in questioned check. and talk.
2. Nervousness. When a person is emotionally disturbed his f. Any other handwriting found in the questioned document.
handwriting is affected. 3. Give the subject no help or suggestion in completing The writing, the pen (or any other writing instrument)
3. Old age. Old person cannot write well as he was young. specimen checks. functions as an extensions of the hand. The finger transmit to
the pen, the directive impulsive and the variation in muscular
Suggested Procedure for Taking Requested Handwriting Miscellaneous Procedures tension that, according to the nature of the writer's nervous
Standard In All Types of Questioned Document Problems
organizations, occur during the act of writing. Hence, as each
a. Have the subject seated in a natural position at the table or 1. The crime laboratory should be informed of the age. writer has his own way of holding his hand, manipulating the
deal having smooth writing surface. Apparent health and physical conditions of the subject at the pen, and exerting pressure, the same pen in different hands
b. Furnish the subject with paper and writing instrument similar time when the standards were written. will produce entirely different strokes.
to those used in question writing.
This center near the motor area of the cortex is responsible for subjective mind and the process of writing becomes more or combination of such deviation from the standard letter forms
the finer movement involve in handwriting. The importance of les automatic. As the person attains maturity in writing by or copybook forms, and become his personal habits.
this center is that when it becomes diseased as in agraphia, many repetitions, writing becomes an unconscious
one losses the ability to write although he could still grasp a coordinated movement that produces a record. Attention is no Mature writing is further modified by other factors such as
writing instrument. Thus the ability or power to hold a pen or longer given to the process of writing itself because the subject education, training. personal taste, artistic ability, musculature
pencil to form symbols and words can be said to emanate from matter to be written now occupies the focus of attention. and nerve tone, and the like. These deviations form the copy
this cortical center. book forms and modifications in mature writing may be caused
The manner in which writing is produced is shown by itself, or done in the following:
The hand contains two kinds of muscles function in the act of that is, the appearance of he writing strokes will indicate
writing. A group of "extensor" muscles push up the pen to where attention was focused in the writing process. Where the 1. Simplification-discarding of unessential details and may go
from the upward strokes and case the tension produced as a writing is more or less automatic or unconscious, as attention as far as to strip the letter to the skeleton making it either
result of flexion by a group of muscles called the "flexor", was focused on the subject matter and not on the writing clear-cut and precise, or bare and careless.
muscles which push the pen up to form the downward strokes. process itself, the careless abandon in the writing process will
This flexor and extensor muscles combines with lumbrical be shown by free, coordinated strokes. On the other hand, "a 2. Elaboration decorative strokes are added to the plain letter
muscles to form lateral strokes. forgery of the simulated or copies class is produced by a from, giving writing rich and ample or too ornate character
method similar to that employed by a person learning how to
Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in write (pupil) in following a copy". 3. Linear pattern - writing shows no concern for whom so that
writing. Those which operate the joints of the fingers, wrist, lines and angles predominate, and loops and angles are not
elbow and shoulder. The delicate way in which the various Individuality of Handwriting pronounced.
muscles used in writing work together to produce written
forms is known as 'motor coordination". Writing with all its thousands of peculiarities in combination is Once the mature writing, with its various modifications, have
the most personal and individual thing that a man does which been, however, crystallized by long usage, the identifying
Development of Handwriting leaves a record which can be seen and analyzed. This characteristics will undergo but light if any change as time goes
The following are the different steps in the development of a combination of peculiarities is what constitutes individuality of on.
person's handwriting. handwriting.
A summation of the physiological basis and development
First Step When a person first begins to learn the art of Although thousands learn the same system of writing which (mechanism) of handwriting will shoe that writing, at a
handwriting, penmanship copybook forms are blackboard leaves its impress upon a class of writers, such impress or person's learning stage is a conscious act, but through
illustrations of the different letters are placed before him. His influence does not by any means produce a slavish uniformity. repeated use, the formation of letters and words becomes
first step in one of limitation only by a process of drawing- Variation begins as soon as writing begins and continue until almost automatic so that the writer concentrates most of this
painstaking, laborious slow copying of the letter forms. The each writer writes in the way that seems easiest and best for conscious thought or the subject matter rather than the
form of each letters at first occupies the focus of his attention. him. No two persons write exactly alike and no reproduction of writing process itself. Writing, thus become a product of
a handwritten document can duplicate completely all the innumerable subconscious, habitual patterris, which are as
Second Step-As the person progresses, the matter of form details of the original writing. much part of the individual as any of his personal habits or
recedes, and the focus of attention is centered on the mannerisms. Writing assumes an individuality peculiar to each
execution of various letters, that is, they are actually written This means that the particular style or system of penmanship person, and writing, therefore, can be identified.
instead of drawn. learned at the early stage of writing leaves an impress upon
the mind which influences greatly the writing of later years. Standards of Comparison
Third Step The manual operation in the execution of letters, The writing pattern of each child or learner embodies a unique
after more progress, is likewise soon relegated to the
"Standards" in questioned documents investigation refers to A signature cannot be compares with an extended writing,
those things whose origins are known and can be proven and They often serve as the best or most appropriate standards in neither a cursive writing with a block (or hand-lettered or
which can be legally used as samples to compare with other the determination of the genuineness of a questioned hand-printed) writing, or an extended or conventional
matters in question. signature or writing. (longhand) writing with a block writing.

In handwriting identification, "standards of comparison", or 2. REQUEST Standards those which are given or made at the Therefore, a signature should be compared with a signature,
what is commonly referred to as "basis of comparison", request of an investigator for purposes of making a exerted writing with an extended writing, and so on.
consists of the known authenticated writing of a person. comparative examination with the questioned writing.
In this connection, many writers make sure of two or more
A comparative examination of a questioned signature or They serve in addition to collected standards which could be styles of signatures, the most common of which are:
writing is made with the standards of comparison in arriving at possibly obtained, as appropriate standards in determining the
a conclusion or an opinion as to the genuineness or authorship identity or authorship of anonymous letters (such as libelous a. Conventional style - one written in the ordinary longhand
of the questioned matter. or "poison" motes, extortion notes, ransom notes, letters of writing style.
threats, etc.)
A positive opinion on the genuineness or identity of a writing b. Individualized or personalize style - one in which the
is not given or reached unless an adequate amount of The procedures employed Is not usually the same in collecting signature is made up of certain designs or patterns, not usually
appropriate standard writing for comparison I supplied. procured standards and in obtaining request standards, so that legible as forms of the letters, but which is personal to the
the following points to be considered in each group are writer.
The determination as to whether the standards of comparison enumerated herein below:
are adequate and appropriate is to be made at the stage of a The genuineness of a signature of the conventional style
preliminary examination of a questioned documents. Points to be Considered in Gathering Procured or Collected cannot be determined on the basis of personalized signatures
Standards: as standards, or vice versa. A signature must be compared
As a basic requirement, the standards of comparison must must be compared with standards signatures of the same
contain sufficient appropriately prepared material or writing so 1) Amount of Standard writing available style.
as to indicate not only the individual writing characteristics of
the writer but also the usual variations in this habits from one There is no fixed rule as to the definite number of standards 3) Relative dates of the questioned signature or writing with
writing to the other. which may be considered adequate of sufficient. the standards.

The standards of comparison need not embody all the Experience shows, however, that at least seven standards The standards must be those executed or affixed on
innumerable characteristics of the person's writing but only usually constitute sufficient amount of these standards, but documents with dates contemporaneous with, or close to, the
those which would occur in material exactly like that in effort should not be made merely to comply with this date of the questioned. The best standards are those made on
question or dispute. minimum requirement, but as much as possible, more should dates which comes a period of before, about after the date of
be procured, for as a rule, 10 is better than 7, 15 is better than the questioned. In some cases, where the standards do not
Standards of comparison are classified into two groups, as 10 and 20 is better than 15. More standards provide a wider show radical changes or variations in few years, writings made
follows: field for selection of the more appropriate standards. to years before or after the date of the questioned may prove
appropriate as standards.
