REVOLUTION/S:

ENLIGHTENMENT
¿Enlightenment Popular or Elitist Movement?
Elitist: tried to start a reformation for the sake of the people but they did not come from people.
Enlightened Absolutism:
Conduct & policies of European absolute Monarchs during the 18th and early 19th centuries who
were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, espousing them to enhance their power.
Popular Sovereignty:
Government based on the consent of the people, the people decide who to give the power to →
contract between the people & government (Jean Jacques Rousseau).
What unites all the Illuminists?
1.​ Criticism of society of the Old Regime.
2.​ Philosophical principles: radical rationalism & new aim for man.
Immanentism:
Philosophical position, paradigm, of enlightenment according to which you can only understand what
you can understand by reason → knowledge from the 5 senses.
Secularisation:
Creating a division between what is and what isn't religious.
As the church owned hospitals, orphanages, schools, universities, etc, when dividing society &
abolishing the Christian church, all closed. Idea of enlightenment didn’t believe in religion.
The Cult of Reason:
Faith = superstition at the time → everything that was not reason was superstition.
They created the Cult of Goddess Reason, if one wanted to continue any religious acts they had to
follow goddess Reason. Lasted 6 months. ​
Supreme Being: Enlightenment promoted “Supreme Being” that was organised not created like God.
Different idea about the Origin of Power:​
Before Enlightenment: Power comes from God, God gave this power to men and men gave it to kings.

ECONOMIC LIBERALISM
Adam Smith (1723 - 1790)/Economic Liberalism:
Scottish economist (now), philosopher (then).
The Wealth of Nations: 1776 (American declaration of independence).
Economy of a country relies on 2 pillars: Natural order: some countries luckier than others.
Italy, in centre of the Mediterranean, is the pinnacle of trade. Where there is sea, there is commerce.
Economic Liberalism General Laws:
Interest Law: one should be totally free to improve their economic position.
Accumulation Law: the wealth of a nation is the product of the sum of every individual's wealth.
Harmony Law: if everybody looks for their own interest, they achieve improvement of the nation's
economy; there will be harmony between citizens.
Freedom Law: person must be free to improve their situation without any obstacles from the state.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert/Protectionism/Mercantilism:
Protectionism: protection of the state.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683) → father of the Mercantilism Colbertism, minister of finances of
Louis XIV, founder of modern state, sponsor of taxes (did not create the idea but did promote it), at
that time the state did not constantly have money, they asked for money for wars & other necessities.
Colbertism:
XVII XVIII
France (Continental Europe): UK (Scotland):
Colbertism → state protects the economy of the country, the state must be rich. Economic Liberalism → nation, not the state, must be rich.
Protectionist. Liberalist.
Left. Right.
If the state is rich it can protect the welfare. Free competition.
Safety of society. The USA is the biggest Liberalist country, why? Come from GB.

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Invisible Hand: A metaphor for the unseen forces that move the free market economy (Adam Smith).
Laissez faire:
Program for the abolition of laws constraining the market, restoration of order and activation of
potential growth (Adam Smith).

PREPARING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Public opinion:
18th century (journals began): an opinion the majority of society shares.
Before this, it had no consequences, but after it became a political tool hence why manipulating the
public opinion is very important and that’s why journalism was created.
Ancien Régime:
1.​ Aristocracy: 1%, near the king, divided into 2 groups: Sword (ancient, from ancestors, noble
origin from middle ages) & Robe (invested, dressed as an aristocrat, someone who was not
an aristocrat became it, came from the third state).
2.​ Church: 1%, near the king, no one was born into the church, one has to become it.
Clergy were divided into 2 categories: low & high clergy.
3.​ Third state: 98%, not all poor, there were rich people as well.
Inside the third state: bourgeoisie was richest, some chose to stay in the third state. 1 vote per group.
Absolute Monarchy:
Enemy of revolution. In the middle ages monarchs had limited power due to other aristocrats.
Louis XIV invented absolute monarchy.
During 160 years (during Louis XIV & his descendants) no one called the Parliament to ask for their
money, as Louis XIV was seen as a good king, from him winning wars, therefore the public gave him
money every time he asked. At the time it was the most loved system in many parts of Europe from it
being the easiest, but only if you won wars.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Seven Years War (1756 - 1763):
Conflict between France & England at a dispute over North American land claims.
After seven years, the British colonial empire ruled the world. When the British got to Canada &
Florida, they allowed the 13 colonies to expand only west – thought to be joined to China – they did
not know of the existence of the Pacific. “First world war”, the result of this was that the UK began to
be the main power nation in the political landscape worldwide. GB obtained 2 new colonies, Canada
from the French Empire & Florida.
Thirteen Colonies/Declaration of Independence:
July 4th 1776: Declaration of Independence.
“Citizen” is a person who is actively connected to politics, “man” is just a person.
The Constitution replaced God from them being WASPs.
Difference between declarations (French & US): America a product of England, believed in God.
Nowadays society is scared of death due to the Enlightenment, before, as everyone was Christian, &
believed in heaven, they were not scared of death because it was just the beginning of a new life. But
after Enlightenment, this idea of a second life ceased to exist.
American Dream:
Joins the hedonistic ideas of you as an individual, with the ideal happiness according to the
Enlightenment. As an individual you need to have success → it depends only on you and your
abilities. Pursuit of happiness, stopped talking about people and started talking about individuals.

