The Earth’s Interior

Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel along the The layers of the Earth are as follows:
Earth’s interior and are caused by sudden movement of ●​ Crust: The outer layer of the Earth. It is a very thin
materials within the Earth and on its crust. layer and ranges between a thickness of 6–70 km
○​ Oceanic crust: The crust beneath the ocean,
which consists of mostly basalt (fine rock).
○​ Continental crust: The crust that forms the
continent, consisting of mainly rocks such as
granite (coarse rock).
●​ Mantle: Below the Earth’s crust. It has a temperature
of 1,300°C–5,000°C. Despite the mantle being rock, it
is viscous due to the high temperatures. The
movement of the mantle is caused by convection
currents
Body waves are seismic waves which travel through the ○​ Convection currents are currents powered by
interior of the planet sinking, colder magma and rising, hotter
●​ Primary waves are the fastest waves, travel through magma.
all phases of matter, and are compressional waves ●​ Outer core: Liquid layer composed of mostly iron.
(material movement is in the same direction as wave ●​ Inner core: Solid layer composed of mostly nickel. It
movement) has a temperature of over 5,500°C. It is solid due to
the high temperatures, wherein the pressure caused by
said temperatures locks the atoms and solidifies it.

Scientists believe that movements in the outer core create

Earth’s magnetic field.

Seismic discontinuities are boundaries between Earth’s

●​ Secondary waves are slower than P-waves, layers caused by differences in physical and chemical
exclusively travel through solids, and are shear waves characteristics. The different seismic discontinuities are:
(perpendicular to wave movement) ●​ Conrad discontinuity: The boundary between the
oceanic and continental crust.
●​ Mohorovicic discontinuity: The boundary between
the crust and the upper mantle
●​ Repetti discontinuity: The boundary between the
upper mantle and lower mantle
●​ Gutenberg discontinuity: The boundary between the
Scientists deduced the layers of the Earth through: lower mantle and outer core
●​ Direct evidence: ●​ Lehmann discontinuity: The boundary between the
○​ Rocks from inside the Earth allow the outer core and inner core.
scientists to conclude the conditions inside the
Earth (through density, the formation and Introduction to Plate Tectonics
composition of the rock, etc.) Tectonics refers to the deformation of the crust as a
○​ Forces inside the Earth blast rocks to the consequence of plate interaction.
surface from depths of more than 100 meters. Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major
These rocks provide information about Earth’s landforms are created as a result of Earth’s subterranean
interior. movements.
●​ Indirect evidence:
○​ The seismic waves produced by earthquakes ●​ The lithosphere is the rigid, outermost rocky surface
are studied by scientists, where the paths they of Earth. It is the collective term for all the Earth’s
take and the speed they travel reveal the tectonic plates.
structure of the planet ○​ Continental plates are lighter, thicker pieces
■​ For example, since S-waves can only of crust that are mostly above sea level.
travel through solids, when they ○​ Oceanic plates are heavier, denser pieces of
bounce off or bend in a certain layer of crust that are mostly below sea level.
the core, we can say that that layer is ○​ When a continental and an oceanic plate
either a liquid or a gas. collide, the oceanic plate sinks due to density.
○​ The curvature of the paths of waves can tell us ●​ The asthenosphere is the hotter, upper mantle
about the density of each layer. beneath the lithosphere. It is a viscoelastic material.
 This viscoelasticity allows the plates to move. ●​ When rocks cool on Earth’s surface, they record
Convection currents, subduction, volcano formation, Earth’s magnetic field [at the time] (either normal or
and earthquakes originate from the asthenosphere. reversed polarity)
●​ Paleomagnetic studies show alternating patterns of
normal and reversed polarity at mid-ocean ridges. The
pattern was created by sea floor spreading, wherein
new rock flowed in from the mantle and adapted the
polarity that was present.
●​ Harry Hess (an American geologist) imagined a new
sea floor being created at the mid-ocean ridge and
subducted at trenches to form volcanic arcs.
●​ The age of the sea floor matches the pattern predicted
through sea floor spreading:
○​ Youngest sea floor is at the mid-ocean ridge;
Evidence for Plate Tectonics the sea floor is older the farther you go from
Continental drift theory: the mid-ocean ridge.
●​ A theory proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 stated ●​ The pattern of worldwide earthquakes matches plate
that the continents moved over time and were relative boundaries.
to each other.
○​ Alfred Wegener: A German meteorologist and
geophysicist.
●​ He used continental fit, ancient climates (showing how
glaciers/coral reefs are found where they shouldn’t be
found), and the flipping of Earth’s polar regions to
support this theory.

The different evidences for continental drift theory are:

●​ Matching coastlines on different continents (continental
fit)
●​ Matching mountain ranges across oceans Types of Plate Boundaries
●​ Glacial ages and climate evidence: glaciers are found A plate boundary is the area where two tectonic plates meet
at the tips of South America, Africa, and Australia when and is a place where many geological events occur.
the ice of Earth is stored in Antarctica.
●​ The distribution of fossils across different continents Divergent boundaries:
At a divergent or constructive
The objections to continental drift theory were: boundary, two plates move
●​ Wegener imagined continents plowing through ocean apart. As they separate, magma
basins (though not entirely impossible, does seem rises up to fill the gap, creating
slightly ridiculous) volcanoes. The movement of
●​ Wegener did not provide a plausible mechanism to these plates also creates
explain the drifting of continents. earthquakes. As you move away from a divergent boundary,
●​ It was too far-fetched or absurd the rocks become older and older.
●​ It was contrary to the laws of physics [at the time].
Convergent boundaries:
Plate tectonic theory: At a convergent or destructive
●​ A reexamination of the continental drift theory in the boundary, two plates collide.
1960’s after new information had become available. There are different types of
○​ New information about the sea floor features convergent boundaries,
had become available including:
○​ A technique was developed that enabled
scientists to determine the original positions of ●​ Oceanic crust–Continental crust: When an oceanic
rocks on Earth (paleomagnetism) crust and continental crust collide, the oceanic crust
sinks or subducts under the continental crust due to
The different evidences for plate tectonic theory are that: the difference in density. The zone where they collide
●​ Earth’s magnetic field affects all magnetic objects on is known as a trench. The plate that sinks below and
Earth, including the crust. into the mantle melts, which then rises from under the
continental crust and pierces it, creating a volcano.
 ●​ Continental crust—Continental crust: When two The procedures done before an earthquake include:
continental crusts collide, they form a collision ●​ Making sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid
boundary or zone. Since continental crusts do not kit, a battery-powered radio, a flashlight, and extra
usually subduct, they form a complex area of mountain batteries at home.
building, rock folding, and breaks in the crust—which ●​ Learning first aid in order to help injured people.
push rocks upward. ●​ Knowing the different emergency hotlines in case
●​ Oceanic crust–Oceanic crust: When two oceanic of an emergency.
crusts collide, they create underwater volcanoes, which ●​ Learning how to turn off the gas, water, and
release magma that cools and builds up to form island electricity to avoid hazards and injuries caused by
arcs. These arcs are formed because of the gradual fires, electrocution, and other factors.
movement of individual plates. ●​ Making up a plan of where to meet your family after
an earthquake.
Transform boundaries: ●​ Learning the earthquake plan at your school or
At a transform or workplace.
conservative boundary, ●​ Not leaving heavy objects on shelves in case they
two plates slide fall and shatter, leaving sharp debris on the floor.
horizontally past one ●​ Anchoring heavy furniture, cupboards, or
another. The friction appliances to the walls or floor to avoid them from
caused by the sliding of falling, which may obscure pathways and cause
the plates creates earthquakes. injuries.
●​ Conducting an assessment of the structure of your
Global Distribution of Volcanoes, Earthquake Foci, and home or office to ensure that it is structurally sound in
Mountain Belts case of a disaster.