1. PROCURED or COLLECTED Standards those which can be 2) Similarity of subject matter
obtained from files of documents executed in the course of a 4) Conditions under which both and known writing or
person's day today business, official, social, or personal As a rule, like things must be compared, signature are prepared.
activities.
Serious illness, intoxication, haste, lack of care or an unnatural photograph or similar reproduction) must be the one given to marks or signature of the one requesting the writing specimen,
writing position as resting the paper on knee or magazine or the subject. and also signatures of witnesses, if possible.
back held with the other hand or writing while riding in a
moving vehicle may introduce variations in writings which may 2) Dictated text must be carefully selected Examination of Handwriting
rerider such writings not appropriate or unsulted standards for
comparison with more carefully written material. It is not good practice to dictate the contents of the questioned Scientific handwriting examination consists of three essential
document. Therefore, a substitute text to be devised may be phases, namely:
Writings made under such unusual or unnatural conditions any composition or paragraph which contains all of the
should not be solely that basis of comparative examination of alphabetical letters and other writing characteristics, and 1. Recognition (ANALYSIS) of characteristics
a writing made or done in a normal condition or position. which contains most of the words in the questioned.
3) Adequate amount of writing must be included 2. Complete (COMPARISON) of all characteristics
The main difficulty encountered in a comparative examination
of questioned writings under unusual conditions is that there 4) Some portions of dictation must be repeated at least three 3. Correct interruption (EVALUATION) of characteristics
are no available standards written under similar conditions. times
Process in Scientific Method of Examination
5) Kind of instrument and proper used Writings should be made or three different sheets of paper,
each sheet being removed from the writer's view upon (In General) -
The kind of writing instrument and paper used might completion. ANALYSIS Properties or characteristics are observed of
influenced or affect writing. measured, determined.
5) Writing instrument and paper used should be similar to
Pencil writing, for example may not entirely show the those used in the questioned document. COMPARIOSN Properties or characteristics of the unknown
characteristics of a fountain pen or ball pen writing. determine thru analysis are now compared with the familiar or
6) Dictation should be interrupted at intervals recorded properties of known items.
As a rule, some of the standards, at least, should be those
written with the same instrument as that in the questioned, Rest between dictation's usually make a writer forget about his EVALUATION-similarities or dissimilarities in properties or
and as far as possible, the paper used in the standards should previous writing. characteristics will each have a certain value for identification,
be of the same size, shape, and ruling and composition as the determined by its likelihood or assurance. The weight or
one used in the questioned. 7) Normal writing condition should be arranged significance of each must, therefore, be considered. The
principle of identification requires that when two items
Points to be Considered in Containing Request Standards If a subject (person) must be required to give a statement or contains a combination of corresponding or similar and
make a written explanation, he must be required to make such specifically oriented characteristics of such number and
The following steps are aimed at minimizing, if not eliminating, statement or explanation in his own handwriting. Disguise is significance as to preclude the possibility of their occurrence
DISGUISE in the writing of the subject or person being required eliminated in writing as attention of the writer is not focused by mere coincidence and there are no unaccounted for
to furnish his handwriting specimen: in the writing act but on some other reasons which may serve differences, it may be concluded that they are the same, and
as his alibi. their characteristics attributed to the same cause.
1) Questioned material must be dictated
The sheets of paper containing the request standards made The examination involves, therefore, the recognition, complete
It must not be shown. If dictation is not possible, a copy of the from dictation must contain sort of "certification" made by the comparison, and correct interpretation or evaluation of the
material (typewritten or in another person's writing, but not a subject that the specimens given are his writings, and must elements, features, qualities and characteristics of the writing.
also contain the date it was obtained and the identification
"Quality" investigator should be careful to be sure that any alterations
Form on a document were not done by the writer himself. People
as an element or condition of anything, is perhaps a better often correct mistakes in writing at the time they make it The
single description term "characteristics" when use as a general - This refers to the shape or design of the individual letters. In forger will usually not have the same pen or ink and the
descriptive term in connection with handwriting identification. connection with the factor of FORM, the following points alteration will be noticeable.
should be taken into consideration:
"Features" POINTERS FOR THE BANKER ON
a) Mere similarities in form are not alone sufficient indication
included among the qualities of handwriting are its distinctive or identity: "RAISED" CHECKS AND DRAFTS
features (which would, more strictly, be its characteristics).
b) Basic differences in form of letters are indications of two HOW TO AVOID LOSS FROM BAD CHECKS
"Element" writings being made by different writers.
A. Quick tests applicable to suspected documents/checks
which refers more to the separate physical part of a thing is System belonging to the kind of "raised" checks and drafts;
also an appropriate descriptive term and in some connections
preferable to "quality" (as "quality" is a more general term and Refers to the particular style or system of writing 1. Examination of the whole paper surface by reflected light
refers to a more extended or pervasive idea than element. (penmanship) practiced or learned in childhood. System of
writing leaves an indelible impress or influence on later 2. Comparison of the line quality of the several part 3 of the
Handwriting, therefore, is made up of its various elements; it writing, particularly in the form of capital letters. Another amount in words and comparison of the line quality of name
has certain outstanding, distinctive features; its individual influence, relative to system, which leaves in stamp or writing payee and words of amount line
characteristics are, some of them easily seen and others are of maturity is the so-called "national or racial" influence were
inconspicuous but very significant, it has the qualities of a person migrating to another country carry over a "foreign 3. Examination of the serial number on the document in order
roundness, smoothness, legibility, or speed. aspect of his writing (from his country of birth) just as his long to discover if it is made with rubber stamp or shows any
residence in another country. irregularity.
For purposes of expediency (for want of ready distinctions of
any one of the terms "qualities" "elements" and TYPEWRITER DESIGN CHANGES 4. Comparison of exact tint and quality of ink in amount line
characteristics" from the others), the details that serve to with other parts
identify handwriting are termed (collectively) "characteristics" All of the above examples of anachronisms should be looked
in this course. for since these are very common forms of forgery and usually 5. Comparison of with pen lines or pen strokes of the various
give a very good clue as to the genuineness of a document. parts and search for any irregularities due to differences in
Recognition of Writing Characteristics sizing or surface of the paper on different parts of document
Before one could make a comparison and proper evaluation of Alterations
the characteristics of a handwriting, he must know first how to 6. Search for discolorations due to chemical erasures
observe or recognize these writing characteristics. Alterations can be generally seen with the aid of a good
magnifying glass and the help of special lighting. The forger 7. Examination of back of document in the field where
Following are the writing characteristics (as factors of usually tries to change a 1 to a 7, or to add a 0 behind a suspected writing appears for evidence of embossing or
identification) common Involved in the examination of number to increase value by 10. A check or receipt for $7 could erasures
handwriting. be raised to $70 if sufficient space is left in the original
document. The forger will also have to change the written
Writing Characteristics "seven" to "seventy" by adding the additional letters "ty". The
8. Examination of style, slant, size and speed of writing of strengthen it. It may be clear that one stroke was retraced in
amount in words and figures compared with writing on other order Alterations
parts of document
Indented Writing Document examiners are frequently confronted with
9. Careful examination of amount in figures for evidence of alterations of genuine documents. The alterations normally
lack of uniformity When a message is written on a pad of paper with a pencil or a take the form of additions, erasures, and obliterations.
ball point pen, the message is often reproduced in indented
10. Examination for odor of chlorine ink eradicator impressions in the next few sheets lying under the sheet of FIGURE-2 Indented writing revealed by side lighting: (a) shows
which the message was written. Similarly, typewritten the document illuminated from above;
11. Observation of amount line and amount in figures by messages can come through on backup sheets. When they are
transmitted light with sum directly shining on the document. available, samples of indented writing can be valuable forms of (b) shows the document illuminated with grazing light from
evidence either to prove that a certain message was written in the side. (Courtesy of Connecticut State Police Forensic
B. How to Avoid Loss from Bad Checks a certain place or to reveal information that criminals hoped to Laboratory)
Easiest, surest way to avoid loss from bad checks. keep concealed. During their crime scene search investigators
should routinely check any pads or stay pieces of paper for (a) INSERT PICTURE
Refuse any one whose genuineness you doubt. indented writing. It can usually be easily discovered by holding
the paper up to a light so that the light grazes the paper almost (b)INSERT PICTURE
Best policy to follow: parallel to the surface. Both sides of the sheet should be
checked. Additions
"When a stranger offers you a check, doubt it's authentically
you have assured yourself that it is a good check. Although it is usually fairly easy ascertain that presence of Perhaps the most common of all document falsifications id the
indented writing, indented writing is not always easy to read. "raised" check. This is usually a petty crime in which the culprit
One or more of the following indications may warn you that The sheet can be observe more closely in the laboratory. The increases the amount of a check by adding a zero to the
the check is bad: illumination should be from the side and almost parallel to the numeral and "ty" to a six, seven, or nine or a "y" to eight.
