ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Chemistry for Engineers and Engineering Technologist

 Learning Outcomes
1. Explain the concept of electrochemistry
2. Differentiate the types of electrochemical cells
3. Calculate the electromotive force or voltage output
of some redox reaction
4. Explain the Nernst equation
5. Discuss the significance of electrode potential
6. Predict electrode products of a given electrolysis
process
7. Give some applications of electrolysis
8. Explain Faraday’s Law of electrolysis
9. Solve problems on Faraday’s Law as applied to
electroplating
 REVIEW
1. Types of chemical reactions
2. Assigning Oxidation Number
3. Reduction-Oxidation Reaction
4. Balancing REDOX Equation by:
a. oxidation number method
b. half reaction method
 Combination

Decomposition
Combustion

Types of
Chemical
Reactions

Double Single
Displacement Replacement
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
Combination reaction – is one in which two or more substances are
combined to form one product. This reaction is also known as
synthesis, combination or direct union.
General Form: A + X → AX
element or compound + element or compound → compound

Example : 2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2 MgO(s)

Decomposition reaction – is one in which one compound
decomposes to two or more new substances. Usually when energy
in the form of heat, electricity, light or mechanical shock is necessary
to cause this reaction to take place. This is also known as analysis.
General Form: AX → A + X
compound → two or more substances

Example: CuSO4• 5H2O (cr) → CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l)

Single replacement reaction – is one in which a metal replaces
another metal ion from a solution or a nonmetal replaces a less
active nonmetal in a compound. This reaction is also called
displacement or substitution.
General Form: B + AX → BX + A where A and B are metals
Y + AX → AY + X where X and Y are nonmetals
element + compound → compound + element

Example: Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

(Mg is above H)
Activity Series

 The most active metals are at

the top. These will replace
metals below them.
 The nonmetals are also listed
in order of most active at the
top to least active at the
bottom.
 More active elements replace
less active elements in single
replacement reactions
 A B A B
Examples:
A. Fe(s) + MgSO4(aq) → no reaction (Fe is less active than Mg and as
such Fe cannot displace Mg in MgSO4).

B. Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq) (Fe is above Cu)

Double displacement reaction – is one wherein two
compounds react to form two new compounds. This
involves exchange of ion pairs. This is reaction is also
called exchange reaction or metathesis.
General Form: AX + BY → AY + BX
compound + compound → compound + compound
Example: CaCO3(s) + 2HCl2(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Combustion – a compound containing
carbon and hydrogen (and sometimes
oxygen) combines with oxygen gas to
produce carbon dioxide and water.
General Form:
hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon
dioxide + water
Example: CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Sample Problem:
Predict the product, balance the equation and classify the type of
reaction.
Type Reactants Products

1. Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) →

How to predict the product and identify the chemical reaction?

Skeleton equation:
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) →

Ionic Equation:
Ba+2 NO3 -1 + Na+1 SO4-2 → Ba+2 SO4-2 + Na+1 NO3 -1

Balance equation:
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(aq) + 2NaNO3(aq) = DD Reaction
1 – Ba – 1
2–N–1 2
10 – O - 7 10
2 – Na –1 2
1–S–1
ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBER
Oxidation number or valence number are arbitrary number
based upon rules such as the following:
1. The oxidation number of uncombined element is zero.
2. The common oxidation number of hydrogen in compounds is +1,
and –1 for hydrides (binary compound of hydrogen w/ a metal).
For oxygen, it is -2, but -1 for peroxide.
3. The common oxidation number for group 7A elements in binary
compounds is -1; +1 if w/ oxygen. It varies in tertiary compounds.
4. The common oxidation number for group 1A ions is +1; for group
2A, it is +2, and for group 3A, it is +3.
5. The oxidation number of an ion is calculated if the oxidation
numbers of all the other ions in the compounds are known, since
the sum of all oxidation numbers in a compound is zero.
Note:
 Sum of oxidation numbers for neutral compound is equal to zero.
 Sum of oxidation numbers for polyatomic ion is equal to the ion
charge.
Example: 1.Calculate the oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4
Assign the oxidation numbers of the other elements and let X be
the oxidation number of Mn.
+1 X -2
K Mn O4
Apply the rule number 5:
(+1)(1) + (X)(1) + (-2)(4) = 0
1 + X - 8 =0
X = +7
Therefore the oxidation state of Mn in KMnO4 is +7
2. Calculate the oxidation number of S in SO4-2
X -2
S O4-2
(X)(1) + (-2)(4) = -2
X - 8 = -2
X = -2 + 8
X = +6
Therefore the oxidation state of S in SO4-2 is +6
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS
(REDOX REACTIONS)
Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) reactions occur
simultaneously. Redox always involve a transfer of
electrons from one species to another.
 Oxidation involves loss of electrons which results in
an increase in the oxidation number of the atom or
ion.
 Reduction involves the gain of electrons which
results in decrease in the oxidation number of the
atom or ion.
In oxidation-reduction reactions the substance
that is oxidized is called the reducing agent, while the
substance that is reduced is called the oxidizing agent.
Mnemonic:
LEO the lion goes GER

loss electrons gain electrons

Oxidation Reduction
Inc. oxidation nos. of atoms Dec. oxidation nos. of atoms
Function: Reducing Agent Function: Oxidizing Agent
Example:
Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents in the reaction
Dec / gain e-/ OA
0 +1 +5 -2 +2 +5 -2 0
Zn(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2 Ag(s)

