15.

1) introduction
Electromagnetism:
It is the study of magnetic effects of current.
Ampere discovered that when current passes through a conductor, it produces a
magnetic field around it.
By changing the terminals of the battery, the direction of the magnetic field can
also [be] changed.
Direction of Magnetic Field:
Grasp a wire with your right hand such that your thumb is pointed in the direction of
current. Then curling fingers of your hand will point in the direction of the magnetic
field.
Solenoid:
A coil of wire consisting of many loops is called a solenoid.
Electromagnet:
The type of temporary magnet, which is created when current flows through a coil,
is called an electromagnet.
Direction of field produced by coil:
If we grip the coil with our right hand by curling our fingers in the direction of the
conventional current, our thumb will indicate the north pole.

15:2 Force on A Current-Carrying Conductor Placed

In A Magnetic Field
When a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field of a permanent magnet.
Current carrying wire produces its own magnetic field which interacts with the field
of the magnet. As a result, a force is exerted on the wire.
Michael Faraday discovered that the force on the wire is at right angles to both the
direction of the magnetic field and the direction of the current.
Force is increased by:
 Increasing the current in the wire.
 Increasing the strength of the magnetic field.
 Increasing the length of the wire inside the magnetic field.
Determining the direction of force: Fleming's Left Hand Rule: Stretch the
thumb, forefinger, and the middle finger of the left hand mutually perpendicular to
each other. If the forefinger points in the direction of the current, then the thumb
would indicate the direction of the force.
15.3) Torque on a Current-Carrying Coil
 When a rectangular coil carrying current is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a turning effect (torque). This happens due to forces acting on
different sides of the coil.

 Structure: The coil has four sides, labeled a,b,c,da,b,c,d.

 Length of the coil: LL
 Width of the coil: WW
 Magnetic field (BB) is parallel to the plane of the loop.

1. Sides aa and cc:

 These sides are parallel to the magnetic field (θ=0∘θ=0∘).

Force on aa and cc: Fa=Fc=IWBsin⁡0∘=0Fa=Fc=IWBsin0∘=0.

(No torque because sin⁡0∘=0sin0∘=0)


2. Sides bb and dd:

 These sides are perpendicular to the magnetic field (θ=90∘θ=90∘).

(Maximum torque because sin⁡90∘=1sin90∘=1)

 Force on bb and dd: Fb=Fd=ILBsin⁡90∘=ILBFb=Fd=ILBsin90∘=ILB.

 The forces FbFb and FdFd act in opposite directions, creating a torque.
 This torque causes the coil to rotate about its central axis (point OO).

1. Force on parallel sides (a,ca,c):Fa=Fc=0Fa=Fc=0

2. Force on perpendicular sides (b,db,d):Fb=Fd=ILBFb=Fd=ILB

 Figure 15.8 (from the book) shows:

 Forces FbFb and FdFd creating rotation.
 aa and cc contribute no force.

1. Focus on perpendicular sides (b,db,d) for torque calculation.

 2. sin0∘=0sin0∘=0, sin90∘=1sin90∘=1.

3. Use the formula Torque=I⋅A⋅BTorque=I⋅A⋅B (where AA is the area of the coil).

15.4) D.C. Motor

An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It works
because a DC current in a rectangular wire within a magnetic field creates torque.
Electric motors are used in devices like drills, vacuum cleaners, cars, toy cars, air
conditioners, and automatic screwdrivers.
Simple coil placed in a magnetic field cannot rotate more than 90°.As the loop
reaches the vertical position. The force on the coil is zero.
How can we make this coil to rotate continuously?
By reversing the direction of current. This can be done by changing the polarities.
Reverse the direction of Current:
The connection of the coil is made through an arrangement of brushes and a ring
that is split into two halves called a split ring commutator.
The split ring is arranged so that each half of the commutator changes brushes just
as the coil reaches the vertical position.
Changing brushes reverses the current in the loop.

Electric Motor:
Armature: It is made up of many loops mounted on a shaft or axle.
Field Coil: It is an electromagnet used to generate a magnetic field.
Force can be increased:
 Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
 Increasing the current in the coil.
 Increasing the strength of the magnetic field.
 Increasing the area of the coil.

15.5) Electromagnetic Induction

1. Introduction to Electromagnetic Induction
 Definition: Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating an electric
current in a conductor by changing the magnetic field around it.
 Key Scientist: Michael Faraday, who discovered the phenomenon in 1831.

2. Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

1. First Law:
o An electromotive force (EMF) is induced in a conductor when the
magnetic flux linked with it changes.
o Key Point: The conductor does not need to move; the magnetic field or
flux must change.
2. Second Law:
o The magnitude of the induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux.