paper. The illumination should be shined unto the sample from Fraudulent additions can profitably be made to wills, receipts,
1. Look for lines in any of the writing, especially in the different directions until the best results are obtained (see contracts, and other documents.
signatures, which are corrugated or rough along their sides. If Figure 2). Indented writing can sometimes be brought out by
you see such lines, you may conclude fuming the paper with iodine vapors. The same type of fuming In a case in which an amount in raised by adding onto existing
gun that is used in fingerprint searches can be used to bring words, the additions can usually be spotted under microscopic
that the check is bad. 2. Look for blots and blurs. These usually out indented writing see Figure 18-7). The disturbed paper examination. Unless the same pen is used, there are likely to
appear when the person who writes the check knows he is fibers in the indented areas often absorb iodine vapor at a be slight differences in the color and line appearance of the
doing wrong. different rate from the normal fibers, thereby revealing the ink. Also, when the added part must be joined to an existing
lines of the message. If the iodine fuming is successful, the word, for example, a "ty" to a seven, there is likely to be a
3. Look for hesitation strokes or retraced strokes in the writing. examiner must be ready with a camera to photograph the small ink buildup at the join that can be seen under
Hesitation strokes are shown by being light for a short revealed writing before the vapors dissipate. Often indented magnification. If different inks are used, even if they appear
distances and then becoming heavy, or being heavy for a short writing can also be read by means of close up photograph in the same to the naked eye, they often have different
distance and then becoming light. The hesitations may be which a polarizing lens filter is used with grazing illumination. fluorescence characteristics that show up under ultraviolet
indicated by such letters as a, o, d and g' being made with Such photography can often reveal the writing more clearly light. In addition, different inks tend to absorb and reflect
more or less square letter formations and the upper and lower with grazingked eye can because the polarizing filter reduces infrared radiation of differing degrees. These differences can
loops will also appear more square than round or oblong. to glare, which can interfere with the eye's perception. be revealed by infrared photography (see Figures 3 and 4).
 pen is used, the ink from a newer line crossing an older line contain iron compounds, can also be deciphered by infrared
When it is suspected that additions have been made to a sometimes tends to flow slightly into the older line. If a pencil photography.
document, it may be necessary to determine the relative age is used, the more recent line may show longitudinal scratches
of the different parts of indout or the order in which the parts crossing the older line. If additions are made to a piece of Obliterations
were written. It is not usually possible to assess the relative paper that has been folded, fountain pen ink tends to flow into
ages of two writing specimens unless the difference is very the disturbed fibers of the fold, and ball point pens tend to Sometimes bits of writing that might be important evidence
great. Most inks either fade or change color over long periods deposit a small lump of ink against the fold. Anything written are intentionally or inadvertently obliterated by inkblots or by
of time, but these aging characteristics are very much before the paper was folded would not be affected by the being crossed out of written over. If the desired writing is to be
influenced by temperature, humidity, and the degree to which folds. deciphered, it must be discriminated written ever wanted
the document has been exposed to air. If an addition were markings that obscure it. The major discriminating methods
made many years after the onginal document was written, Erasures are ultraviolet fluorescence. and infrared photography using
might be possible to determine that one ink had aged more contrasting lens filters.
than another. Erasures can be made by abrasion of the paper surface or by
INSERT PICTURE chemical means. In the case of pencil marks, abrasive erasures Direct ultraviolet photography discriminates the different inks
FIGURE document alteration revealed 3 A by reflected infrared rub away the deposit of "lead." The so- called lead of pencils is by their differential reflection of ultraviolet light. The sample is
photography. In (a) a check was photographed using normal a mixture of graphite and clay. Soft pencils have a relatively illuminated with ultraviolet light and a lens filter is used which
black and white film, white light, and no filter, in (b) white light high graphite content, and hard pencils have a relatively allows only ultraviolet to enter the camera. If the hidden ink
was also used but the camera loaded was with greater clay content. Since pencil writing is deposited reflects ultraviolet more strongly than the obscuring ink, the
predominantly on the surface of the paper fibers, it can be message is recorded on film.
infrared light to enter the camera. The original ink reflects erased with relatively nonabrasive materials. Inks on the other
infrared light and shows up strongly in the photograph; the ink hand sink into fibers so that a more highly abrasive erasure is Fluorescence photography takes advantage of the fact that
used to make the alteration reflects infrared only slight and needed to rub away the fibers themselves. Abrasive erasures some inks fluoresce in the visible range when they are
can be seen in the photograph. (Courtesy of Connecticut State of inks and typescript can often be detected simply by holding illuminated with ultraviolet light. The sample illuminated with
Police Forensic Laboratory) a paper up to a light to look for thin spots. However, ultraviolet but a filter is used which allows only visible light to
sometimes it is Possible to resize these spots by carefully enter the camera. If the hidden ink emits visible fluorescence
FIGURE 4. A document alteration revealed by infrared applying starch. and the obscuring ink does not, the film picks up the hidden
luminescence photography. Some inks emit luminescence in words.
the infrared range when excited by high-energy ultraviolet Chemical erasures are almost always made by applying
light. In (a) a check was photographed as it would appear to oxidizing agents that bleach the dyes. Chemical erasures and Infrared film will likewise record the different abilities of inks
the naked eye. in (b) the same check was d illuminated with erasures that have been resized with starch can almost always to reflect infrared light. The samples can he illuminated with
ultraviolet light, but the camera was loaded with infrared film, be detected by examining them under ultraviolet light because white light since most white light contains some infrared, and
and a filter that transmits only infrared light was held in front the spread of the chemicals or starch into the paper changes a lens filter (Wratten number 87) is used which allows only
of the lens. in this case the ink used to make the alteration its fluorescence characteristics. lodine fuming is another infrared light to enter that camera.
luminesced in the infrared range when excited by ultraviolet method of detecting chemical erasures.
light, and the original did not. Therefore, only the alteration If the hidden ink is obscured by inks of different colors, color
shows up in the photograph. (Courtesy of Wisconsin State Erased pencil writing can sometimes be deciphered if erasure contrast filters can be used to suppress the unwanted
Crime Laboratory) was incomplete by observing the area under the stereoscopic background. For example, if the hidden writing is in red and
microscope. Pencil erasures may also be deciphered by the obscuring marks are in blue, a blue lens filter can be used
When lines of writing intersect, it is sometimes possible to tell infrared photography. Some erased inks, especially if the inks which allows the wavelengths of the blue ink and white paper
under the microscope which line was written first. If a fountain to enter the camera but blacks the red. The blue and white
expose the film and come out light in the print; the hidden red Ink Identification printed may wear out and replaced with a slightly different
writing, which did not expose the negative, stands out in a type. The the letters space between the lines on a letterhead
dark shade in the print. In addition to comparing documents on the basis of may change. Careful measurement witmount of will show this.
handwriting, typewriting, and other observable characteristics, A good way for the investigator to detect changes is to put the
Sometimes inks that appear to the eye to be the same color it is sometimes necessaryndwriting, typewriting, and chemical with a ruler document and a sample of the letterhead known
are actually made up of different mixtures of wavelengths that composition. Most fountain pen inks are solutions or to have been used at the date the document was prepared,
can be reinforced or suppressed W filters. There is no way of suspensions of metallic pigments and synthetic organic dyes in one on top of the other and look at them by transmitted light.