The procedures done during an earthquake include:

●​ Stay calm to allow yourself to think rationally.
●​ If you are indoors:
○​ Drop down onto your hands and knees
○​ Cover your head and neck to protect yourself
from falling debris
■​ If you are in danger from falling objects
and you can move safely, crawl for
additional cover under a sturdy desk or
table.
Volcanoes, earthquake foci, and mountain belts occur on the ■​ If there is low furniture or an interior
boundaries of plates due to tectonic activity. There are, of wall or corner nearby, and the path is
course, exceptions: clear, these may also provide some
●​ Intraplate volcanoes are formed from hotspots in the additional cover.
mantle, which rise from it and pierce through the plate, ■​ Stay away from glass, windows,
creating a volcano. These are volcanoes that are not outside doors and walls, and anything
on the boundaries of plates. that could fall, such as light fixtures or
○​ The lava from these volcanoes can build up furniture.
and create mountains inside plates. ○​ Hold onto any sturdy covering so you can
●​ Intraplate earthquakes are caused by stresses from move with it until the shaking stops.
within a plate, failed rifts, partial fractures in existing ○​ Stay in bed [if you are there] when the
plates, or weaknesses in the crust due to strain. earthquake stops.
○​ Do not use doorways unless you know that it
Most seismic and volcanic activity is all distributed along the is a strongly supported, load-bearing doorway
Pacific Ring of Fire. It is a tectonic belt composed of multiple and it is close to you.
boundaries, of which a majority lie on the edges of the Pacific ○​ Stay inside until the shaking stops and it is
plate. safe to go outside.
○​ Do not use elevators, as the intense shaking
Disaster Preparedness for Earthquakes may cause them to malfunction, leaving you
stuck in the elevator until rescue arrives.
Disaster preparedness refers to a set of measures done in
○​ Do be aware that the electricity may go out
advance by groups of people or individuals to better respond to
or the sprinkler systems or fire alarms may
and cope with the immediate aftermath of a disaster. It is
go off.
important in order to save lives and protect infrastructure.
●​ If you are outdoors:
 ○​ Stay outdoors unless it is necessary to go ○​ Shout only as a last resort. Shouting causes
inside. you to inhale dangerous amounts of dust.
○​ Move away from buildings, streetlights, and
utility wires. The procedures done after an earthquake include:
■​ Once in the open, stay there until ●​ Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first
the shaking stops. It is most aid for anyone who needs it.
dangerous directly outside buildings, ●​ Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If
at exits, and along exterior walls. any are damaged, shut off the valves. Check for the
●​ If you are in a moving vehicle during an earthquake: smell of gas. If you do smell it, open all the windows
○​ Stop as quickly as you can as safety permits and doors then leave immediately and report it to the
and stay in the vehicle. Avoid stopping near authorities.
or under trees, buildings, overpasses, and ●​ Turn on the radio. Don’t use your phone unless it’s an
utility wires. emergency.
○​ Proceed cautiously once the earthquake ●​ Stay out of damaged buildings because they might
has stopped. Avoid roads, bridges, or ramps collapse.
that might have been damaged during the ●​ Be careful around broken glass or debris. Wear
earthquake. boots or sturdy footwear to avoid cutting your feet.
●​ If you are trapped under debris: ●​ Be careful around chimneys as they may fall on you.
○​ Do not light a match. ●​ Stay away from beaches since earthquakes can
○​ Do not move around or kick up dust to cause tsunamis and seiches.
prevent the debris from collapsing. ●​ Stay away from damaged areas.
○​ Cover your mouth with a handkerchief or ●​ If you’re at school or work, follow the designated
clothing to prevent the inhalation of harmful emergency plan or the instructions of the person in
materials. charge.
○​ Tap on a pipe or wall so that rescuers can ●​ Expect aftershocks.
locate you. ●​ Before re-entering your home, assess the damage
○​ Use a whistle if one is available. to your property.

Composing An Argumentative Essay ●​ Rebut differing viewpoints and point out the flaws of
An argumentative essay is a piece of writing that takes a opposing views to show that your stand is better or
stance on an issue or topic. It attempts to persuade the reader more credible to convince the readers to agree with
using reasons and evidence that support their stance. you.