FRENCH REVOLUTION
Economical/Social Causes:
Louis XVI (1776 - 1789) lost the Seven Years War, causing doubt to arise. Then joined another war
with England against the American independents. However, France didn't gain any reward.
Louis XVI called the General Estates (May 1789); which had not been called in 16 years, to collect
money from the general public. Leader of 3rd state, brought out more than 40 thousand problems of
the state:

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 Cahiers de Doléances:
Problems of the state. Limit the power of the monarchy.
Each state had 1 vote, meaning 98% of population (who was poor, third state), wouldn't ever win.
New idea → vote pro capite, in which the third state had the possibility to win.
Estates General:
May 1789: assembly composed of three estates, but the king did not allow the 3rd to enter.
Start of French Revolution.
Tennis Court Hall Oath:
When Louis XVI didn’t allow 3rd state leader to enter General Estate to vote, they went to Tennis Court
Hall: Emmanuel Sieyès, belonged to 3rd estate. Dissolution of 3rd state → “National Assembly.”
National Assembly - Constituent Assembly:
Rightful representation of France. Idea was to limit power of kings, made a Constitution for the State.
“The National Assembly exists wherever its members are gathered. Decrees that all members of this
Assembly immediately take a solemn oath never to separate, and to reassemble wherever
circumstances require until the Constitution of the realm is established.”
Feuillant (EXTREME RIGHT):
Most conservative party from the right (aristocracy/clergy), monarchy fundamental, non-violent.
Girondins (RIGHT):
Most moderate, constitutional monarchy, upper middle classes, studied, economic liberalism,
revolution exported to all Europe & all the world, revolution not only political but also cultural.
Difference: right wasn’t interested in a violent revolution, while left thought that it was necessary.
Jacobins (LEFT):
Lower middle class, no study, if needed violent revolution, more taxes to the rich, less for the poor.
Defended statalist economy, strong centralist state, the revolution cannot be exported at this moment.
Cordeliers (EXTREME LEFT):
Only ones who really fought for the possibility of a republic, abolition of private property, violent.
Storming of the Bastille (July 14th 1789):
Revolutionary insurgents attempted to seize control of the mediaeval armoury, fortress and political
prison → symbol of the monarchy's abuse of power.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen:
Citizen and subject are different. Rights and duties of Citizens must participate in politics.
The Constitution can replace god. Constitution made by men. God does not govern any more.
1.​ “Free and equal in rights”: such a distinction must exist.
2.​ “Liberty, property, safety and Resistance to oppression”: idea of property is essential.
3.​ The principle of sovereignty, we cannot accept that there is no distinction in society.
DIFFERENCES: SIMILARITIES:
- In the AC God is mentioned, whereas in the FC no. - Strong Enlightenment ideas.
- America is the product of GB, but GB & France were not impacted equally by the Enlightenment. - FR used as a model in AR, but this time the citizens must win,
- Founders of 13 colonies were WASP, wanting to create a new community with their own faith. not the aristocrats. You cannot apply the AR to others, while the
- They do not share the idea of God. model of the FR (Constitution), can be applied to others, & it is
- The FR is a replicable model. going to be applied many times in different places in Europe.
March on Versailles (1789):
From the interpretation of jacobin propaganda they joined this march to support the women.
Creation of tricolour flag: blue and red the colours of the city of Paris, white because of the monarchy.
Period of constitution: For 3y, intent to make monarchy constitutional, but king tried to escape.
Fugue of Varennes (1791):
King escaped Paris and left for Varennes in order to regain forces and restore the Monarchy, however
he was caught and arrested; the people did not trust the king anymore.​
Battle of Valmy (1792):
First major victory by French army during the Revolutionary Wars that followed the French Revolution.
Convention - First Republic/Sans-culottes:
National Assembly couldn’t represent the population anymore, so new elections were held and the
name changed: The Convention. First Republic created 1792. One party: Sans-culottes.

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New French Convention:
Powers divided to protect the people from harm without reason:
-​ Legislative: Convention → Jacobins & Robispierre governed it.
-​ Executive: Committee of Public Safety. -​ Judicial: Committee of Public Security.
Maximilien Robespierre (1758 – 1794):
Campaigned for voting rights of men. Radical Jacobin leader, member of Committee of Public Safety.
Period of Terror:
The society was divided (nobody is happy), Napoleon helped the country:
Socialists: they wanted back the monarchy. Jacobins: didn’t want the monarchy back.
Vendée Wars (1793 – 1796):
Riots, later turned into wars, taking over several French cities (Parthenay, Angers, Fontenay…)
Law of Suspects:
Empowered local revolutionary committees to arrest “those who by their conduct, relations or
language spoken or written, show themselves partisans of tyranny or federalism & enemies of liberty.”
Republican Calendar:
Reformation of the calendar, in that moment it was a strong religion influenced calendar. The new
calendar started in 1792 (when the French republic started, this would be the year 0).
Thermidorian Reaction/Directory/Council of the Ancients/Council of the Five Hundred:
Executive is now called the Directory. Division = best representation of general will.
Divided in 5 directors so that everyone had the same power. Legislative power elected the different
directors. Legislative power was the most important one:
1.​ The Law Chambers. 2.​ Council of Five Hundred. 3.​ Council of Ancients.