knowing which of these techniques will be the most suitable water. The water evaporates sinds the mobile materials are left Any changes in the two letterheads will be immediately
for a given document problem. The examiner must experiment behind. Ball points are mostly made up of synthetic organic apparent.
until the one that works best is found. dyes in water. Ball point inks are mostly made up of synthetic
organic dyes dissolved or suspended in a binder that Stamps. While the picture of the ruling monarch may not be
Charred Documents polymerizes on contact with the air and adheres to the paper changed, many people do not know that the design colors of
along with the colored constituents. Another important stamps may be changed from time to time. The forger may
Examiners sometimes face a special obliteration problem with category of inks are carbon inks like India ink which are have trouble getting a stamp of the same kind used at the date
charred documents. If the paper is only partially charred, the generally used by artists and draftsmen, are rarely the document was supposed to have been prepared. He may
writing may still be visible and can be photographed with encountered in the crime laboratory. use a more modern stamp which will betray him. Sometimes
ordinary reflected light. If a paper has charred entirely to ash the forger will remove a stamp from a genuine document of
and has curled without crumbling, the first task is to deal with Because of the great prevalence of ball point pens since World the correct date and try to affix to the forged document.
the fragility of the ash. War II, these are the inks which laboratory examiners most Evidence of the glue and the writing on the stamp will be
INSERT PICTURE frequently have to compare or identify. The most suitable apparent under careful examination.
method in use today for identifying ballpoint inks is thin-layer
FIGURE-5. Charred documents. In (a) the writing can be seen chromatography. Paper. The earliest form of material on which writing was
under ordinary visible light. In (b) no writing can be seen under placed were the skins of animals called parchment of vellum.
visible light, but the writing is revealed in (c) when reflected Anachronisms The first artificial material was used in Egypt and called
infrared photography is used. ((a) Courtesy of Connecticut papyrus. The inside of a grass-like, plant was sliced into layers
State Police Forensic Laboratory; (b) and (c) Courtesy of An anachronism is something in the wrong time or place. This that were beaten and pressed together into sheets. The word
Wisconsin State Crime Laboratory] means that the forger has trouble matching the paper, ink, or paper comes from this papyrus. The first paper was made from
writing material to the exact date it was supposed to have rags. At first linen rags were used and afterwards a mixture of
The ash can be collected be carefully slipping a piece of paper been written. He may use the wrong stamps or the wrong linen and cotton or cotton only. Letters dated A. D. 874 have
under it. It can then be packaged in a box which will not etterheads. He may sue the paper that was not manufactured been found in Egypt and the oldest manuscript in England on
subject it to pressure and carefully transported to the at the time the document was supposed to have been written. cotton paper is the year A. D. 1049. Straw was used to make
laboratory. The ash can be strengthened by a very careful He may use a modern style of writing for a document that was paper in 1800. Paper made from wood was not attempted until
application of polyvinyl acetate in acetone solution. When the written many years before this kind of writing was taught. 1869 and modern type of paper called sulphite was first used
acetone evaporates, the polyvinyl acetate plasticizes and gives Some examples of anachronisms are: between 1880 and 1890. A form of grass called esparto, grown
the ash enough stability so that it can be flattened. Despite the in Libya, was first introduced in England in 1861.
burning, ink residues may remain in place and can often be Printed headings. The printed headings of government forms
read by reflected light. If the writing cannot be read by visible and letterheads change frequently as new orders placed. The easiest way of identifying the date of manufacture of the
light, infrared and ultraviolet photographic techniques should paper is by the water-mark. This is a brand put on the paper by
be used (see Figure - 5). The names of the officers of and the telephone numbers are the manufacturers. It is impressed into the papark. This is a
very frequently different. The type from whiccompanies, are brand put on themake the paper. These designs are changed
from time to earby wires on the rollers that keep careful stamping consists of making an impression of a coin on a metal the ink in the holes to be left on the surface of the paper. This
records of changes in theenuinely marks. time. All paper Striking or stam blank by pressure. Stamping is done by way of type of printing can be detected by running finger over the
manufacturerpected, document and of other papers genuinely steel dies. surface of the paper. The ink lines will be felt to be raised
prepared at the sammaire are not the same, an inquiry should above the surface. The engraving process is used for the
be made to the paper manufacturer. Wrong Water-marks are EXAMINATION OF COUNTERFEIT COINS production of all genuine bank notes.
one of the most common mistakes of a forger.
A suspected counterfeit coin should be examined by a Letterpress Printing is the most common form of printing for
Another paper manufactured for the United States magnifying glass and comparing it with a known, genuine coin. books, magazines, letterheads and the usual printed forms in
Government bears a water-mark of the Seal of the United Defects in cast, coin are usually caused by the formation of air common use. In this process, the letters are made on raised
States of America on it. Any document supposed to have come bubbles or by the removal of small parts of the mold along pieces of metal which are covered with ink and then impressed
from U. S. Government agency should bear this Seal as a with the coin. The best place to examine a counterfeit coin is upon the paper in the same form as a rubber stamp or cliché.
water-mark. Other governments have similar special marks for on the edge since there are usually special milling marks or The serial numbers of bank notes are usually added by this
paper made exclusively for government use designs which are added to a genuine coin by machinery. A letterpress process after the notes has been produced by
cast coin will have a faint joining mark caused by the parts of engraving.
COUNTERFEITING the mold. It will be necessary for the counterfeiter to file the
edges to destroy this rim. Evidences of this filing can be the Offset Printing. In this method, a photograph is taken of the
A Counterfeit is something made to imitate the real thing and counterfeiten agnification. The counterfeiter will acted in the desired material
used for gain. The word is usually applied to a form of forgery form Various defects and blemishes by detected handwork and
involving money ng and used for gain. The and print paper this can usually of fine scratches of blemishes, if a number of and a print is made on specially prepared aluminum plate. The
money is limited by law to governments and most stomake coins are suspected of being counterfeit, the investigator plate is kept wet with water. When ink is applied, it sticks only
only the making of coins of their own but also the making of should look for the appearance of the same kind of defect of to those parts of the plate where printing is desired. The
coins or paper money of other government. the same pland new coin froms examined. Unless the aluminum plate is then put in contact with a rubber ruler
counterfeiter shiget an absolutely perfect bron show in the which transfers the ink to the paper. The offset process is quite
COUNTERFEIT METAL MONEY OR COINS counthich to make his casts, any imperfections in the coin he often used in small printing plants, it is the most common
uses will also counterfeits. modern method used by counterfeiters to make false paper
Coins made of gold used to be widely used but are not now money.
often seen. Governments keep their gold in the form of heavy Some very crude and simple counterfeits have been seen
bars called bullions and then issue paper notes for the value of which are done by coating brass coins with mercury or silver BANK NOTE PAPER
the gold. Metal coins is issued nowadays are mostly in paint to make them look like silver coins of a higher
amounts for less than one dollar. Tin most countries the denomination. These counterfeits are usually easily detected Paper banknotes get a lot of handling. If a good grade of paper
possession of gold coins is now forbidden except for coin by the investigator. is not used, they would soon wear out and have to be
collectors. replaced. Even with the best paper, one dollar bills usually
MAKING OF PAPER HOW wear out and have to be replaced at the end of thirty days.
Casting is a common method of making gold coins. Plaster Governments buy the very best grade of paper they can get in
molds bearing an image of good coin are filled within a low There are 3 principal ways of printing paper: order that the paper money will last as long as possible.
temperature alloy made with lead or tin. Sand molds are used Special paper also makes it difficult for the counterfeiter to
for high temperature metals such as copper or silver alloys. Engraving is a process by which the lines to be printed are cut duplicate it. The most difficult problem for a counterfeiter is to
into pieces of metal by hand or with a machine. Ink is rubbed get the "right" kind of paper. It is usually the use of the wrong
over the plate to fill the cuts in the metal and the extra ink paper to be detected. A useful test for the investigator is to
wiped off the top. Pressure of the paper on the plate causes examine a suspected counterfeit banknote by ultra-violet light.