An argumentative essay should be composed of the When finalizing an argumentative essay, one should check for
●​ claim, argument(s) with supporting evidence, logical fallacies, which are often subjective instead of
●​ a counterargument, a rebuttal to the objective. The various logical fallacies include:
counterargument, 1.​ Ad hominem: When a person’s character is attacked
●​ and a conclusion. in place of an argument. The objectivity of an
argumentative essay is overridden by an ad hominem
The guidelines to follow when writing an argumentative fallacy.
essay are: 2.​ Hasty generalization: When someone claims
●​ Presenting your ideas in a tactful and courteous something based on a small percentage of a
manner to avoid the reader thinking that you are population. This fallacy is based in fact; however, its
belittling their or other point of view; focus on the issue, evidence is insufficient.
not the person. 3.​ Bandwagon appeal: When something is presumed to
●​ Point out common ground with the readers and be correct simply because most, if not all, people are
mention points that everyone can agree on. doing it. This is an assumption and not a fact, nor is it
●​ Acknowledge differing viewpoints; this will help based on evidence.
strengthen your stance in varying ways, spot flaws in 4.​ Black-or-white fallacy: When an argument is the
opposing arguments, and show that you have done result of an either/or choice when in fact there are a
your research, as well as allowing the readers to be multitude of options. The range of evidence is
more in favor of your point if you are reasonable and restricted and the full picture is not captured.
able to consider other theories/hypotheses.
●​ Grant the merits or give credit to the efforts of different Using a Variety of Informative, Persuasive, and
viewpoints (when appropriate) to show that you are Argumentative Writing Techniques
objective and unbiased.
Persuasive writing is a type of writing that aims to convince Some examples of informative writing techniques are:
the reader to think, feel, or act in the writer’s way. Persuasive 1.​ Stick with facts and avoid bias, as bias in any way
writing usually contains can undermine the credibility of the author and raise
●​ the writer’s opinion, concerns about the reliability of a text.
●​ evidence or information, 2.​ Provide information, not opinions, as providing
●​ and the action that the writer wants the reader to information is the main goal of informative texts, not
take. providing opinions (which are for persuasive texts).
Additionally, start with relevant information first, then
Persuasive texts may be found in books as essays, as well as expand with other, potentially unnecessary details.
newspaper articles, magazine articles, posters, and 3.​ Be specific, because the readers are looking for clear
advertisements. All of such aim to get the reader to agree or answers, not metaphors. The text must be precise and
take action. clearly explain the details of your topic.
Common and effective persuasive techniques used to 4.​ Use clear and formal language.
achieve the writer’s purpose are:
1.​ Rhetorical question: A question that isn’t meant to be Composing an Independent Critique
answered and is instead meant to state the obvious or A critique is a critical and objective evaluation of a particular
challenge the readers to think. text or medium. A critique:
2.​ Repetition: Repeating keywords or key phrases ●​ summarizes the content of the work,
places emphasis on those phrases and allows the ●​ critically and carefully analyzes the work in terms of
reader to remember them. its elements and structure, and
3.​ Bandwagon: Encourages people to do something ●​ assesses how well the points are organized and if
because it's popular, because “everyone” is doing it, or they achieve the author’s purpose (to inform, to
because it “works for everyone.” persuade, to argue, to describe, to entertain).
4.​ Appeal to emotion: A fallacy that manipulates the
reader into feeling a certain way or emotion about a Those who benefit from a critique paper are the
topic. A notable example is guilt-tripping. Emotive ●​ reader, who gains a deeper understanding of the
language. critiqued text,
5.​ Appeal to authority: A fallacy that uses the opinion of ●​ the critic who also gains a deeper understanding of
a single expert or authority to back up their claim. the text,
●​ and the author, who receives and is able to apply
Argumentative writing is a type of writing that requires the feedback or constructive criticism.
writer to discuss a topic, take a stand (regarding the topic), and
support their stand with evidence. Argumentative texts are
The Features and Structure of a Critique
objective and therefore cannot use logical fallacies.
A critique has two main features, being:
Argumentative techniques that allow the content of the text 1.​ Objectivity: The main ideas are supported by details
to be more substantial are: or excerpts in the text with citations from said text,
which show the author’s assumptions or hypotheses
1.​ Make your thesis crystal clear; the readers should regarding the text, the author’s point of view regarding
immediately be able to spot your thesis statement; the issues presented in the text, as well as the
otherwise, your essay would be weak and unclear. implications of one’s writing.
2.​ Use evidence to support your stand, which helps 2.​ Organized, cohesive & coherent, mechanically
strengthen your point as well as build credibility with correct, and uses proper language: Avoid using
the audience. contractions, slang, and colloquialisms (informal
3.​ Show why the other side is weak by rebutting language). Express your ideas clearly, all of which
counterarguments. This ensures that the reader is should support a single point.
shown that your side is better (since the points of the
other side are weak). Since a critique is systematic, it follows a certain structure:
4.​ Use logical connectors, which help make your text A.​ Introduction:
more cohesive and organized. Examples of logical a.​ The text being analyzed is introduced.
connectors are transitional words. b.​ Title, author, date of publication, and source
are stated in order to give the idea context
Informative essays are lengthy texts that aim to inform or regarding which work is being used.
educate the reader on a topic, whether that be recent c.​ The main purpose, idea, or argument is
developments, shedding a new light or perspective, etc. It, introduced, as is the thesis of the critique.
however, does not aim to include opinions nor try to persuade d.​ A short background or context is given to allow
the reader. the readers to understand the relevance of the
work.
B.​ Body:
 a.​ A summary of the author’s work is given are critiquing because the author’s background and
b.​ A detailed analysis of the author’s work in experiences likely shape their writing.
terms of its elements and structure 3.​ What is the author’s purpose? Upon determining the
c.​ An assessment of the work in terms of author’s purpose, we can effectively analyze the work
organization and the author's style of writing. based on whether or not the author’s purpose was
d.​ The writer gives a response to the author’s achieved.
work. 4.​ What are the elements and structure of the work?
C.​ Conclusion: Is the author able to achieve their purpose through
a.​ Summary of the main points of the critique the elements and the structure? If so, how? If not,
b.​ Restates the thesis of the critique why? You can also state what the author could’ve
c.​ The writer states whether or not the author done or added to further achieve their purpose.
achieved their own writing purpose (author’s 5.​ What is the significance of the work? Are the views
purpose) and information relevant today? Does the text
present a different perspective on a particular
Writing a Good Critique subject matter?
A good critique achieves two things: 6.​ What assumptions are present in the work? How
●​ ideas which are clearly and efficiently conveyed, and do they affect the validity of the work?
●​ showing your own opinions about the work, discussing
both its negatives and its positives. The different strategies for writing a good critique include:
1.​ Read the work under analysis closely to
There are certain questions that should be asked when understand its nature, purpose, and significance.
evaluating a particular text: 2.​ Pay close attention to the details of the work. For
1.​ What is the nature of the work under analysis? example, if a text is literary in nature, make sense of
Determine what type of text you are analyzing in order the arrangement of the literary elements and the use of
to determine: literary techniques. Evaluate whether these aid in
a.​ the components and qualities the work is achieving the author’s purpose as well as improving
supposed to have and the overall aesthetic of the work itself.
b.​ whether or not it has said components and 3.​ Expand your ideas while maintaining the principles
qualities. of cohesion (the quality of a paragraph wherein each
2.​ Who is the author of the work? What are their detail relates to the main idea) and coherence (the
qualities? Knowing the author of the work and being logical arrangement of ideas in a paragraph).
familiar with their qualifications and previous works can 4.​ Use a variety of informative, persuasive, and
help you gain a greater understanding of the work you argumentative writing technique

