258 Principles of Solar Engineering

Example 5.1
Calculate the heat load on a house for which the wall area is 200 m2, the
floor area is 600 m2, the roof area is 690 m2, and the window area totals
100 m2. Inside wall height is 3 m. The construction of the wall and the
roof is shown in Figure 5.2.

Solution
The thermal resistance of the wall shown in Figure 5.2 can be found by
the electrical resistance analogy as

Rwa = Routside air + Rwood siding + Rsheathing + Rcomb + Rwall board + Rinside air.

Combined thermal resistance for the studs and insulation (Rcomb) is

found as

1 Astud Ainsulation 1
= + .
Rcomb Rstud Rinsulation Astud + Ainsulation

Assuming that the studs occupy 15% of the wall area,

1 0.15 0.85
= +
Rcomb 0.77 1.94

or

m 2 ⋅°C
Rcomb = 1.58 .
W

12.7 mm 12.7 mm
88.9 mm Shingles
Plywood (12.7 mm)
Air gap (38 mm)
Wood stud Foam (51 mm)
Wallboard (12.7 mm)

Mineral fiber
insulation

Wood lap Gypsum

siding wallboard (b)
Sheathing
(a)

FIGURE 5.2
Cross sections of the wall and the roof for Example 5.1. (a) Wall construction. (b) Roof construction.
Solar Heating Systems 259

Therefore, the wall thermal resistance, Rwa, can be found as

Thermal Resistance
Element (m2 · °C/W)
Outside air (6∙7 m/s wind) 0.030
Wood bevel lap siding 0.14
12.7 mm sheathing 0.23
88.9 mm combined wood stud and mineral fiber 1.58
insulation
12.7 mm gypsum wallboard 0.079
Inside air (still) 0.12
Rwa = 2.179

Therefore,

1 1
U wa = = = 0.46 W/m 2 ⋅°C.
Rwa 2.179

The heat loss through the windows depends on whether they are
single or double glazed. In this example, single-glazed windows are
installed, and a U factor equal to 4.7 W/m2 · °C is used. (If double-glazed
windows were installed, the U factor would be 2.4 W/m2 · °C.)
The roof is constructed of 12.7 mm gypsum wallboard, 51 mm foam
insulation board, 38 mm still air, 12.7 mm plywood, and asphalt shingles
(wooden beams and roofing paper are neglected for the simplified calcu-
lations here). Therefore,

1
U rf =
0.030 + 0.077 + 0.11 + 0.17 + 2.53 + 0.079 + 0.1
Outside Shingles Plywood Air gap Foam Wallboard Inside
air air
= 0.32 W/m 2 ⋅°C

If the respective areas and U factors are known, the rate of heat loss per
hour for the walls, windows, and roof can be calculated.

Walls: qwa = (200 m 2 ) × 0.46 W/m 2 ⋅°C = 92 W/°C

Windows: qwi = (100 m 2 ) × 0.47 W/m 2 ⋅°C = 470 W/°C
Roof: qrf = (690 m 2 ) × 0.32 W/m 2 ⋅°C = 220 W/°C
Total qtr = 782 W/°C

If double-glazed windows were used, the heat loss would be reduced

to 552 W/°C.
260 Principles of Solar Engineering

The infiltration and ventilation rate Q for this building is assumed to

be 0.5 ACH (air changes per hour). The sensible and latent heat loads of
the infiltration air may be calculated using the equations given in Table
5.1. Therefore,

Q = 0.5 × (600 m2 × 3 m (volume)) = 900 m3/h = 0.25 m3/s,

qsensible = 0.25 m3/s × (1.2 kg/m3)(1000 J/kg · °C) = 300 W/°C.

In residential buildings, humidification of the infiltration air is rarely

done. Neglecting the latent heat, the total rate of heat loss qtot is the sum
of qsensible and qtr:

qtot = (782 + 300) = 1082 W/°C.

This calculation is simplified for purposes of illustration. Heat losses

through the slab surface and edges have been neglected, for example.
More refined methods of calculating energy requirements on build-
ings do not use the steady-state assumption used above (Klein et al. 1975).
The thermal inertia of buildings may be expressly used as a load-leveling
device. If so, the steady-state assumption is not met and the energy capaci-
tance of the structure must be considered for accurate results. Many adobe
structures in the US Southwest are built intentionally to use daytime sun
absorbed by 1-ft-thick walls for nighttime heating, for example.

5.1.2 Internal Heat Sources in Buildings

Heat supplied to a building to offset energy losses is derived from both the
heating system and internal heat sources. Table 5.2 lists the common sources of
internal heat generation for residences. Commercial buildings such as hospitals,
computer facilities, or supermarkets will have large internal gains specific to
their function. Internal heat gains tend to offset heat losses from a building but
will add to the cooling load of an air-conditioning system. The magnitude of the
reduction in heating system operation will be described in Section 5.1.3.

5.1.3 Degree-Day Method
The preceding analysis of heat loss from buildings expresses the loss on a
per-unit temperature difference basis (except for unexposed floor slabs). In
order to calculate the peak load and total annual load for a building, appro-
priate design temperatures must be defined for each. The outdoor design
temperature is usually defined statistically, such that the actual outdoor tem-
perature will exceed the design temperature 97.5% or 99% of the time over
a long period. The design temperature difference (ΔT) is then the interior
building temperature minus the outdoor design temperature. The design ΔT
is used for rating non–solar heating systems but is not useful for selection of
solar systems, since solar systems rarely provide 100% of the energy demand
of a building at peak conditions.
Solar Heating Systems 261

TABLE 5.2
Some Common Internal Sensible Heat Gains That Tend to Offset the Heating
Requirements of Buildings
Type Magnitude (W or J/s)
Incandescent lights Total W
Fluorescent lights Total W
Electric motors 746 × (hp/efficiency)
Natural gas stove 8.28 × m3/h
Appliances Total W
A dog 50–90
People
Sitting 70
Walking 75
Dancing 90
Working hard 170
Sunlight Solar heat gain × fenestration transmittance × shading factora
Source: ASHRAE. Handbook of Fundamentals. ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA, 2013.
a Shading factor is the amount of a window not in a shadow expressed as a decimal between 1.0

and 0.0.