Inc/ loss e-/ RA

Note: NO3- is a spectator ion (in the same form or no changes on both side of the
equation)
Simplified Analysis:
Atom Starting Ending Change in Electron Redox Function
charge charge oxidation change change
state
Zn 0 +2 Increase Loss 2e- oxidized RA = Zn
Ag +1 0 Decrease Gain 1e- reduced OA = AgNO3
 Balancing REDOX Equation by the Oxidation
Number Method
• Determine the oxidation number of the atoms in the equation in order to
identify the atoms undergoing oxidation or reduction.
HNO3 + H2S → NO + S + H2O
• Balance the total increase and total decrease of oxidation number by
placing the necessary coefficients, using the smallest number possible.
+1+5 -2 +1 -2 +2 -2 0 +1 -2
HNO3 + H2S → NO + S + H2O
• Complete the balancing process by inspection.

8–H-8
2–N–2
6–O–6
3–S–3
 BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS
Half Reaction Method (Ion-Electron Method)
Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation for the reaction in ionic form.
𝟐−
𝟐+
𝑭𝒆 + 𝑪𝒓𝟐𝑶𝟕 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑+ + 𝑪𝒓𝟑+
Step 2: Separate the equation into two half-reactions.
+2 +3
Oxidation: 𝑭𝒆+𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑+
+6 +3
𝟐−
Reduction: 𝑪𝒓𝟐𝑶𝟕 → 𝑪𝒓𝟑+
Step 3: Balance each half-reaction for number and type of atoms and
charges. For reactions in an acidic reaction medium add H2O to balance
the O atoms and H+ to balance the H atoms.
Oxidation half-reaction: The atoms are already balanced. To
balance the charge, we add an electron to the right-hand side of the
arrow:
Oxidation: 𝑭𝒆+𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑+ +𝒆−
 Reduction half-reaction: Because the reaction takes place in an
acidic medium:
𝟐−
Reduction: 𝑪𝒓𝟐𝑶𝟕 → 𝑪𝒓𝟑+ (acidic medium)
Atoms: Cr = 2 Cr = 1
O=7 O=0
We add seven H2O molecules to the right-hand side of the arrow to
balance the O atoms:
𝟐−
𝑪𝒓𝟐𝑶𝟕 → 𝟐𝑪𝒓𝟑+ +𝟕𝑯𝟐𝑶
Solution:
Cr = 2 Cr = 2
H=0 H = 14
O=7 O=7
To balance the H atoms, we add 14 H+ ions on the left side:
𝟐−
+
𝟏𝟒 𝑯 + 𝑪𝒓𝟐𝑶𝟕 → 𝟐𝑪𝒓𝟑+ +𝟕𝑯 𝑶
𝟐
Solution:
Cr = 2 Cr = 2
H = 14 H = 14
O=7 O=7
 There are now 12 positive charges on the left-hand side and only
six positive charges on the right-hand side.
𝟐−
𝟏𝟒 𝑯+ + 𝑪𝒓𝟐𝑶𝟕 → 𝟐𝑪𝒓𝟑+ +𝟕𝑯 𝑶
𝟐
Solution:
Charge: 14 + (-2) = +12 2(+3) = +6

Hence, we add six electrons on the left:

𝟐−
𝟏𝟒 𝑯+ + 𝑪𝒓𝟐𝑶𝟕 + 𝟔𝒆− → 𝟐𝑪𝒓𝟑+ +𝟕𝑯𝟐𝑶
Solution:
Add e- to balance the charge :
14 + (-2) = +12 – 6e- = +6 2(+3) = +6

Oxidation: 𝑭𝒆+𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑+

Solution:
Add e- to balance the charge :
𝑭𝒆+𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑+ +𝒆−
Fe = +2 Fe = +3 + (-1) = +2
Step 4: Add the two half-equations together and balance the final equation
by inspection. The electrons on both sides must cancel. If the oxidation and
reduction half-reactions contains different numbers of electrons, we need to
multiply one or both half-reactions to equalize the number of electrons.
Here we have only one electron for the oxidation half-reaction and
six electrons for the reduction half-reaction, so we need to multiply the
oxidation half-reaction by 6 and write:
6 ( 𝑭𝒆+𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑+ +𝒆− )
𝟐−
𝟏𝟒 𝑯+ + 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟕 + 𝟔𝒆− → 𝟐𝑪𝒓𝟑+ +𝟕𝑯 𝟐 𝑶
𝟐−
𝟔 𝑭𝒆+𝟐 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯+ + 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟕 + 𝟔𝒆− → 𝟔𝑭𝒆𝟑+ + 𝟐𝑪𝒓𝟑+ +𝟕𝑯𝟐𝑶 + 𝟔𝒆−