Literary Approach: Formalist ●​ Consider how the elements of a certain text like a
Formalist is a literary approach and theory primarily narrative work together.
concerned with the structure and features of a particular text. ●​ All the elements necessary for understanding a piece
of literary work are found in the work itself. Identify
each element present in the text and how they work
A Brief History of Formalism: together in developing the theme.
Russian formalism or New Criticism, emerged during the late ●​ Which elements work? Which didn’t? Why?
1910’s with the establishment of the Moscow Linguistic ●​ It requires the reader to be aware of the literary text’s
Circle and the Society for the Study of Poetic Language elements.
(OPOYAZ) during 1915 and 1916, respectively. ●​ Focus on the language and how it is used to convey
It disagreed with how literature was analyzed during the late meaning, including literary devices.
19th–early 20th centuries, that is, that literary works ●​ Does the text leave a strong impression? Why or why
reflected social and political realities. (To summarize, it went not?
against the moralist literary approach.)
Literary Approach: Moralist
According to Roman Jakobson, one of the founders of Moscow Moralist is a literary approach that judges literature based on
Linguistic Circle, literariness is the feature that distinguishes its moral or ethical teachings. Its aim is to study literature from
literature from one another and is made of artistic devices. a moral or intellectual perspective, determining whether a work
●​ Defamiliarization, an artistic device that makes ●​ conveys a lesson or message,
familiar and ordinary things unfamiliar and strange ●​ whether it can help readers better their lives, or
through language. ●​ improve their understanding of the world

In using the formalist approach: Moral philosophy, a branch of philosophy, concerns itself with
the meaning of right conduct through questions such as:
 ●​ How should one act? also propose that there is an ongoing conflict between the
●​ What does one think is right? bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
●​ How does one take on moral knowledge and practice
it? According to Marxism, literature is:
●​ What does “right” mean? ●​ not only mere art but a reflection of the social,
economic, and political situation during the time period
According to Socrates (470–399 BCE), a person does good that the piece was written. Additionally, the author’s
things because he knows that it is right to do so; his evil and own class influences their writing.
bad actions come from ignorance. ●​ always related to society, probing at the fact that
literature can serve as a force for change.
While for Aristotle (384–382 BCE), a person does good things
because it is in his nature to do so. Therefore, when reading or analyzing using the Marxist
approach, one can consider:
In using the moralist approach, look into the humanities of the ●​ how the literary work reflects the economics, politics,
text and evaluate its impact on society: and culture of the time it was written,
●​ What is the main character’s view on life? What is their ●​ how social classes are featured and depicted in the
relationship to God? What is their significance on text,
Earth? ●​ how the struggle to maintain wealth and power defines
●​ What ethical principles and moral teachings does the a character,
author or story present? ●​ how the struggle to gain wealth or move up a class
●​ What is the author’s attitude towards the world? defines a character,
Towards fate? Towards God? ●​ relationships between characters as defined by their
●​ How is the author’s treatment of the subject matter, status, and
theme, and characters? Is it sincere, brave, true, ●​ the presence of class oppression.
mature, etc.? How so?
Literary Approach: Feminist
Literary Approach: Marxist Feminism is the advocacy of women’s rights on the grounds of
gender equality, whether that be politically, socially, or
Karl Marx is a revolutionary, historian, sociologist, and
economist who was born on May 5, 1818. He studied law economically. In other words, feminism is a movement that
and philosophy at the University of Berlin. aims to provide equality for women, opportunity-wise or
Marx was also a journalist, though the radicalism in his intellectually.
writings led to his expulsion in the countries of Germany,
France, and Belgium. The misconceptions about feminism include:
Friedrich Engels is a German socialist and philosopher ●​ All feminists hate men. Feminism does not
born on November 28, 1820. He was Marx's closest friend
discriminate the male gender; it simply aims to provide
and advisor and helped him in the foundation of modern
communism. gender equality for both males and females.
Marx and Engels together wrote The Communist ●​ Feminism only liberates women at the expense of
Manifesto in 1848. men. The theory does not only benefit women but also
men. Stereotypes that hold men at a higher level of
Marxism is a theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich responsibility are broken through feminism, allowing
Engels that suggests that the problems in history are caused them to carry less burden than they usually would.
by the struggle between two forces: ●​ Women cannot be feminine and feminist at the
●​ the lower class trying to gain power and same time. Feminism simply puts forth the idea of
●​ the upper class trying to retain their wealth. gender equality and does not create a set of rules or
“norms” that you must follow.
According to Marxism, the production of goods separates the ●​ Feminists are “man-haters” or "lesbians.”
different social classes: Feminism does not define sexuality or genders.
●​ the bourgeoisie, who own productive property, and Feminism also promotes gender equality, not
●​ the proletariat, who work. "man-hating.”
The theory presumes that the bourgeoisie are the ruling class ●​ Men cannot be feminists. Feminism does not select
who dictate society’s values, cultures, and beliefs. genders.

Due to the fact that the majority of the members of a capitalist Patriarchy is a system of social organization where men are
society belong to the working class, only a few have the power the heads or figures of authority in a community. Such authority
and means to rule, creating an unfair system. is passed down to other male members. It is the idea that
males are supposed to lead and dominate, while women are
It is in The Communist Manifesto that Marx and Engels state supposed to submit; male superiority and female inferiority.
that human society is developed through class struggle. They
Feminist ideology aims to eradicate the objectification of The reader-response approach is the analysis of the aspects
women brought about by patriarchal ideology. Men and women of a text that stimulate, form, or guide a reader’s response. It
are equally allowed to express emotion without basing it on finds meaning in the act of reading itself and focuses on the
their sex or societal expectations. reader’s individual perception and experience of the text.