As mentioned in the chapem to make tioned Documents, most
modern printing papers have chemicals added tota-violet light. The counterfeiting of stocks and bonds has been used by some 1. When and where did the document, say a check, deed, or
Banknok whiter. These chelnica printing papers hat fraudulent swindlers for the purpose of putting up security at a note first appear?
fluorescence under ultorescence under anknote paper does bank for the loan of money. A bank rarely makes a detailed
hormicals cause a brillard floes not show a ultra-violet light. inspection of such bonds but puts them in the vault- as 2. By whom it was presented? What is his interest? His
security for the loan. If the note is due and not paid, only then reputation?
EXAMINATION OF SUSPECTED COUNTERFEIT BANKNOTES would the bank remove the documents from the vault and the
fraud is noted. It will be necessary to get a genuine bonds have 3. Is the document's very existence very suspicious? Does it
As well as inspection under ultra-violet light, the investigator very elaborate scroll work which is done by machines in a protest too much the cause it was designed to serve?
should look at the banknote with a hand lens. He should pay banknote company. It is very difficult to reproduce these fine
particular attention to the quality of the portrait on the details by anything but the machine engraving process. 4. What did the presentor say about the document at the time
banknote. This is the one place where it is difficult for the Inspection of the details of the scroll under a hand magnifying he presented it? Later? Why discrepancies, if there be such?
offset process to duplicate the extremely fine detail of a good glass will, in comparison with the genuine stock certificate
engraved plate. The color of the ink should be compared with make this quite apparent. 5. Is the document in the same condition now as when it was
the color of a genuine banknote. It is very difficult for a first presented? Have you so assumed or do you really know?
counterfeiter to match exactly the same shades of ink used by COUNTERFEIT PASSPORT
a genuine manufacturer. 6. By whom does the document purport to have been drawn or
Passports are rarely counterfeited because they are quite prepared?
If a foreign banknote is suspected of being a forgery, the complicated in design and manufacture. The most usual
investigator should communicate at once with the INTERPOL method of forgery is to steal a genuine passport and make 7. Have you erroneously assumed that the date, body, and
office T Police Headquarters, INTERPOL supplies all Police changes in it. Many safety features are incorporated in signature were written by the same person?
agencies with current news of possible counterfeit bills. By passports and are easily detected by close inspection. Ultra-
international agreement, all governments are required to violet light is very useful in type of examination. The 8. 8) If an endorsement, have you assumed that the signature
immediately report the presence of counterfeit money to investigator should look particularly at the photograph in any and address were rewritten by the same person?? Can you
INTERPOL. If local national currency is involved, the National passport or identification card. It is always necessary for the establish the correctness of your assumption?
Bank or Treasury Department should be also notified forger to remove and substitute another picture. The position
immediately. of perforations caused by staples and other fastening devices 9. What do the executors of the document have to say about
should be looked at very carefully. The place where a seal joins their participation? Did they indulge complete details or where
COUNTERFEIT TRAVELER'S CHECKS the photographs with the paper should be inspected for they glossed over? Did you err by permitting a collaborated
evidence of misplacement. story to be given by several interested parties?
The use of traveler's checks has become so common that
counterfeiters now turn their attention to the forgoing of these PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS 10. Is the date of the document logical to its content? If a
documents. Traveler's checks are issued by private companies letter, did the author betray himself by improper tense of
but most governments have laws which make it an offense to Following are some of the common questions or points for verbs of the "forecasting" of events inconsistent with the
reproduce these documents. Traveler's checks are consideration for a reasoning approach to questioned document's date?
manufactured by the same companies that manufacture documents:
banknotes and the same safeguards are used in the printing of 11. Is the date of the document consistent with the
traveler's checks. The following (from J. V. P. Conways" "Evidential Documents") movements of the principal? Have you considered
are some questions that provide a basis for a thoughtful, hospitalization, injuries, vacations, business, and why?
COUNTERFEIT STOCKS AND BONDS reasoning approach to evidential documents:
12. Was the document presented timely in the light of its date? 29. Have you dissipated hours of investigative tine, reached
If not, where has it been, and why? 21. Does the document, for example a check, have a number erroneous conclusions, and perhaps confused your document
should it have one in view of the habits of its purported examiner, by comparing the signatures or issuing particulars on
13. Are the writing media, pen, pencil, paper, and ink, author? forged checks, when your problem involved tracings and
consistent with the documents date and the representations simulation?
made for it by its proponents? With the habits of its purported 22. Is the number of the document, say a check or invoice, in
author at the time in question? With his physical and mental proper sequence by comparison with companion documents 30. Have you issued circulars which advertised all too clearly
condition at that time? of the same vintage, or has it clearly been postdated or that your department did not understand how responsibility
antedated? must be established in cases involving tracings and
14. Have you identified the author and signer through his or simulations?
their handwriting or have merely assumed writing 23. Have you too readily accepted a hotel or motel registration
authentically? Have you acquired, technically adequate, as an alibi? Does its time and does its number coincide with 31. Does the document purport to have been written or signed
probable, and legally admissible exemplars? other registration of the same date? Is it supported by correct with a ball point pen prior to 1945?
accounting records? Is its format, including printing, in
15. Have you examined companion document of proper agreement with comparison registrations? 32. Does the document purport to have been written or signed
vintage to ascertain their agreement or otherwise with the with a liquid lead pencil prior to 1955?
habits reflected in the evidential documents? 24. Does the document bear any indication or suggestion of an
erasure or alteration? In the suspected area contiguous to or 33. Does the typewriter document contain a short center "Wor.
16. Do you recognize that authentic companion documents does it embody a kept part of the document? "w" and it is dated prior to 1935?
provide a much more reliable made of proof than self-serving,
accusatory, or otherwise partisan statements by interested 25. Is a Photostat, where is the original? is presentation of the 34. Is the document, perhaps a will, hiding behind deceased
principles? Photostat rather than the original suspicious in itself? witnesses? Have you examined their signatures of comparable
date, or have you assumed somewhat automatically that the
17. Have you reconciled disagreements between the evidential 26. If a Photostat, why is the original unavailable to you, if it witnesses signatures are authentic?
document and companion documents? Is your reconciliation is'? If a court order of permission of a third party is necessary
reasonable in itself and consistent with the representation for inspection of the original, have you ascertained complete 35. Is the document ceremoniously hiding behind a notarial or
made by the proponents of the document? details for timely action? other seal of no real identifying value?

18. Are there witness to the preparation, execution, or 27. Have you considered and accounted for all the 36. Have you established that the notary or other public
presentation of the document? What is his or their interest? handwriting, initials addresses, telephone numbers, official physically witnessed execution of a document, so
Reputation? identification data, stamped impressions, etc., on the purporting? If so, did he correctly identify the signer?
questioned check?
19. Have the witness supplied complete details as to time, 37. Is the seal on the document legible and authentic? Have
place, and circumstances? If not, why not? Do they remember 28. Have you been wasting your time, or do you have men on you compared it with admittedly authentic seals?
not wisely but too well all the self-serving details? your staff who have been dissipating their time, comparing
check endorsements with the writing of suspected forgers, 38. Have you assumed that the signature of the notary or
20. Are the witness certain they could not be confused about a without first ascertaining that parts of these endorsement other public official was authentic? Have you compared
similar document? - A similar transaction s Wan your were not written by the forger at all, but represent the companion signature? Are the latter and related records for
consideration of. these points cursory? Partisan? Presumptive? handwriting of the second endorser or his agent? the date in issue maintained with similar pen and ink?
39. If a printed form, have you checked its origin? Have you 48. Does the document have a foreign script or language 8. Are there remains of pencil or carbon marks which may have
compared similar and companion forms of corresponding influence even though its alleged author was born and been an outline for
date? educated in the country? Or does it have unmistakable
national script and language despite the allegation that the the signature or other writing? 9. Is the signature shown in
40. Is the location of an obliterated or eradicated area of the author was born and educated in another country? embossed form on the back of the sheet?
document highly suspicious in itself? Have you sought
specialized assistance to develop the original writing? 49. Are you satisfied that you have scrutinized the document 10. Was the document written before or after the paper was
thoroughly from top to bottom, front and back, and accounted folded?