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
1769 – 1821: Leader of the French republic. Napoleon was named the First Consul.
Napoleon was a dictator because of the love of the people. Totalitarianism wouldn’t exist without
sovereign popularity. When Napoleon arrived in Italy half of the population was scared, they wanted to
defend themselves against him, the other half was waiting for him.
French Consulate:
Top-level government of France from the fall of the Directory.
Napoleon Bonaparte, with his appointment as First Consul, established himself as the head of a more
autocratic & centralised republican government in France while not declaring himself sole ruler.
Congress of Vienna (1814-1815):
Series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss & agree upon a possible new layout of the
European political & constitutional order after the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Congress made to restore all the old frontiers.
Holy Alliance (1815):
Coalition linking the absolute monarchist great powers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia after the final
defeat of Napoleon at the behest of Emperor (Tsar) Alexander I of Russia.

COLONIALISM AND IMPERIALISM

Empires are the conquest & destruction during the first generation. In the second generation it is a
union between the conqueror & conquered.
Colonialism:
Practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and
exploiting it economically. Word comes from “colonia” = a community of people.
Classical Colonialism:
In ancient times there was no connection between the motherland and the colony, no connection to
the country. Same language, same gods, allies, good trading, but 2 separate communities.
Modern Colonialism:
Same empire, colony lives according to what the motherland orders. Due to the industrial revolution,
Europe needed more copper from the invention of the lightbulb. The motherlands bought raw

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materials from the colonies at extremely low prices, converted the raw materials into products, & then
sold them to the colonies at high prices.
Creole:
In Spain, as the colonies had so many people it was very difficult to govern, so they sent someone
who governed in order to make it easier for the kingdom to be governed. Technically, all the
connquest in Spain weren’t colonies, they will be kingdoms, because they belong to this idea of
Empire (everyone behind the King → King of Kings).
Spanish empire not an imperial empire as when WW1 started Spain had already lost colonies.
W.A.S.P: White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
Berlin Conference (1884 - 1886):
1870-1914: a peace period between 12 European states, USA and the Ottoman Empire; divide Africa
“equally” (with rulers) in the Berlin Conference.
In Mediterranean, vertical division to control the port & beneath them, without minding the population.
1945: WW2 new model of superpower nation, no need to control territory, only control their politics.
Imperialism:
Last part of modern colonialism. The relationship between motherland and colony is unbalanced, the
colony gives more to the motherland, than the motherland to the colony.
Decolonization:
Process by which colonies became independent of the colonising country; gradual & peaceful for
some but violent for others, where native rebellions were energised by nationalism.
Causes of Decolonization:
-​ Imperial dissolution. -​ International -​ Independence
-​ World wars. pressure. movements.

SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM

Napoleon III (1808 – 1873): First president of France.
Socialism:
Economical & political movement made by Karl Marx and Engels.
Destroy class society, establish dictatorship of working class, expropriation of means of production.
From this derives communism.
Utopian Socialism:
Before 1848: political & social ideology of creating ideal societies based on principles of cooperation,
social equality, and communal ownership.
Unlike later forms of socialism that emphasised class struggle and revolutionary change, Utopian
Socialism advocates for the peaceful & voluntary transformation of society through moral persuasion
& the gradual surrender of property by capitalists.
The Communist Manifesto of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels:
1848: full of revolts in factories & repression by the police, moved by the burgees class.
The Communist Manifesto, by Karl Marx & Frederick Engels, was published.
Scientific Socialism: After 1848: Socialism of revolutionaries. Capitalism = liberalism.
The Capital:
1867: Marx wrote The Capital, about consequences of economic liberalism. 2 main ideas:
-​ Criticism to private property: wanted to abolish it = Public property.
-​ Birth of class consciousness: new class mentality, no distinction between the people. Create
one society made up of one class.
Proletariat: How working-class people are regarded collectively.
First International Workingmen’s Association (London 1864):
With Karl Marx the middle class didn't exist because people were either entrepreneurs or workers.
The Industrial Revolution was the most successful there, from GB having great natural resources.
Pablo Iglesias Posse (1850-1925): Spanish socialist & Marxist labour leader. Father of Spanish
socialism.

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Anarchism:
Political theory advocating the abolition of hierarchical government & the organisation of society on a
voluntary, cooperative basis without recourse to force or compulsion.
Anarchists cannot present themselves to the elections.
Social Democrats/Anarchists:
Supporter or advocate of a socialist system of government achieved by democratic means.
Marxist Communists:
Marxism: set of political and economic ideas by Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels.
Ideas: The world is split into multiple classes of people. The two main classes are the working class
and the capitalist/ruling class. Communism is a system based on Marxist principles.