Feminist literary criticism examines the role and portrayal of Unlike most literary approaches, it is subjective since it
gender in literature. It critiques the language of literature using provides opinion, although the analysis of the text itself is
feminist principles. It aims to expose how certain pieces work objective. When reading a text using the reader-response
to promote patriarchy and, consequently, marginalize women. approach:
●​ Did you like the text or not?
Literary Approach: Historical ●​ Which parts did you like or dislike? Why?
Historical literary approach examines a literary work by ●​ Do you agree or disagree with the author? Why?
looking into the social and cultural circumstances that ●​ How did the text make you feel?
produced it based on the time it was written. This also includes
the author’s circumstances. Although it is subjective, the reader must still support their
thoughts and information with information and data gathered
In using historical literary approach, one may examine the from the text itself. There must also be a systemic and
following aspects of a text: thorough analysis.
●​ the historical and social circumstances that affect that
affect the author’s viewpoint, Due to the reader-response approach being subjective, there
●​ the historical and social circumstances during the time may be many differing but equally valid interpretations of the
the literary work was published, and same text.
●​ the impact of the text on the readers.
As the reader, you must reflect on the text’s significance to you
Literary Approach: Reader-Response Approach and the world around you, and respond according to that.

Paglabag sa mga Karapatang Pantao

Karapatang Pantao

Ang karapatang pantao ay tumutukoy sa mga batayang Ang karapatang pantao ay naiuugnay sa lahat ng aspeto ng
karapatan, prinsipyo, o kaasalam ayon sa mabuting buhay ng tao. Nasama na rito ang karapatang sibil,
pamantayan ng pagganap ng isang tao. pampolitika, pang-ekonomiya, panlipunan, at pangkultura.

Ito rin ang mga karapatang legal o ayon sa batas ng bansa at Masasabi rin na ang karapatang pantao ay tuwirang naiuugnay
ng pandaigdigang komunidad. sa konsepto ng hustisyo, integridad at dignidad ng isang
indibidwal, at kalayaan mula sa pang-aapi, pag-uusig, at
Ang isang dokumento na naglalahad ng karaptang pantao ay indibidwal na pakikilahok sa kolektibong pagsusumikap. Ang
ang Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), isang konseptong ito ay patuloy na nakikita sa lahat ng uri ng
pandaigdigang dokumento na naglalahad ng saligang sibilasyon at yugto ng kasaysayan
karapatan at pundamental na kapayapaan na nararapat sa
lahat ng tao.

Mga Uri ng Karapatang Pantao

1. Karapatang Likas: Karapatang hindi itinatakda sa indigenous. Ang mga halimbawa ng karapatang statuatory ay
dokumento, kundi batas na tuwirang ipinagkakaloob sa ang employment rights, housing rights, atbp.
sinuman. Ang karapatang mabuhay, magkaroon ng wastong 3. Karapatang Konstitusyonal: Karapatang nakapaloob sa
dignidad, at karapatang magmahal ay ilan sa napakaraming 1897 Saligang Batas ng Pilipinas at tuwirang nakasulat sa
karapatang likas. Ikatlong Artikulo o Katipunan ng mga Karapatan (Bill of
2. Karapatang Statuatory: Karapatang itinakda sa batas na Rights). Maari itong baguhin sa pamamagitan ng:
isinulat, pinagtibay ng Kongreso, at legal na ipinagkakaloob sa (1)​ Constituent Assembly, kung ito ay napagbotohan ng ¾
bawat tao. Layunin nitong pagbawalan ang ilang kilos ng na boto sa Kongreso;
publiko o pagkalooban ng dagdag at tiyak na karapatan ang (2)​ Constitutional Convention, kung saan magtatawag ng
isang pangkat ng tao tulad ng mga kabataan, abukanin, o mga eksperto ang Kongreso sa pamamagitan ng
kanilang ⅔ na boto; at
 (3)​ People’s Initiative, kung saan puwedeng magpetisyon ➔​ Ikatlong Artikulo, Katipunan ng mga Karapatan, o
ang kahit 12% ng kabuoang bilang ng mga Bill of Rights: Sumasaklaw sa mga karapatang
rehistradong botanteng mamamayan at bawat pampolitika, sibil, panlipunan, at pangkabuhayan.
lehislatibong distrito ay dapat katawanin ang 12% ng
mga rehistradong botante.

Ang sumusunod ay ilan sa mga halimbawa ng karapatang konstitusyonal batay sa Saligang Batas 1987:

Pampolitika Sibil Panlipunan at Pangkabuhayan

1. Karapatang makaboto at maihalal sa 1. Kalayaan sa pamamahayag (free 1. Karapatan ng manggagawa (workers’

pamahalaan (right to vote and be elected) speech) rights)
2. Karapatang pagkamamamayan 2. Kalayaan sa relihiyon (right to freedom 2. Karapatan sa seguridad at proteksiyong
(citizens’ rights) of religion or FoRB) panlipunan (right to social security and
3. Karapatan ng nasasakdal (rights of the 3. Karapatan sa seguridad at kalayaan protection)
accused) (right to liberty and security of person) 3. Karapatan sa proteksyion at tulong sa
4. Karapatang makilahok sa mga pamilya (family and children’s rights)
pagpupulong, unyon, at organisasyon 4. Karapatan sa sapat na pamantayan ng
(right to self-organization) pamumuhay (right to an adequate
5. Karapatan sa pagkapribado (right to standard of living)
privacy) 5. Karapatang pangkalusugan (right to
health)
6. Karapatang pang-edukasyon (right to
education)
7. Karapatang pangkultura (cultural rights)
●​ Sumasailalim sa karapatang
pangkultura ang intellectual
property rights na tumutukoy sa
mga karapatang ipinagkakaloob
sa mga taong may mahahalagang
ambag sa likhang sining.

Paglabag ng Karapatang Pantao

Nakasaad sa 1987 Saligang Batas ng Pilipinas at sa Universal Declaration of Human rights na ang mga karapatang pantao ay
pangkalahatan at hindi dapat maipagkakait sa sinuman. Gayunpaman, malimit pa rin tayong nakakarinig ng mga paglabag sa
karapatang pantao.
Sadyang napakalaking suliranin ang paglabag sa karapatan na ginagawa ng mga masasamang tao at elemento na tuwirang
lumalabag sa batas. Maari rin na ang pamahalaan mismo ay nagsasagawa ng mga paglabag sa karapatang pantao.

Ito’y nangyayari kapag hindi nagagampanan ang mahahalaga na tungkulin sa taumbayan tulad ng pagkakaloob ng maayos na
edukasyon, ligtas na pamumuhay, at kapita-pitagang pamumuno.