41. If the document is folded, is this condition consistent with for all writing, typewriting, printing, job numbers, marks,
its alleged origin and later repositories? holes, discolorations, odors, erasures. Folds, creases, seals, 11. Was the signature written before or, after the paper was
bindings, fasteners, indentations, depressions, and what you folded?
42. If the document contains creases and folds, allegedly have, therein and thereon? Have your aggregate inferences
because it was carried about in a pocket or wallet, is the supported the representations made by the proponents of the 12. How many times and in what way was the document
document's condition in respect to soiling consistent with his document? Have you aggregate inferences clearly established folded?
alleged history? Is the document clean where it should be the documents true origin subsequent?
soiled and vice versa? Do the folds fail to reduce the document 13. Is there any significance in the design of the signature as
small enough to fit the wallet or pocket in which it allegedly 50. Have you consulted a qualified document examiner? indicating its date?
was placed? Should you now? 14. Was more than one kind of ink used. in the preparation of
the document?
43. Does the document fit the envelop in which it was In the preliminary examination of questioned documents, the
allegedly received? Do depressions and impressions principal points for consideration (from Osborn's Questioned 15. Is the apparent age of the writing ink used consistent with
correspond? Ink and pencil smudges? Documents) not all applicable in any one case are: the date of the document?

44. If a mailed enclosure, does it bear a latent postmark 1. Is the signature genuine? 16. What kind of paper was used and does its size, shape,
consistent with the visible postmark on the envelope in which color, or constituents, have any date or origin significance?
it was allegedly enclosed? 2. Is the signature in a natural position?
17. What is the watermark?
45. Does the document bear a watermark consistent with its 3. Are the witnesses' signatures genuine and were they written
date? in the order they appear? 18. Are the several sheets of the document exactly the same
size, thickness and color?
46. Have you studied both the apparent and latent thought 4. Does the signature touch the other writing and was the
content of the document, for example, and anonymous letter, signature written last? 19. Does the paper ruling have any significance?
for evidence of authorship?
5. Is the writing of the body of the document genuine? 20. Was the paper torn, burned mutilated in any way, and if so,
47. Have you catalogued the individualities of word choice, for what purpose?
colloquialism, spelling arrangement, capitalization, and made 6. Is any of the writing disguised or unnatural in any way?
of expression for evidences of authority? Have you delineated 21. Is the, paper of an unusual size, is it indented on any
the individualities of letter conformation and letter 7. Are the standards submitted all genuine, consistent with margin, and was it trimmed or cut by hand at any place?
connections? themselves, and of the proper date?
22. Was the paper stapled or otherwise fastened together 50. Do the names, street, or events referred to in the
more than once? 38. Was the typewriting written by the operator alleged to document have any date or other significance bearing on the
have written it? question genuineness?
23. Is the paper unnecessarily soiled and crumpled?
39. Is tae connection of the pages continuous in language and
24. Are there discolorations or stains on the paper, and if so, ribbon condition consistent with other work on the machine DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
what probably caused them and are they natural or artificial? on the same date?
1. DOCUMENT
25. Does the document contain abrasion, chemical, or pencil 40. Do perforations agree with the stub from which it is alleged
erasures, alterations, or substitutions of any kind? the paper came, and do stub and document have continuous In its fullest meaning a document is any material which
or overlapping watermark? contains marks, symbols, or signs either visible, parțially
26. Does the document show abrasion erasure, or lack of visible, or invisible that may presently or ultimately convey a
continuity when viewed by transmitted light? 41. If the document is a carbon copy, does it conform in size, meaning or message to someone. Pencil or ink writing,
position, and arrangement of matter, with original letterheads? typewriting, or printing on paper is its most usual form.
27. As there offsets of ink writing from other sheets of paper?
42. Does the printing, or ruling, on the document have any 2. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
28. Was the document copied in a wet copying press? date or other significance?
1. Any document about which some issue has been raised or
29. Has the document been wet in any way, and, if so, for what 43. If the document is a letter, does postmark, postage stamp, which is under scrutiny is referred to as a questioned
purposes? cancellation stamp, or manner of sealing and opening document (Also DISPUTED DOCUMENT).
envelope, or embossing on enclosure, have any significance?
30. Have accidental pencil or other marks been made on the 2. A document that has been questioned in whole or in part
paper? 44. Was writing blotted, and does the use of a blotter indicate with respect to its authenticity, or identity, or origin, or the
proper continuity or lack of continuity? relations, among its parts, or with respect to its relation to
31. If typewritten, was it all written on the same machine? other things.
45. Are their indentations in the paper from handwriting, or
32. What kind of machine was used? typewriting, on a sheet placed above the paper examined? 3. DISPUTED DOCUMENT

33. Was each sheet written continuously at one time without 46. Is the sequence of ink writing and pin-holes, cancellation The term "disputed document" suggest that there is an
being removed from the typewriter? stamps, or punch- holes, consistent with genuineness? argument or controversy over the document, and strictly
34. Is the history of the machine consistent with the date of speaking, this is its, true meaning. In this text, however,
the documents? 47. Is rubber-stamp impression, if any appears, made from a disputed document and questioned document are employed
genuine stamp? interchangeably to signify a, document which is under social
35. Artehen a different typewriteords, clauses, sentences, scrutiny.
paragraphs, or pages, written on 48. The eyelets, fasteners, perforations have any date
significance? 4. HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT
36. Are the indentions, margins, punctuations and spacing
uniform? 49. Is the attached seal of proper date or the seal impression Any document which is completely written and signed by one
made a genuine seal and is it made in proper sequence? person is known as a holograph or holographic document. In a
37. Is the typewriting the work off a skilled operator?
number or jurisdictions a holographic will can be probated 11. ULTAVIOLET EXAMINATION Is not simply a signature -- it is a signature, signed at a
without anyone, having witnessed its execution. particular time and place, under particular conditions, while
Ultraviolet radiation is invisible and occurs in the wave lengths the signer was at particular age, in particular physical and
5. EXAMINATION just below the visible blue-violet end of the spectrum mental condition, using particular implements, and with a
(rainbow). These invisible rays react on some substances so particular reason and purpose for recording his name.
Is the act of making a close and critical study of any material, that visible light is reflected, a phenomenon known as
and with questioned documents is the process necessary to fluorescence. Thus, ultraviolet examination may be made 17. SIMULATED SIGNATURE
discover the facts about them. Various types are undertaken, visually or photographically by recording either the reflected
including microscopic visual, photographic, chemical, ultraviolet or visible radiation. A freehand drawing in imitation of a model signature.
ultraviolet, and infrared examinations.
12. INFRARED EXAMINATION 18. MODEL SIGNATURE
6. COMPARISON
Is the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh Infrared examination of documents employs invisible radiation A genuine signature which has been used to prepare an
their identifying qualities. It infers not only a visual but also beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum (rainbow) imitated or traced forgery in known as the model.
the mental act in which the elements of one item are related which is usually recorded on specially sensitized photographic
to the counterparts of the other. emulsions. These infrared or heat rays can also be converted to 19. WRITING HANDWRITING
visible light by electronic viewing equipment which to date
7. COLLATION has, had limited use in the questioned documents work. Writing is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being
as a whole a combination of certain forms which as the very
As used in this text) means examinations. critical comparison 13. CONCLUSION visible result of mental and muscular habits acquired by long
or side-by-side continued, painstaking effort. What is seen as writing is the
Scientific conclusion results on sense reasoning in accordance end more fundamental part of the process, which is a series of
8. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION with established rules or laws. The document examiner's controlled, successive movements growing out of the imitation
conclusions are so derived. It's common to refer to his of arbitrary forms. A written form is simply a record of a
Any study or examination which is made with the microscopic conclusion by the legal term "opinion". motion, and mature writing by many repetitions finally
examination. becomes an unconscious coordinated movement that
14. OPINION produces a record.
9. OBLIQUE OR SIDE LIGHT EXAMINATION
In legal language, the document examiner's conclusion is 20. COPY BOOK FORMS
An examination with the illumination so controlled that it known as an opinion. Actually, in court he not only expresses
grazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at an opinion but demonstrates the reasons for arriving at this The design of letters which are fundamental to a writing
very low angle is referred to as an oblique or side light opinion arm used synonymously. system are referred to as copy book forms. This terminology is
examination. derived from the old methods of teaching handwriting from a
15. SIGNATURE copy book which contained engraved script printed on each
10. TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION page for the study to imitate.
As defined by Webster, is one's name written by himself on
In an examination of this kind, the document is viewed with document as a sign of acknowledgment. 21. STANDARDS
the source of illumination behind it and the light passing
through the paper. 16. EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE By "Standards" in questioned documents investigator, we
mean those things whose origins are known and can be proven
and which are be legally used as example to compare with Not all characteristics encountered in document examination
other matters in question. Usually, a standard consist of the Any fraudulent signature which was executed by actually are peculiar to a single person, or thing and one which is
known handwriting of a person and in such case "standard" following the outline of a genuine signature with a writing common to a group may be described as a class characteristics.
has the same meaning as is understood by the word instrument is a traced forgery.