TOTALITARIANISMS:
Totalitarianism/Totalitarian Regime:
Centralised/dictatorial system of government, requiring complete subjection to the state.
4th century B.C - Aristotle wrote a book called Politics, types of governments shown:
1.​ Monarchy: one ruler. 2.​ Aristocracy: the best. 3.​ Democracy: the people.
Good political regimes depend on the necessities of the country. Own good is sought out by tyranny,
oligarchy & demagogy.

RUSSIAN REVOLUTION & STALNIST RUSSIA

Nicholas II Romanov (1868 – 1918): Last reigning Emperor of Russia.
Lenin/Russian Social Democratic Labor Party:
1898: Lenin founded the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, in Minsk. Gave spiritual guidance,
Saviour of the Revolution, the one who will manage to establish the first steps of the revolution.
Iskra: 1900: He founded the Iskra (Spark) newspaper.
Martov/Bolsheviks VS Mensheviks:
1903: Congress of the party, held in Belgium, essential due to the 1902 division. The participants
couldn't live in Russia due to their ideas being against the Tzars. Two leaders elected:
1.​ Martov (Mensheviks): peaceful revolution, improving conditions of workers without violence.
2.​ Lenin (Bolsheviks): complete revolution, drastic measures (violence). LENIN WON.
This revolution was an organic process → Lenin had a clear objective, planned revolution.
Agit-prop: Political (originally communist) propaganda, especially in art or literature.
Soviets:
An elected local, district, or national council initially made up of industrial workers.
However, through time students & more people joined to talk about what they wanted.
Russo-Japanese War:
1904-1905: Japanese had technological superiority, more sophisticated army.
Progression of war → need for more soldiers & resources → peasants became the main source of
funding → uneasiness from the unknown recipient of their money.
Liberal reforms demanded → creation of the DUMA (representative council for Tzars decisions).
Potemkin, main navy men, rose against their officials on board asking for more kind of communist
reforms or at least for the DUMA to respect them, this uprising spread into the military.
On September 5th 1905 Russia surrendered to Japan.
Bloody Sunday/Imperial Duma:
Sunday, 22 January 1905: unarmed demonstrators were killed by the Imperial Guard as they marched
towards the Winter Palace to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia.
February 1905: the Grand Duke Sergei Aleksandrovich (relative of the Tzar) killed because of this.
The tzar finally listened & created the Imperial Duma (parliament).
Imperial DUMA → deception as the Tzar just wanted to appear to listen to the people, not actually
solve their problems.
October Manifesto:
Surrender leads to the October Manifesto, asking the DUMA to be the following:

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- Legislative central assembly. - Legislation of political parties. - Right to vote in elections.
Tzar was forced to accept this, but reserves for himself the right to appoint the prime minister.
Stolypin:
Stolypin was the prime minister appointed (very controversial).
Authoritative regime (made sense for the Tzar to choose him).
Fond of death penalty, hated by everyone. This got him killed in September 1911.
Grigori Rasputin:
1916: Rasputin is a monk known for having a “magic power” to cure, from this he made his way up to
court as the Tzar's son had haemophilia (blood disease).
At the beginning he was seen as a good man, but once he rose to power he was seen as an enemy,
from him manipulating the Tzars into doing what he wanted. He was then accused of being the
Queen's lover; the newspapers promoted all of this.
Imperialism – Last phase of Capitalism:
June 28th 1914: Assassination of Archduke of Austria → WWI. Propaganda essential.
Provisional Government:
March 1917: Tzar Nicholas II Romanov abdicated, to avoid getting killed.
Lenin is making his voice heard in Russia but he has been expelled.
Michael IV Romanov: he only lasted one week as a Tzar. Afterwards, the Provisional Government
takes power. Within the DUMA there is a provisional government to govern the Empire until a
constituent assembly is held.
The April Theses:
By the end of March, Lenin came back to Russia. On April 4th 1917, he gave one of the most
important speeches, the April Theses. In this speech he positionates himself against the Provisional
Government, in favour of peace and against the DUMA.
Military Revolutionary Committee:
October 1917: the Bolsheviks created the Red Army (colour of communism), led by Trotsky.
The Red Army took the Winter Palace (coup d’etat), the main symbol of the Tsarist regime, it was the
symbol of everything they wanted to own and they stopped some of the main members of the DUMA.
Lenin is appointed main leader → Forms a Military Revolutionary Committee (the new government).
This new government is going to seek peace in the world, the Brest Litovsk Treaty.
They proceed to expropriate the land, small landowners.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918):
Agreement to cease military hostilities, between Soviet Russia & the Central Powers (Germany,
Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria), Russia withdrew from it in WWI.
Russian Soviet Federative Republic/Russian Civil War/Union of Soviet Socialist Republics:
July 10th 1918: new state, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.
During the Russian civil war (1917-1922), the majority of the RA were killed as the White Army led the
war up until July 17th 1918, Ekaterinburg → slaughter of the Tsar's family.
Many countries seeked independence during the Revolution, but a communist government was
established in them. Russia changed its name to Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
Trotsky/Permanent Revolution:
Lenin got sick & died in January 1924, with no successors but he favoured Trotsky.
Stalin, Bujarin and Trotsky are left.
●​ Trsotky: Permanent Revolution, go beyond the borders & unify the socialist republic.
●​ Bujarin: Socialist country step by step.
●​ Stalin: didn’t agree; Russia didn't need any help to develop, own potential, do it fast.
Stalin & Trotsky joined (Bujarin out), but then Stalin exiled Trotsky in 1929.
Great Stalinist Purge (1936-38):
1925: Stalin becomes leader of the party. The leader’s cult, Stalin, is the Father of the Homeland.
He executed those who did not fully commit to his ideas.
The ones that got too close to Stalin were also sent to the Purge with Bujarin & Trotsky.
1940: Trotsky killed by a Spanish communist.