Ang ilan sa paglabag sa karapatang tao ay:

Pampolitika Sibil Panlipunan at Pangkabuhayan

1. Karapatang makaboto at maihalal sa 1. Kalayaan sa pamamahayag (free 1. Karapatan ng manggagawa (workers’

pamahalaan (right to vote and be elected) speech) rights)
2. Karapatang pagkamamamayan 2. Kalayaan sa relihiyon (right to freedom 2. Karapatan sa seguridad at proteksiyong
(citizens’ rights) of religion or FoRB) panlipunan (right to social security and
3. Karapatan ng nasasakdal (rights of the 3. Karapatan sa seguridad at kalayaan protection)
accused) (right to liberty and security of person) 3. Karapatan sa proteksyion at tulong sa
4. Karapatang makilahok sa mga pamilya (family and children’s rights)
pagpupulong, unyon, at organisasyon 4. Karapatan sa sapat na pamantayan ng
(right to self-organization) pamumuhay (right to an adequate
5. Karapatan sa pagkapribado (right to standard of living)
privacy) 5. Karapatang pangkalusugan (right to
health)
6. Karapatang pang-edukasyon (right to
education)
7. Karapatang pangkultura (cultural rights)
 ●​ Sumasailalim sa karapatang
pangkultura ang intellectual
property rights na tumutukoy sa
mga karapatang ipinagkakaloob
sa mga manunulat, pinor, at
eskultor na may mahahalagang
ambag sa likhang sining.

Paglabag sa Karapatan sa Sapat o Paglabag sa Karapatan sa Paglabag sa Karapatang Kultural

Maayos na Pabahay Pamamahayag o Free Speech

1. Sapilitang pagpapaalis sa sariling 1. Pagkulong at pagpatay samga 1. Paglabag sa intellectual property rights,
tahanan mamamahayag o reporters/journalists 2. pagsira (bandalismo) sa isang
2. Mababang kalidad ng mga programang 2. at pananakit at pagpatay sa mga gawang-sining,
pabahay mag-aaral na nagsasagawa ng rally o 3. at pagbabawal sa mga katutubong
protesta sa patakaran ng paaralan. gamitin ang kanilang wika.

Paglabag sa Karapatan sa Trabaho at Makapagtrabaho Paglabag sa Karapatan sa Pagkain, Tubig, at Kalusugan

1. Nepotismo, 1. Pagkukulang na mahadlangan ang mga pamubliko at

2. pang-aalipin (slavery), pribadong establisimyento sa ginagawang pagsira sa mga
3. hindi pagbibigay ng maternity/paternity leave with pay, lupang sakahan at paglason sa pinagmumulan ng tubig at
4. kawalan ng maayos, malinis, at ligtas na lugar ng trabaho, pagkain,
5. hindi pantay na pasaho sa manggagawang babae at lalaki, 2. pagtanggi ng pagamutan na tanggapin ang isang buntis na
6. paghingi ng suhol kapalit ng pagpasok sa trabaho, makapagsilang dahil sa kakulangan o kawalan ng pambayad,
7. hindi pagsunod sa haba o tamang oras ng pagtatrabaho, 3. ilegal at walang basehang pagpuputol ng koneksyon ng tubig
8. sapilitang pagtatrabaho nang lampas sa oras na walang na pinagkukunan ng inumin at gamit sa bahay,
kaukulang bayad (OT without pay), 4. paglason sa tubig dala ng mga kemikal mula sa mga
7. hindi pagbabayad ng tamang pasahod o suweldong mababa pampubliko at pribadong planta o pagawaan,
sa itinakda ng batas, 5. pagtangging bigyan ng pagkain ang isang nagugutom kahit
8. diskriminasyon sa pagtanggap ng manggagawa. may mga pagkaing hindi nagagalaw,
9. at pagbabawal sa pagtatayo at pagsali sa unyon; paghuli, 6. pagtangging mabigyan ng kaalaman at serbisyong nauugnay
pagkulong, at pagpatay sa mga lider ng unyon at pag-aalis sa sa sekswal at reproductive health,
trabaho ng mga nahuhuling kasapi. 7. pagtangging mabigyan ng emergency medical care o first aid
ang isang dayuhan,
8. at pagkukulang na mahalangan ang kagutuman.

Pagsusuri sa mga Kasalukuyang Paglabag sa Karapatang Pantao

Ang mga pamamaraan ng pagsuri sa mga kasalukuyang paglabag sa karapatang pantao ay ang sumusunod:
1.​ Social media, kung saan mabilisang nakakakuhang-atensyon ang mga paglabag sa karapatang pantao. Ito rin ay nagbubukas
ng malawakan at masmabilis na talakayan ukol sa mga kaganapan sa ating lipunan. Nagreresulta ito sa pagkamulat ng mga
tao.
2.​ Balita, na naglalaman ng mga pandaigdigang paglabag sa karapatang pantao.
3.​ Mga organisasyon, tulad ng Komisyon ng Karapataang Pantao, na nagtutuligsa o nagpupuna ng tao, lalo na ang mga taong
inituturing na masama (hal. kriminal.) ​
Samantala, ang pagtutuligsa ng pakikialam ng mga organisasyong ito ay madalas rin, dahil pinaniniwalaan na mas mahalaga
ang pangangalaga sa karapatan ng nakakarami at mga inosenteng tao—kaysa sa mga kriminal.

Mga Epekto ng Paglabag sa Karapatang Pantao

Ang bawat paglabag s karapatang pantao ay nagdudulot ng

masamang epekto, kahit ito’y simpleng uri lamang. Ang anumang paglabag sa karapatang pantao ay maaring
magdulot rin ng trauma at sikolohikal na epekto sa biktima.
Halimbawa, kapag ang estudyante ay hindi nakapagtapos ng 1.​ Maaari itong mauwi sa negatibong emosyon tulad ng
pag-aaral dahil sa mga paglabag sa karapatan ng mag-aaral, pagkagalit o pagkamunhi sa sarili, na puwedeng
maaaring mahihirapan siya makahanap ng trabaho. At dahil humantong sa kawalan ng respeto sa sarili.
wala siyang trabaho, magiging mahirap din para sa kaniya na
tamasahin ang karapatang makabuo ng maayos na pamilya.
 2.​ Ang isang biktima ay maaaring magtanim ng hinanakit ang mga pagpapahalaga at magagandang kaugaliang taglay
hindi lang sa nambiktima kundi amging sa kahit sinong ng tao. Bababa rin ang kakayahan ng tao na makapamuhay
tao sa lipunan. nang payapa, maayos, at maunlad.