3. Lenz’s Law
 Statement: The direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the
change in magnetic flux that caused it.
 Explanation: This law is a consequence of the conservation of energy.
 Example: When a magnet is moved toward a coil, the induced current
produces a magnetic field that repels the magnet.

4. Magnetic Flux
 Definition: Magnetic flux () is the total magnetic field passing through a
given area.
 Formula:
Where:
o : Magnetic field (in Tesla, T)

o : Area (in m²)

o : Angle between magnetic field and the normal to the surface

5. Factors Affecting Electromagnetic Induction

1. Strength of the Magnetic Field: Stronger magnetic fields induce higher
EMFs.
2. Rate of Change of Flux: Faster changes induce larger EMFs.
3. Number of Turns in the Coil: More turns lead to higher induced EMF.
4. Orientation of the Coil: The angle between the coil and magnetic field
affects induction.

6. Applications of Electromagnetic Induction

1. Electric Generators:
o Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

o Working Principle: A coil rotating in a magnetic field induces an EMF.

2. Transformers:
o Used to step up or step down voltage.

o Working Principle: Mutual induction between two coils.

3. Induction Motors:
o Operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction to produce
mechanical motion.
4. Inductive Sensors:
o Detect metallic objects by inducing eddy currents.

10. AC vs DC Induction
 AC (Alternating Current): Produces a continuous change in magnetic flux,
making it suitable for induction-based devices.
 DC (Direct Current): Produces steady flux, resulting in no continuous
induction

12. Summary
 Electromagnetic induction is the basis for many technologies.
 Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws govern the direction and magnitude of induced
currents.
 Applications include generators, transformers, and induction motors.
 Understanding the key principles and formulas ensures clarity on this topic.
Relationship Between Lenz's Law and Conservation of Energy
1. Lenz's Law Statement:
 Lenz's Law states that the induced current will flow in such a direction
that it opposes the change in magnetic flux that caused it.
 The opposition ensures that energy is conserved.
2. Energy Conservation in Action:
 When a conductor experiences a changing magnetic field, an
electromotive force (EMF) and a current are induced.
 The induced current creates a magnetic field that opposes the original
change in flux. This requires energy to maintain, ensuring no energy is
created or destroyed.
3. Practical Example:
 Dropping a Magnet into a Coil: As a magnet falls toward a coil, the
induced current produces a magnetic field that opposes the magnet's
motion. This opposition slows the magnet, converting some of its
kinetic energy into electrical energy in the coil.
Lenz's Law enforces the principle of conservation of energy by ensuring that
the induced effects oppose the cause, preventing energy from being created
or destroyed spontaneously.

AC Motor
 Definition: An AC motor is an electric motor that converts alternating current
(AC) electrical energy into mechanical energy.
 Working Principle:
o Operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

o When an AC supply is connected to the stator windings, a rotating

magnetic field (RMF) is generated.
o This RMF induces current in the rotor, producing torque to rotate the
motor.
 Main Parts:
1. Stator: The stationary part that generates the rotating magnetic field.
2. Rotor: The rotating part where current is induced.
 Types of AC Motors:
1. Synchronous Motor:
  Rotor rotates at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field.
 Requires an additional DC supply for excitation.
2. Induction Motor:
 Rotor speed is slightly less than the rotating magnetic field.
 No external excitation is needed; current is induced in the rotor.
 Applications:
o Fans, pumps, compressors, and household appliances.

 Difference Between AC and DC Motors

Aspect AC Motor DC Motor

Power Source Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)
Working Operates based on electromagnetic Works on the principle of Lorentz
Principle induction. force.
More complex and depends on Easier and achieved by varying the
Speed Control
frequency. voltage or current.
Requires a stator and rotor; no Requires a commutator and brushes
Components
commutator. for operation.
Suitable for high power applications; Can have higher losses due to brushes
Efficiency
generally efficient. and commutator.
Industrial machines, fans, compressors, Toys, electric cars, and small
Applications
etc. household appliances.
Strength of Induced Current:
 The induced current in a coil is directly influenced by the number of magnetic
lines of force (magnetic flux) passing through it.
Orientation of Coil:
 Maximum Magnetic Lines: When the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic
lines of force, the magnetic flux is at its peak.
 Minimum Magnetic Lines: When the coil is parallel to the magnetic lines of
force, the magnetic flux is minimal.
Current Generation in a Generator:
 The armature (coil) rotates within a magnetic field, cutting through magnetic
field lines. This motion induces an electromotive force (e.m.f.), resulting in the
generation of current.
Factors Enhancing Induced e.m.f.:
 Number of Loops in Armature: More loops in the coil can increase the
induced e.m.f.
 Length of Wire: The length of the wire in the armature impacts the induced
e.m.f