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Soviet Propaganda/Stacanov:
Stalin rewrites history, erasing (photoshopping) people out of pictures.
Propaganda: new conception of the Russian people, new Russian man is born “Stacanov”.
Stakhanovite: a worker in the Soviet Union who regularly surpassed production quotas and was
specially honoured and rewarded.
Gulags (forced labour) all over the country.
Pavlik Morozov:
Many young children betrayed their family. Pavlik Morozov: was a dedicated communist who led the
Young Pioneers at his school and supported Stalin's collectivization of farms. Loyalty goes to party.
New Economic Policy (NEP)/Five-Year Plans:
1922: Fundamental law of land used → abolishing of private property & dividing property from big
landowners in order to have small land owners.
Every single industry belongs to the state.
After 1928, new economical strategies, the five-year plans, these plans were the ones that decided
what was going to be produced, when the plan was going to be solved, the price etc.

ITALIAN FASCISM
Bourgeois:
Nations that embraced what the fascists saw as decadent & materialistic lifestyles associated with
standard bourgeois culture.
Ultranationalism: extreme nationalism, promotes interests of one state or people above all others.
Mutilated Victory:
Term denouncing the partial infringement (and request of the full application) of the 1915 Pact of
London concerning territorial rewards of Southern Tyrol, the Austrian Littoral and Dalmatia from
entering the Austria-Hungary & German war. This began a military social movement.
Fiume:
Gabriele d'Anunzio: motivated the soldiers to conquer Fiume (Istria, now Croatian peninsula).
While this was taking place, the Italian population was divided in two:
-​ Socialist movement: sometimes leading to some kind of violence.
-​ Repression groups.
Red Biennium/Squadrismo:
Red Biennium: socialist revolt in whole Europe (1918-1919). The repression groups grow in quantity &
they are very well organised, it ends up being a whole movement called the Squadrismo (civil police).
Benito Mussolini/Fasci Italiani di Combattimento/Black shirts:
Writer of the Avanti (1914), he was left out of the newspaper because he was too nationalist.
When he realises there only exists 2 parties: a socialist movement and a repression group, he creates
the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (1919).
He wrote an article called Trincerocrazia, demanding for the war veterans to govern post-war Italy &
form the aristocracy of tomorrow & the central nucleus of a new ruling class. This appealed to the
military, causing them to unify as the Black Shirts.
The communist & the socialist are also getting bigger.
Partito Comunista Italiano/Partito Nacional Fascista:
1921: Italian Communist Party, split and formed: Military & Mussolini created a party, the Partito
Nacional Fascista.
March on Rome:
October 1922: Demonstration in Rome, Black shirts reunite in Rome, known as “The March in Rome”,
thousands of fascist men reunited. Once it was considered a win, Mussolini appeared.
Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale:
Mussolini established an alliance. He started with 4 ministries and then ended up with all of them but it
was a progressive. They are now recognised, they changed the name Milizia Volontaria per la
Sicurezza Pubblica.
Great Fascist Council:
As a political organism we’ll have the Great Fascist Council, the ones in charge of making decisions.