Ang paglabag ng karapatang pantao ay maaaring magdulot rin

ng pagbaba ng moralidad ng lipunan. Patuloy nitong sisirain

Diskriminasyon sa Kasarian

Konsepto ng Diskriminasyon

Ang diskriminasyon ay tumutukoy sa hindi pantas na pagtrato Maliban dito, may mga kaugalian, paniniwala, at sistema rin na
sa ibang tao dahil sa kaniyang katauhan, edad, kapansanan, nagtutulak sa mga tao na tratuhin ang isa’t-isa ng walang
kahinaan o kakulangan, kulay ng balat, at iba pang katangian. paggalang at respeto.
Ito ay ang kabaligtaran ng sinasabing pagkakapantay-pantay
ng bawat tao. Nakikita ang diskriminasyon sa kahit anong larangan ng buhay.

Nangyayari ang diskriminasyon dahil may taong naniniwalang Ngunit, ang diskriminasyon ay maituturing isang uri ng
mas nakakahigit sila sa ibang tao, na sila’y mas mahalaga. Ito paglabag sa karapatang pantao. Hindi nagiiba ang epekto ng
ay ang hindi pagtanggap sa katotohanang pantay-pantay ang diskriminasyon sa epekto ng iba pang paglabag sa karapatang
lahat ng tao. pantao.

Konsepto ng Kasarian

Nagisumla ang konsepto ng kasarian ng 1950s, at unti-unting nagiiba sa paglipas ng panahon. Ang sekswalidad at kasarian ay
tumutukoy sa iisang konsepto, ngunit mayroon silang pinagkaiba:

Sekswalidad Kasarian

1. Pagiging lalaki o babae ng isang tao 1. Tumutukoy sa aspetong kultural na natututunan batay sa
2. Pisikal o biyolohikal na katangian ng isang tao simula pa sa sekswalidad ng isang indibidwal
kapanganakan (assigned female/male at birth) 2. Gampaning tungkulin batay sa ating sekswalidad
3. Personal na pagkakakilanlan at hindi itinakda ng lipunang 3. Sosyal, kultural, at sikolohikal na mga asal na tugma sa
ginagalawan. babae o lalaki
4. Natatalaga sa ating genetic inheritance

Sa buod, ang sekswalidad ay biyolohikal at kasarian ay kultural, kaso sila’y tumutukoy sa isang konsepto.

Pagkakaiba ng Oryentasyong Sekswal at Pagkakakilanlang Kasarian (SOGIE)

Ang oryentasyong sekswal (sexual orientation) ay tumutukoy sa kakayahan ng isang tao na makaranas ng malalim na atraksiyong
apeksyonal, emosyonal, sekswal, at ng malalim na pakikipagrelasyon sa taong ang kasarian ay maaaring katulad ng sa kanya, iba sa
kanya, o kasariang higit sa isa.

Oryentasyong Sekswal

Taong nagkakanasang sekswal sa miyembro ng kabilang kasarian (babae

Heterosexual
nagkakagusto sa lalaki; lalaki nagkakagusto sa babae)

Taong nagkakanasang sekswal sa miyembro ng sariling kasarian (babae

Third sex o Homosexual
nagkakagusto sa babae; lalaki nagkakagusto sa lalaki)

Bisexual Taong nagkakanasang sekswal sa parehong kasarian (lalaki at babae)

Pansexual Taong nagkakanasang sekswal sa lahat ng pagkakakilanlang pangkasarian

Taong hindi nagkakanasang sekswal sa kahit na anong pagkakakilanlang

Asexual
pangkasarian.
Ang pagkakakilanlang pangkasarian (gender identity) ay kinikilala bilang malalim na damdamin at personal na karanasang
pangkasarian ng isang tao, na maaaring nakatugma o hindi nakatugma sa sekswalidad niya nang siya’y ipinanganak, kabilang ang
personal na pagtuturing niya sa sariling katawan (na maaaring mauwi, kung malayang pinipili, sa pagbabago ng anyo o kung ano ang
gagawin sa katawan sa pamamagitan ng pagpapaopera, gamot, o iba pang paraan) at iba pang ekspresyon ng kasarian kasama na
ang pananamit, pagsasalita, at pagkilos.

Pagkakakilanlang Pangkasarian (LGBTQI2S+)

Mga babae na ang kilos at damdamin ay panlalaki; mga babaeng may pusong lalaki at
Lesbian, Tomboy, o Tibo
umiibig sa kapwa babae.

Gay, Bakla, o Beki Mga lalaking nakakaramdam ng atraksyon sa kanilang kapwa lalaki.

Bisexual Taong nagkakanasang sekswal sa parehong kasarian (lalaki at babae)

Tao na ang pagkakakilanlang pangkasarian ay naiiba sa kaniyang kasarian; ang

Transgender kaniyang pag-iisip ay hindi naaayon sa kaniyang biyolohikal na katangian bilang babae o
lalaki.

Taong non-heteronormative; taong hindi pa sigurado o tiyak sa pagkakakilanlang

Queer
pangkasarian.

Taong hindi lubusang nagpapakita ng hustong pakakakilanlan batay sa sekswalidad

Intersex (hal.: ang panlabas na anyo ay lalaki, ngunit ang panloob na reproductive organ ay
pambabae)

Paglalarawan ng mga katutubong grupo sa taong may parehong panlalaki at pambabae

Two-spirit (2S)
na pagkakakilanlang espirituwal (masculine/feminine spirited)

Kumakatawan sa iba pang oryentasyong sekswal at pangkakakilanlang pangkasarian na