A more useful index of heating energy demand is the total annual energy
requirement for a building. This quantity is somewhat more difficult to cal-
culate than the peak load. It requires knowledge of day-to-day variations
in ambient temperature during the heating season and the corresponding
building heat load for each day. Building heat loads vary with ambient tem-
peratures as shown in Figure 5.3. The no-load temperature Tnl, above which
no heat need be supplied to the building, is a few degrees below the required
interior temperature Ti because of internal heat-­generation effects.
The no-load temperature at which internal source generation qi just bal-
ances transmission and infiltration losses can be determined from the energy
balance

qi = UA(Ti − Tnl ), (5.5)

where UA is the overall loss coefficient for the building (W/°C). Then,

qi
Tnl = Ti − . (5.6)
UA

The total annual heat load on the building, QT can be expressed as

QT =
∫
365 days
UA(Tnl − Ta )+ dt, (5.7)
262 Principles of Solar Engineering

Building space-conditioning energy requirement

Heating Cooling

Desired interior
temperature Ti
Tnl
Ambient temperature Ta

FIGURE 5.3
Building load profile versus ambient temperature showing no-load temperature Tnl and
desired interior temperature Ti.

in which all arguments of the integral are functions of time. The superscript
“+” indicates that only positive values are considered. In practice, it is dif-
ficult to evaluate this integral; therefore, three simplifying assumptions are
made:

1. UA is independent of time.
2. Tnl is independent of time.
3. The integral can be expressed by the sum.

Thus,

365

∑ (T − Ta )n
+
UA nl (5.8)
n= 1

where n is the day number, and the daily average temperature Ta can be
approximated by ½(Τa,max + Ta,min), in which Ta,max and Ta,min are the daily
maximum and minimum temperatures, respectively.
The quantity (Tnl − Ta)+ is called the degree-day unit. For example, if the
average ambient temperature for a day is 5°C and the no-load temperature is
20°C, 15 degree C-days are said to exist for that day. However, if the ambient
temperature is 20°C or higher, 0 degree-days exist, indicating 0 demand for
Solar Heating Systems 263

heating that day. Degree-day totals for monthly (Σmonth (Tnl − Ta)+) and annual
periods can be used directly in Equation 5.8 to calculate the monthly and
annual heating energy requirements.
In the past, a single value of temperature has been used throughout the
United States as a universal degree-day base, 65.0°F or 18.3°C.* This practice
is now outdated, since many homeowners and commercial building opera-
tors have lowered their thermostat settings in response to increased heating
fuel costs, thereby lowering Tnl. Likewise, warehouses and factories operate
well below the 19°C level. Therefore, a more generalized database of degree-
days to several bases (values of Tnl) has been created by the US National
Weather Service (NWS).
A variable base degree-day method, which recognizes that Tnl may vary
not only with location but also from building to building, is more accepted
now (ASHRAE 2013). ASHRAE (2013) have listed heating degree days and
cooling degree days for a number of worldwide locations.

Example 5.2
A building located in Denver, Colorado, has a heat-loss coefficient UA
of 1000 kJ/h · °C and internal heat sources of 4440 kJ/h. If the interior
temperature is 20°C (68°F), what are the monthly and annual heating
energy requirements? A gas furnace with 65% efficiency is used to heat
the building.

Solution
In order to determine the monthly degree-day totals, the no-load tem-
perature (degree-day basis) must be evaluated from Equation 5.6.

4440
Tnl = 20 − = 15.6°C (60°F)
1000

The monthly degree C-days for Denver are taken from the NWS and
given in Table 5.3. The energy demand is calculated as

h
Energy demand = UA × 24 × degree C-days . (5.9)
day

The monthly energy demand is given in Table 5.3.

* The degree-day base in SI units is defined as 19.0°C, not 18.3°C, which corresponds to 65.0°F.
Therefore, precise conversion between the two systems is not possible by a simple multiplica-
tion by 5/9.
264 Principles of Solar Engineering

TABLE 5.3
Monthly and Annual Energy Demands for Example 5.2
Month Degree C-days Energy Demanda (GJ)
Jan 518 12.4
Feb 423 10.2
Mar 396 9.5
Apr 214 5.2
May 68 1.6
Jun 14 0.3
Jul 0 0
Aug 0 0
Sep 26 0.6
Oct 148 3.6
Nov 343 8.2
Dec 472 11.3
2622 62.9

a Energy demand equals UA × degree C-days × 24 h/day.

The annual energy demand of 62.9 GJ is delivered by a 65% efficient

device. Therefore,

62.9
Average annual purchased energy = GJ = 96.8 GJ.
0.65

5.1.4 Service Hot-Water Load Calculation

Service hot-water loads can be calculated precisely with the knowledge of
only a few variables. The data required for calculation of hot-water demand
are as follows:

Water source temperature (Ts)

Water delivery temperature (Td)
Volumetric demand rate (Q)

The energy requirement for service water heating qhw is given by

qhw(t) = ρwQ(t)cpw[Td − Ts(t)], (5.10)

where ρw is the water density and cpw is its specific heat. The demand rate,
Q(t), varies in general with time of day and time of year; likewise, the source
temperature varies seasonally. Source temperature data are not compiled in