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Giacomo Matteotti:
Giacomo Matteotti, didn’t see eye to eye with Mussolini, he attacked fascism. He was killed a few
days later. Mussolini took full responsibility for what happened, because he sees himself as the
person who created Italy.
Fascist principles:
-​ Nationalism on racist bases: If don't look Italian, not accepted.
-​ Cult of Rome: heirs of ancient Rome, reestablish the empire → imperialism, conquer Africa.
-​ Cult of Youth: Young people are the main focus; they are the future.
-​ Cult of Violence: Violence normal, and useful.
-​ Cult of Leader: Mussolini only leader.
-​ Patriarchy: Ancestral Vital Strength philosophical concept → men are best.
-​ Corporatism: Economic structure, bureaucratic organisation of the whole industry. Rebuilding
their economy on their own.
Fascistizzazione:
Process of transforming Italian society into a fascist society (strong ideology):
1.​ Ministero delle 2.​ Parties and labour 3.​ Reinstatement of
Corporazioni. unions disappear. death penalty.
4.​ Elimination of press, assembly & freedom of expression.
5.​ Special Court: in charge of eliminating all of the people against the regime, in the country.
6.​ Elimination of mayor figure and substitution with podestà (decided by the party).
Opera Nazionale Balilla:
Formation of children for war, from young age, the first thing families bought for their children were
uniforms, then they were taught how to march.
Autarchy/Battle of Wheat (1925 - 1930):
Increased production of wheat in Italy, to not depend on the enemy countries → France & England.
Competition between Italians, children at school incentivised to plant & bring wheat to school.
Mussolini was a sex symbol, in cinemas they reproduced images of him shirtless, working the fields.
Industrialization/Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI):
Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI): in charge of discovering new industries.
Lateran Treaty (1929) → Vatican City/Teaching of religion in public schools/Religious marriage:
After more than 50 years of struggle between Italy and the Vatican, Mussolini wanted to sign a treaty
with them, however Mussolini isn’t catholic. Creation of Vatican City, smallest country.
Conditions:
1.​ Catholic church recognises the Italian state, and now as a catholic one can join politics.
2.​ Religious weddings also had a civil function.
3.​ Teaching of catholic religion in schools, Mussolini was highly opposed, but needed support.
Azione Cattolica Italiana (A.C.):
Non fascist group in Italy Catholics and Communists. The two groups eradicated fascism from Italy,
their song was “Bella Ciao.”

HITLER AND NAZISM

Treaty of Versailles:
By Woodrow Wilson (US president). After WWI British & French didn’t give Italy what was promised.
Weimar Republic:
Kaiser William II → New German state (after WWI), attempt of democracy, presidential republic.
Germany lost their colonies (Berlin Conference).
The river Rhine was Germany's main source of iron (48%) & coal (16%).
German people living in the lost territories of Germany were now the foreigners.
Enormous internal debt, winning countries wanting Germany to repay for damages in the war.
DAP (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei) - German Workers' Party:
Assembly of communist groups that united to fight the new republic. DAP (Party of German Workers),
created in Munich, the authorities kept an eye on them, in fear of a civil war. Parties in Germany were
created in breweries (pubs). After WWI, Hitler came back to Munich, the police assigned him to watch

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this new communist party; there he was forced to give a speech, the people revered him – this was
the beginning of Adolf Hitler.
NSDAP, Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei - National Socialist Party:
After Hitlers speech in the brewery, the NAP turned into the NSDAP.
"Stabbed Behind the Back":
Moment when German troops were close to conquering Paris, but they were called back due to them
losing the war because the US joined, however the soldiers thought it was treason from the capitalist,
bourgeois corrupt government. The hate towards Jewish came from them always having money (they
can’t own land) & being able to lend it with high interest whilst the rest of the population starved.
Christians could not ask for interest.
Ernst Röhm/SA (Sturmabteilung):
Ex-soldiers who came back to Germany, and started to reunite (like Italian Fascism), but the
difference was that Hitler did not lead these troops but Ernst Rohm did. Hitler: analogical father.
Munich Putsch (1923):
Hitler tried to do a Coup d’etat in Munich (first with Munich then the rest of the country), inspired by
the black shirt movement in Italy. The Nazi party was very small.
Erich Ludendorff wanted to be the Chief of Germany, but Hitler and Rohm told him to stay in the
brewery whilst they stormed the Palace of Munich. But whilst there, inside the Nazi party some were
not aligned with the idea of a Coup and so Ludendorff united them (betrayed Hitler) and went with the
opposing soldiers and alerted the police, then the Prime Minister. Hitler along with the most devoted
Nazi men were captured. This was the rise of the Nazis, from the media attention they received. Hilter
became famous. During their trials, Hitler defended himself (he knew how to talk), he pleaded guilty
but was proud because he did it because of his love for Germany and his desire to change the
government. The media broadcasted this and got the attention and support of the general public.
Mein Kampf:
Hitler only stayed 11 months in prison instead of 5 years, from public opinion viewing him as a hero.
Prison guards were former soldiers & saluted him as captain, giving him everything he wanted. Wrote
the Mein Kampf. A new law was issued that everyone condemned during the first year after the war,
was to be freed (amnesty). After he came out many people joined the Nazi party.
Lebensraum:
Idea in the Mein Kampf. Theory developed by Hitler, he defended that the superior race should
reconquer territories so there’s enough space for Germans. Hitler’s idea was to conquer the world.
Führerprinzip:
The principle that whatever Hitler SAID was what the law was to be. Word of the leader above the law.
Our idea of politics now is based on the totalitarian way of politics.
SS (Schutzstaffel):
Younger soldiers had to pass many exams to enter: biological, cultural, physical, etc. They were the
model for the new society, well dressed, intelligent, active.
Joseph Goebbels:
Minister of Propaganda, master orator and propagandist, he was generally held responsible for
presenting a favourable image of the Nazi regime. Responsible for the anti-semitism propaganda.
Night of the Reichstag Fire (1933):
German Parliament caught fire, Nazis blamed the Bolcheviques. Police found a member of the
communist party and took him as the responsible. Now, the government (Hitler) had a special power.
Afterwards, Hitler had a meeting in a Church with the maximum disputes so they could vote for him.
Law of Restoration of Professional Civil Service:
Jews can’t be officers of the State. Burning the books written by Jews…
Third Reich: Empire of German race.
Night of the Long Knives (1934):
Night in which Hitler made an internal clearance in the party by the SS. Ordered the SS to go to SA
houses forcing them to form part of the SS, if not, they would be murdered. They captured and
murdered Ernst Rohm, accusing him of being gay.