"specimen" - of handwriting. 33. NATURAL VARIATIONS
27. FREEHAND IMITATION (SIMULATED FORGERY)
22. SAMPLE There are normal or usual deviations found between repeated
A fraudulent signature which was executed purely by specimens of any individual's handwriting or in the product of
A selected, representative portion of the whole is known as a simulation rather than by tracing the outlines of a genuine any typewriter.
sample. In this text, the term "sample" follows closely the signature can be referred to as a freehand imitation or
statistical usage. freehand forgery. The term "simulated forgery" has identical 34. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
meaning.
23. EXEMPLARS A characteristics which is highly personal or peculiar and is
28. SYSTEM (OF WRITING) unlikely to occur in other instances is best described as
Specimen of the writing of suspects, are commonly known as individual. (Compare with Class Characteristic).
exemplars. The term standard is a general term referring to all The combination of the basic design of letters and the writing
authenticated writings of the suspects while Exemplars refers movement as taught in school make up the writing system. 35. CURSIVE WRITING
more especially to a specimen of standard writing offered in Writing through use diverges from the system, but generally
evidence or obtained on comparison with the questioned retains some influence or the basic training. Writing in which the letters are for the most part joined
writing. request for together is cursive.
29. HABIT
24. FORGERY 36. NATURAL WRITING
A writing habit is any repeated element or detail which may
Every person who, with intent to' defraud, signs the name of serve to individualize writing. Any specimen of writing executed normally without any
another person, or a fictitious person, knowing what he has no attempt to control or alter its identifying habits and its usual
authority to do so, to or falsely makes, alters, forges or 30. SIGNIFICANT WRITING HABITS quality of execution is natural writing. (Compare with
counterfeits any check, draft due bill for the payment of money Disguised Writing).
or property or counterfeits or forges the seal or handwriting of This term is applied to any characteristics of handwriting which
another knowing the same to be fake, altered, forged, or is sufficiently unique and well-fixed to serve as a fundamental 37. DISGUISED WRITING
counterfeited, with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud any point in the identification.
person is guilty of forgery. A writer may be deliberately try to alter his usual writing
31. CHARACTERISTICS habits in hopes of hiding his identity. The results, regardless of
25. SIMPLE FORGERY their effectiveness, are termed disguised writing.
Is the fraudulent writing of the signature of another in the A characteristics is any property or mark which distinguishes
natural or disguised writing weethe forger, the latter exerting and in document examination commonly refers to identifying 38. LEET-HANDED WRITING
no effort to effect a resemblance between the forgery and the details. There are two groups of characteristics, class and Any writing executed with opposite hand from what normally
genuine signature, of the Individual whose signature is being individual. used can be termed "wrong-handed writing". This is one
forged. means of disguise. Thus, the writing of a right-handed person
32. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS which has been executed with his left hand accounts for the
26. TRACED FORGERY
common terminology for this class of disguise as "left-handed In any act there are relative degrees of ability or skill, and a
writing". 44. PEN PRESSURE specimen of handwriting usually contains evidence of the
writer's proficiency.
39. MOVEMENT The average force with which the pen contacts the paper is
described as pen pressure, and may be estimated from an 51.SLANT
Movement is an important element of handwriting. It examination of the writing.
embraces all of the factors which are related to the motion of Pen pressure as opposed to pen emphasis deals with the usual Slant is the angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to
the writing instrument skill, speed, freedom, hesitation, or average force involved in the writing rather than the the base line.
rhythm, emphasis, tremor, and the line The manner in which periodic increases.
the writing instrument is moved that is by finger, hand or arm 52. TREMOR
action may influence each of these factors. 45. PATCHING
A writing weakness portrayed by irregular shaky strokes is
40. SPEED OF WRITING Retouching or going back over a defective portion of a writing described as writing tremor.
stroke can be described as patching. Careful patching is a
Not everyone writes at the same rate so that consideration of common defect in forgeries. 53. WRITING CONDITION
the speed of writing may be a significant identifying element.
Writing speed cannot be measured precisely from the finished 46. RETOUCHING Writing conditions include both the circumstances under which
handwriting but can, be interpreted in broad terms of slow, the writing was prepared and the factors which influence the
mode.-ate, or rapid. Retouching and Patching are used synonymously. writer's ability to write al the time of execution. Circumstances
Pertaining to preparation to write af writer's position (sitting,
41. PEN EMPHASIS 47. RETRACING standing, abed, etc.), the paper support and backing, and, the
writing instrument, while the writing ability may be modified by
The act of intermittently forcing the pen against is termed "pen Any stroke which goes back over another writing stroke is the writer's health, nervous, state, or degree of intoxication.
emphasis". When the pen point has flexibility, this emphasis retracing. In natural handwriting, there may be many instances
produces but with more rigid writing points heavy pen in which the pen doubles back over the same course. 54. BASE LINE
emphasis can occur in writing without any evidence of
Shading. 48. RHYTHM The ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests is
termed the base line.
42. PEN LIFT Rhythm is that element of the writing movement which is
marked by regular or periodic recurrences. It may be classed as 55. QUALITY
An interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing smooth, intermittent or jerky in its quality.
instrument (pen) from the paper is described as pen lift. A quality is a distinct or peculiar character. In this tect, quality is
49. SHADING used in describing handwriting to refer to any identifying factor
43. PEN POSITION which is related to the writing movement itself.
Shading is a widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure
The relationship between the pen point and the paper is on a flexible pen point or the use of a stub pen. 56. LINE QUALITY -
known as pen position. Specially, the angle between the ribs of
the pen and the line of writing, and between the pen point and 50. SKILL The visible record in the written stroke of the basic movements
the paper surface, are the elements of pen position. Both and manner of holding the writing instrument is characterized L-
conditions may be reflected in the writing. y the term "Line quality". It is derived from 3 combinations of
factors including writing skill, speed, rhythm, freedom of With use the type faces become filled with lint, dirt, and ink, 69. TYPE FACE
movement, shading, and pen position. particularly in enclosed letters such as the o, e, p, and g. if this
condition is allowed to progress. The printing surface of the type block is known as the type face.
57. HAND PRINTING With most modern typewriters, this block is attached at the end
63. DEFECTS of a movable arm or type bar which propels the face against the
Is defined as including block capitals, sometimes referred to as ribbon and the paper to make typewriter impression.
lettering, and manuscript, and manuscript writing, occasionally The term "defect" described may abnormality or malalignment
described as lower- case printing. in a typewriter which is reflected in its work and which leads to 70. VERTTCAL MALALIGNMENT
its individualization or identification.
58. HAND LETTERING A character printing above or below it's proper position has the
64. HORIZONTAL MALALIGNMENT quality of vertical malalignment.
Any disconnected style of writing in which each other is written
separately is a form of hand lettering or hand printing. An alignment defect in which the character prints to the right or 71. TYPE FACE DEFECTS -
left of its proper position is known as horizontal malalignment.