+​
hindi kasama sa terminong LGBTQI2S+

Diskriminasyon sa Kasarian

Ang diskriminasyon sa kasarian ay anumang uri ng 1.​ Hindi pantay na pagtingin sa babae at lalaki dulot
paglabag sa karapatan na kaugnay ng pagiging isang babae, ng magkakaibang paniniwala at kultura. Ang
lalaki, at iba pang pagkakakilanlang pangkasarian. kahalagahan ng babae ay mas mababa kaysa sa
lalaki. Mas madalas ang patriarchal system sa ating
Pasok rin sa konseptong ito ang hindi pagtanggap sa katauhan mundo kaysa sa matriarchal, dahil pinaniniwalaang
ng mga kasapi ng LGBTQI2S+. Maraming naniniwala na ang lalaki ay mas magandang lider kaysa sa babae.
walang ibang kasarian maliban sa pagiging “natural” na babae 2.​ Batas. Hindi lahat ng bana ay sumasang-ayon o
at lalaki. kumikilala sa ibang katauhan na labas sa pagiging
tunay na babae at lalaki. May mga bansa na agresibo
Maaaring mangyari ang diskriminasyon sa kasarian sa sa pagtuligsa sa LGBTQI2S+, at may ibang
pamamagitan ng nagpoprotekta sa mga ito. Mayroon ring relihiyosong
●​ pagbigay ng hindi makatwirang puna, batas na hindi tumatanggap ng mga LGBTQI2S+.
●​ mga hindi natanggap-tanggap (not socially acceptable) 3.​ Hindi patas na estado sa buhay. Dahil mas mababa
na biro, ang tingin sa mga babae, ang mga babae ay hirap
●​ pambabastos o pang-iiinsulto makakuha o makakumpleto ng edukasyon, at
●​ pambu-bully sa publiko o social media, makahanap ng trabaho; mas maraming lalaking
●​ hindi balanseng pagtrato sa trabaho, nakakapagaral at nakakapagtrabaho kaysa sa babae.
●​ hindi pagbigay ng patas na opurtunidad at benepisyo At dahil dito, maraming babae ang nahihirapang
●​ hindi pagkakaloob ng kalayaang makiisa dahil sa umahon sa buhay.
kasariang pagkakakilanlan. 4.​ Trabaho. Nagkakaroon ng hindi patas na pagtrato
dahil sa katayuan, sekswalidad, at pagakakilanlang
Maaari rin itong humantong sa mas malalang kaso tulad ng pangkasarian.
pananakit, panliligalig, pagbubukod o segregasyon, at a.​ Ang kita ng babae at lalaki ay hindi pantay.
pagpatay. b.​ Pananaw ng iba na ang kakayahan ng babae
ay mas mababa sa lalaki.
Ang mga anyo o dahilan ng diskriminasyon sa kasarian ay c.​ Higit na pinahahalagahan ang ambag ng
ang sumusunod: kalalakihan kaysa sa kababaihan.
 d.​ Kadalasang ibinibigay sa kalalakihan ang
mataas na puwesto sa paniniwalang mas may
kakayahan sila.
e.​ Ang mga babae ay gumagampana sa pagiging
guro o pang-opisina, habang ang lalaki ay
gumagampana sa mabibigat na trabaho.
Gampaning Pangkasarian

Ang gampaning pangkasarian (gender role) ay sumasaklaw sa hanay ng mga pag-uugali, pagkilos, at saloobin na sa pangkalahatan
ay itinuturing na katanggap-tanggap, naaangkop, o kanais-nais para sa isang tao batay sa kanilang sekswalidad o pagkakakilanlang
pangkasarian.

Ang gampaning pangkasarian ng babae at lalaki ay umiiba sa paglipas ng panahon:

Aspeto Noon Ngayon

Babae: Ang nagnanatili ng kaayusan sa bahay, Babae at Lalaki: Parehong magkaagapay sa

nagsasagawa ng gawaing-bahay, pag-aalaga, gawaing-bahay, sa pagtustos sa materyal at
pagtuturo, at pagpapalaki ng anak. pinansiyal na mga pangangailangan ng pamilya, sa
Lalaki: Ang tagasustento, tagadisiplina, at pagdedesisyon para sa kapakanan ng pamilya,
Pamilya
tagadesisyon ng pamilya. pagbili ng ari-arian, kung saan titira, at pagtuturo sa
anak.
Babae: Mayroon na ring babae na pumapasok
bilang propesyonal na manggagawa.

Babae: Ang pinaka-basic na uri ng edukasyon Babae at Lalaki: Parehong responsable sa

Lalaki: Mataas na kalipikasyon ang mga propesyon pag-aaral (ekswelahan), pareho ang pinag-aarala
Edukasyon sa kalalakihan. Ang kanilang kurso ay may sa kolehiyo, pareho ang kalipikasyon.
kaugnayan sa pisikal, engineering, at medisina. Babae: Dumadami ang babaeng doktor at
inhinyero, mga trabahong panlalaki noon.

Babae: Ang naninilbihan, kumakanta, at Babae at Lalaki: Parehong naninilbihan sa Diyos,

nangangalaga. ngunit magkaiba ang tungkulin.
Relihiyon
Lalaki: Ang pangulo sa simbahan. Babae: Dumadami na ang nagiging lider ng ibang
relihiyon at sekta.

Babae: Hindi madalas ang babae na mayroong Babae at Lalaki: Parehong nakakaboto at
gampaning pampulitika. nakatatakbong mga opisyal ng anumang grupo at
Politika Lalaki: Ang dominado sa larangang politika at pamamahala.
maaaring maiboto bilang opisyal ng lipunan. Sila ang
tagagawa ng mga patakaran at batas.

Babae: Hindi nangangailangan ng pag-unlad sa Babae at Lalaki: Parehong may pantay na

propesyon, ang lugar na pinagtatrabahuhan ay hindi opurtunidad sa kahit anong trabaho o propesyon.
mahalaga, mas mababa ang sahod kaysa sa lalaki,
gumagampana ng trabahong pang-akademiko, hindi
madalas nakakatanggap ng promosyon.
Propesyon
Lalaki: Mas mataas ang sahod kumpara sa babae,
ang pangdalubhasang trabaho ay inilalaan sa lalaki,
ang pangangasiwa at mas mataas na posisyon ay
para sa mga lalaki, mas madalas magkarron ng
promosyon.

Mga Karapatang LGBTQI2S+

Ayon sa Amnesty Interational at UN Human Rights Council, ●​ pagsasabatas ng anti-bullying at mga batas na
ang sumusunod ay ilan sa mga batas para sa LGBT: panlaban sa diskriminasyon sa mga estudyante para
●​ Pagkilala ng gobyerno sa relasyon ng magkaparehong protektahan ang mga anak ng mga LGBTQI2S+,
kasarian, kasal man o sa anumang uri ng pagsasama, ●​ batas para sa pantay-pantay na karapatan na
●​ pagpayag para makapag-ampon, mangibang-bansa,
●​ pagkilala sa kkayahang maging magulang, ●​ batas para ssa pantay na karapatan sa trabaho at
pabahay,
●​ batas patungkol sa mga krimeng nag-uugat sa poot ●​ pantay na karapatan sa sex reassignment surgery at
para magbigyan ng mas matibay na parusa ang mga hormone replacement therapy, at
nauudyukang kumiling sa bayolenteng kilos laban sa ●​ batas na may kaugnayan sa sekswal na oryentasyon
mga LGBTQI2S+ at serbisyong militar.
●​ pantay na karapatan sa tknolohiyang assisted
reproductive technology,
●​ legal na pagkilala at akomodasyon sa pagpapalit ng
gender,