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Night of the Broken Glass (1938) - Kristallnacht:
Night in which the SS destroyed the windows of Jewish shops. Important acts against Jews.
Anti-Semitism: Hostility to or prejudice against Jewish people.
Mischling:
Pejorative legal term used in Nazi Germany to denote people of mixed "Aryan" and "non-Aryan", such
as Jewish, ancestry as they were classified by the Nuremberg Racial Laws of 1935.
Plan Aktion T4:
Plan directed by Nazis of sterilisation & extermination of those who had some type of genetic disease.

DIVIDED WORLD
Super Power Nation:
During WW2, USSR, US and UK formed a 'Grand Alliance': key response to the Nazi aggression in
Europe during the early 1940s, with the invasion of the Soviet Union by Nazi forces.
Yalta Conference (January 1945):
At Yalta, Roosevelt and Churchill discussed with Stalin the conditions under which the USSR would
enter the war against Japan and all three agreed that, in exchange for potentially crucial Soviet
participation in the Pacific theater, the Soviets would be granted a sphere of influence in Manchuria
following Japan’s surrender.
Potsdam Conference (July 1945):
Negotiators confirmed the status of a demilitarized and disarmed Germany under four zones of Allied
occupation; it was decided to be occupied by the Americans, British, French and Soviets.
United Nations (UN): During the war (January 1940), the UN was already created.
Bretton Woods Meetings (1944):
Value of money established, creation of a new international currency → Gold Dollar (cost of gold).
World Bank (1946): Regulates the international system of banks.
International Monetary Fund (1946):
Countries agreed to keep their currencies fixed but adjustable (within a 1 percent band) to the dollar,
and the dollar was fixed to gold at $35 an ounce.
Division of Germany and Berlin:
4 Areas: West → France and Great Britain, East → USSR and US. Berlin, which resided in the
Russian part, was also divided into these 4 countries. Creation of the wall of Berlin (East and West).

THE COLD WAR

Speech at the Bolshoi Theater:
Stalin restates how, from their help in the war, they demonstrated that socialism was the best system:
“We won the war.”
Kennan's Long Telegram:
A 16 page telegram (telegrams were paid by word, each word was a certain amount) sent to the US,
stating how socialism was the best political system and how they were the true heroes of WWII.
Beginning of the separation between US and USSR. Capitalism VS socialism.
Iron Curtain:
Political metaphor: describe the political and later physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate
areas from the end of WW2 (1945) until the end of the Cold War (1991).
Truman Doctrine or Truman Speech of the Two Worlds:
The US would provide political, military & economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat
from external or internal authoritarian forces.
Prague coup (February 1948):
Armed Communist militia and police took over Prague, mass demonstrations were mounted. On
February 25, Beneš, fearing civil war and Soviet intervention, capitulated and allowed the formation of
a new government in accordance with KSČ demands. Communists quickly consolidated their power
following the coup.
North Atlantic Treaty - NATO:
North Atlantic Treaty Organization → 32 countries. Italy full of NATO arsenals.

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Warsaw Pact (1955):
Defence treaty by the Soviet Union & 7 Soviet satellite states in Central & Eastern Europe: Albania
(withdrew in 1968), Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland & Romania.
Nikita Kruschev (1955 - 1964):
Leader of Soviet Union after Stalin died, came from working class, wasn't fully a politician. Eradicated
God-like view the population had of Stalin, revolution at the time. Wanted to show the entire world
their economic system was the best, create a more just and equal world for the working class. During
his time, the Russians went to space, sending first a dog – Lika – then the first person (a Russian).