59. ALIGNMENT Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the
65. MALALIGNMENT type face metal is known as type face defect. These defects
Alignment defects, include characters which write improperly in maybe actual breaks in the outline of the letter where the metal
the following respeand a characte letter, horizontal Malalignment is synonymous with the term "alignment defect" has been chipped away. sometimes referred to as a broken type,
malalignoperly in the folalalignment, pacial adjustment to the (See term No. 59, hereof). or they may be distorted outlines of the letter where the type
its feet. These defects cantical mallected by special to type bar face metal has become bent or smashed. They can only be
and type blodect 66. OFF ITS FEET replaced by replacing the type block.
The condition of a type face printing heavier on one side or
60. CARBON IMPRESSION corner than over the remainder of its outline is described by the 72. PEN
term "of its feet"
Any typewriting which is place on the paper by the action of the A writing instrument used to apply inks to the paper is a pen.
type faces striking through carbon paper is classed as a carbon E. PERMANENT DEFECT
impression Generally, carbon impressions are "carbon copies", 73. FOUNTAIN PEN
but sometimes original typewriting is made directly through a Any identifying characteristics of a typewriter which cannot be
carbon ribbon. corrected by simply cleaning thtubile fase or replacing the A fountain pen is a modern nib which contains a reservoir of ink
ribbon is classed ated permanent defecte Actudergo not in a specially designed sack or chamber. After complete filling
61. CHARACTER absolutely accurate since all defects in typewriter undergo the pen is capable of writing a number of pages without
modification and change with timele refilling.
In connection with typewriting identification, the term
"character" is used to include letters, symbols, numerals, or 68. TRANSITORY DEFECT 74. PEN NIBS
points of punctuation.
An identifying typewriter characteristics which can be The two divisions or points which form the writing portion of a
62. CLOGGED (DIRTY) TYPE FACES eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon is pen are its nibs.
described as a transitory defect. Clogged type faces are the most
common defect in this class. 75. FLEXIBILITY OF PEN POINT
One of the nib pen is its flexibility. This portion of a pen are its of the Penman's Art Journal, penmanship author and "Examiner
nibs. 82. SEQUENCE OF STROKES of Contested Handwriting in Courts of Justice"

76. BALL POINT PEN The order in which writing strokes are placed on the paper is New York v R. B.
referred to as their sequence.
A writing instrument which has its marking tip a small freely Molineaux Notable early criminal case involving the testimony
rotating ball beating which rolls the ink on to the paper is known 83. WATERMARK of several handwriting experts. Roland Molineaux, a chemist,
as a ball point pen. These pent all use a highly viscious non- was tried for the poisoning Notable early forged Will case in
aqueous ink. Certain papers are marked with a translucent design, a New York. The result of this case indirectly led to the Rice
watermarks impressed in them during the course of their Institute foundation. 1900wastried for the poisoning murder of
77. INK manufacturer. a woman, Katherine Adams. Albert Sherman Osborn
"Questioned Documents" 1910 Albert S. Osborn also, during a
Ink is a fluid or viscious marking material used for writing or 84. COUNTERFEITING comprehensive text which established a greater focus on not
printing. only the examination of handwriting and signatures, but of
The term "counterfeiting" as used in the Articles 161 to 168 and other types of the early part of the century, began to invite
78. ERASURE an ordinarily understood in law, is applied to making and other document examiners to his home in Upper Montclair, NJ.
uttering of false money, or the forging of bank notes which are These meetings were the 1900 but of other types of evidence
The removal writing, typewriting or printing from a document is the equivalent of money. appearing on documents including paper, ink, typewriting and
an erasure. It maybe accomplished by either of two means. A alterations. These meetings were the beginnings of what would
chemical eradication, in which the writing is removed or become the American Society of Questioned Document
bleached by chemical agents (e. g. liquid ink eradicator); and a Examiners.
abrasive erasure, in which the writing is effaced by rubbing with FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINATION: A Brief History
a rubber eraser or scratching out with a knife or other sharp The Frye Standard Although this decision came about as a result
implement. Third Century of the use of polygraph testing, it was the standard by which
expert testimony was allowed for1900was allowed for decades.
79. OBLITERATION - The time of Titus and Anthony" Jurists established protocols for Among other things, it demanded general acceptance
the determination of third Centuryforgery and the manner in
The blotting cut or smearing over the writing to make the which forgeries were to be detected." Sixth Century of expertise and methodology. John. Wigmore
original invisible or indecipherable constitutes an obliteration.
Justinian Code "Established further guidelines for the using of Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory "The organization o the
80. ADDITION Sixth Century handwriting comparisons inthe courts. A judge firs forensic science laboratory, the Scientific Crime Detection
could in his discretion request persons with special skill in Laboratory in Chicago, IL, began in1929. It started under private
Any matter made a part of the document after its original writing to perform an examination of Sixth Century perform an endowment, but within one or two years, because of the
preparation may be referred to as an addition. examination of questioned writing and give testimony as the the influence of Professor John H. 1900, Wigmore, it was affiliated
authenticity of the questioned text." United States with Northwestern University School of Law." "This laboratory
81. INSERTION OR INTERLINEATION was modeled after multidisciplinary European laboratories and
"The Ohio Supreme Court recognized the importance of included a questioned document section."
The terms "insertion" and "interlineation" include the addition handwriting as a means of identifying a person" Daniel T. Ames
of writing and other material between lines or paragraphs or the "Ames on Forgery" One of the earliest treatises by the founder The Lindbergh kidnappingState of NJ v Bruno Richard
addition of whole page to a document. Hauptmann The Lindbergh kidnapping Albert S. Osborn, Albert
D. Osborn, Elbridge W. Stein, Clark Sellers, John H. Tyrrell, H.J. and most recently Kelly/Lindblom would form the texts utilized
Walter, Harry Cassidy and Dr. Wilmer Souder(the only public in training and the guide for published protocol development.
examiner), were consulted independently and opined
Hauptmann had prepared multiple ransom demand notes.
Formally Founded With Albert S. Osborn presiding, the ASQDE The University of Pennsylvania Law Review article which focused
was formally Examiners established. Membership in attention on forensic document examination and particularly
organization was entirely by invitation. Its meetings were handwriting examination. Largely criticized by the field, the
completely educational in scope, and annual attendarice as well article certainly can be redited with ending the complacency of
as full participation in the program were an absolute the field with respect to empirical research the field with
requirement for a continuing invitation The ASQDE is considered
respect to empirical research, protocol
by many to be the invitation. The ASQDE is many, to be the
primary national organization disseminating research
considered, by States.
development and other issues. Walter, Herbert J.,
Peter Weinberger People v John La Marca (New York) FBI
experts sift through 75,000 police record 1956 1956police
record signatures, expanding the search to probation records
The History of Handwriting in the United States During the Past
John La Marca was iden tified through federal district court
records. "Evidential Documents" A well regarded text by James 100 Years, ASQDE Annual Meeting Los Angeles CA 1947
V. P. Conway A well regarded text by Conway of the Postal Meeting, Los Angeles, CA, 1947 Conway, James V.P., A Brief
Inspector in charge of the San Francisco Identification History of the American Society of Questioned Document
Laboratory (USPS). The book 1959 & 1956 was a complete Examiners, Journal of the American Society of Questioned
guide, but among the first to cover the subject matter with Document Examiners, VOL. 1, NO. 1, PP. 2-3, June, 1998Risinger,
brevity and considered an excellent introduction to the field for Michael D., Mark P. De beaux & Michael J. Saks, Exorcism of
the trial lawyer.
Ignorance as a Ignorance Proxy for Rational Knowledge: The
The ABFDE's stated objectives are two-fold: to establish, Lessons of Handwriting Identification "Expertise," University of
maintain and enhance standards of Examiners Pennsylvania Law.

qualification for those who practice forensic document

examination, and to certify Ipplicants who comply with ABFDE
requirements for this expertise. In doing so, the Board aims to
safeguard the public interest by ensuring that anyone who
claims to be a specialist in forensic document examination does,
in fact, possess the necessary skills and qualifications Hilton's
book, with the publication of the Revised Edition, became the
pre-eminent training text of the modern document examiner.
Hilton's book, along with the writings of Dr. Wilson Harrison,
Osborn, Conway; and then later Huber, Ellen, Huber/Headrick;