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

Fulgencio Batista:
US helped him reach power, he took control of the army and police. Cuba was essential for the US
due to them having refineries, their exportation of sugar & the laundering of dirty money.
Fidel Castro:
Socialist, enemy to the Batista Regime. When Batista began to be too independent, US wanted Fidel
Castro to reign (so they gave him an army and ammunition). At the beginning it wasn't a socialist
regime. After the US helped him, he followed in Batista's steps and began to be more independent,
and instead of bowing down to the US, he allied with Nikita Kruschev (URSS). Cuba stopped buying
oil from US and instead bought their oil from the Soviet Union (the US did not like this).
John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1961 - 1963):
Ordered American businessmen to shut down their refineries in Cuba. As a response, Castro
nationalised these factories. US didn’t like this, but couldn't attack Cuba because they had to uphold
the image of the US being a saviour nation. Florida was full of anticastristas, US prepared them for
another coup d’etat. Asked for war planes because they were not enough to take power in Havana.
Landing of the Bay of Pigs (1961):
When the Anticastristas marched on la Havana waiting for the US planes, they never came, because
they were the “protectors of the free world.” The Anticastristas Coup D’Etat was a failure. Castro now
had the added glory of “surviving” a coup d’etat. US found missiles prepared in Cuba, proportioned by
Soviet Union. These missiles could even reach San Francisco, and easily reach Washington. Russian
spies leaked the news to the public. Kennedy ordered for American troops to surround Cuba in the
case any Russian boats arrived. After 2 days, Russia declared they would be withdrawing the missiles
from Cuba. Everyone around the world “knew” the US had won, however the condition of Russia
removing the missiles in Cuba was the US removing the missiles from Turkey that were prepared to
strike the Soviet Union. It was also a win for Russia.
Vietnam War (1955-1975):
Vietnam (French colony) was divided into North and South. Referendum created to unite Vietnam,
however the main movers of this unification were Communists (North Vietnam). The US did not like
this and therefore interfered as a way to “fight” the Soviet Union without directly attacking them. Well
known that Russia supported Vietnam. Many American young people wanted to join the war from
being “drunk” of the feeling of heroism the US held. The war lasted so long because of Russian
influence, the Americans ignorantly thought they would win the war in less than a year. The US had to
deal with public opinion, but Russia (no internal opposition from them not being a democracy) didn’t
have this problem, therefore a new movement began in the US → Hippies “Peace and Love”,
promoting the idea that the US had no business interfering with Vietnamese politics. Many soldiers
wanted to leave the front lines, but to uphold their heroistic image the US couldn't, so gradually the
US began to send less and less troops to Vietnam until they decided to retire from the war.
Resumen: Vietnam was divided into north and south → referendum to unify it, moved by socialists,
US didn’t agree & interfered as a way of non-directly “attacking” the Soviet Union. Everyone wanted to
join the US army, as it was thought it wouldn't last long (not more than a year), but it did, because of
the Russian influence. Finally the US retired from the war.
War in Afghanistan (1979-1992):
Similar situation, Country part of the Soviet Union sphere (some independence). Essential because of
their oil. After some elections, the new party – Mujahidines – did not like the Soviet Union using them

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so they stopped exporting, so Russia sent the Red Army. US backed the Afghani Party. Soviet Union
lost. Realisation came that neither country could win against the other; after Cuba these 2 countries
fought through a third country (Vietnam, Cuba, Afghanistan).
Mijaíl Gorbachov (1986):
Last secretary of Soviet Union; first one that didn’t join the revolution of the Soviet Union.
Proposed a new period of reforms, Perestroika. He wanted to gain allies with other countries → US
President (Reagan), UK’s Prime Minister (Margaret Thatcher) and Pope John Paul II. He was seen as
an eradicator of the Soviet Union. Gorbachov held a referendum to give the Union states the option of
changing the Union into a Federation (weaker), change and alter the Soviet system but maintain it.
Perestroika:
New proposal of different reformation:
1.​ The Soviet Union must leave immediately any international politics and out of any war.
2.​ Reduce cost of military apparatus.
3.​ Open to the possibility of free market and private initiative.
Fall of the Berlin Wall (9 November 1989):
Occurred after a bureaucratic error: a spokesperson mistakenly announced that travel abroad was
allowed immediately. Thousands of citizens rushed to the border, and the guards, with no clear
orders, opened the gates, marking the end of the communist regime.
Boris Yeltsin (1931 - 2007):
Soviet, Russian politician and statesman → president of Russia (1991-1999). Member of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1961-1990).

PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT WORLD

THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT
Diáspora:
Dispersion of the African-descended to various parts of the world. Seen the on-going movement of
millions of people, as well as cultures, technologies, and cosmologies, from the African continent to
the Americas, Europe, the Indian Ocean basin, and Asia.
Holocaust:
Systematic murder of Europe's Jews by the Nazis WWII. Programme of targeted mass murder,
central part of Nazis’ broader plans to create a new world order based on their ideology.
Zionist Movement:
Jewish nationalist movement with the goal of the creation and support of a Jewish national state in
Palestine, the ancient homeland of the Jews. Though Zionism originated in eastern and central
Europe in the latter part of the 19th century, it is in many ways a continuation of the ancient
attachment of the Jews and of the Jewish religion to the historical region of Palestine. According to
Judaism, Zion, one of the hills of ancient Jerusalem, is the place where God dwells.
Theoidir Herzl (1860-1904):
Austro-Hungarian Jewish journalist, lawyer, writer, playwright and political activist: Father of Modern
Political Zionism. Formed the “Zionist Organization” and promoted Jewish immigration to Palestine in
an effort to form a Jewish state.
Resolution 181 of the United Nations:
By resolution 181 (II), the Assembly decided to partition Palestine into two states, one Arab and one
Jewish, with Jerusalem placed under a special international regime. After the 1948 war, the Assembly
by resolution 194 (III) of 1949 established the Conciliation Commission for Palestine (UNCCP) to help
the parties reach a final settlement, while reaffirming the rights of Palestine refugees to return and
restitution. UNRWA, a Palestine refugee agency, was established by the Assembly the same year.
State of Israel:
Yaser Arafat:
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO):
Palestinian National Authority (PNA):
Al Fath and Hamas:

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