The electrons on both sides cancel, and we are left with the
balanced net ionic equation:
𝟐−
+𝟐 +
𝟔 𝑭𝒆 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯 + 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟕 → 𝟔𝑭𝒆𝟑+ + 𝟐𝑪𝒓𝟑+ +𝟕𝑯𝟐𝑶
Step 5: Verify that the equation contains the same type and numbers of
atoms and the same charges of both sides of the equation.
𝟐−
+𝟐 +
𝟔 𝑭𝒆 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯 + 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟕 → 𝟔𝑭𝒆𝟑+ + 𝟐𝑪𝒓𝟑+ +𝟕𝑯𝟐𝑶
A final check shows that the resulting equation is automatically and
electrically balance.
Solution:
For Atoms:
6 – Fe – 6
14 – H – 14
2 – Cr – 2
7–O–7
For Charges:
(6x2)+ (14x1)+(1x-2) (6x3) + (2x3)
12 + 14 – 2 18 + 6
24 24
For reaction on base medium, proceed through step 4 as if the
reaction were carried out in an acidic medium. Then for every H+ ion we
add an equal number of OH- ions to both sides of the equation. Where H+
and OH- ions appear on the same side of the equation, we combine the ions
to give H2O.
Sample 2: BASE MEDIUM
Write a balanced ionic equation to represent the oxidation of
iodide ion (I-) by permanganate ion (MnO4-) in basic solution to yield
molecular iodide (I2) and manganese(IV) oxide (MnO2).

Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation for the reaction in ionic

form.
MnO4− + I− → MnO2 + I2

Step 2: Separate the equation into two half-reactions.

-1 0
Oxidation: I− → I2

+7 +4
Reduction: MnO4− → MnO2
Step 3: Balance each half-reaction for number and type of atoms and
charges.
Oxidation half-reaction: We first balance the I atoms:
2I- → I2
Solution:
Atoms: I= 2 I=2
To balance charges, we add two electrons to the right-hand side of the
equation:
2I- → I2 + 2e-
Solution:
Charge: 2(-1) = -2 0 + (-2) = -2
Reduction half-reaction: To balance the O atoms, we add two H2O
molecules on the right:
MnO4− → MnO2 + 2H2O
Solution:
Atoms: Mn= 1 Mn = 1
O=4 O=4
H=0 H=4
To balance the H atoms, we add four H+ ions on the left:
+
MnO4− + 𝟒𝐇 → MnO2 + 2H2O
Solution:
Atoms: Mn= 1 Mn = 1
O=4 O=4
H=4 H=4

Charge: 1(-1) + 4(+1) 0

+3 0

There are three net positive charges on the left, so we add three electrons
to the same side to balance the charges:
+ −
MnO4 + 𝟒𝐇 +𝟑𝒆 → MnO2 + 2H2O
−

Solution:
Charge: 1(-1) + 4(+1) +(-3) 0
0 0
Step 4: We now add the oxidation and reduction half reactions to give the overall
reaction. In order to equalize the number of electrons, we need to multiply the
oxidation half-reaction by 3 and the reduction half-reaction by 2 as follow:
3(2I- → I2 + 2e-)
+ −
2(MnO4− + 𝟒 + 𝐇 +𝟑𝒆 → MnO2 + 2H2O) −
−
𝟔𝐈 + 2MnO4− + 𝟖𝐇 +𝟔𝐞− → 3I2 + 2MnO2 + 4H2O +𝟔𝒆
The electrons on both sides cancel, and we are left with the balanced net ionic
equation: +
𝟔𝐈− + 2MnO 4− + 𝟖𝐇 → 3I2 + 2MnO2 + 4H2O
This is the balanced equation in an acidic medium. However, because the reaction is
carried out in a basic medium, for every H+ ion we need to add equal number of OH-
ions to both sides of the equatio+n: − −
𝟔𝐈− + 2MnO4− + 𝟖𝐇 + 𝟖𝐎𝐇 → 3I2 + 2MnO2 + 4H2O +𝟖𝐎𝐇
Finally, combining the H+ and OH- ions to form water, we obtain: −
𝟔𝐈− + 2MnO4− + 𝟖𝐇𝟐𝐎 → 3I2 + 2MnO2 + 4H2O +𝟖𝐎𝐇
−
𝟔𝐈− + 2MnO4− + 4H2O → 3I2 + 2MnO2 + 𝟖𝐎𝐇
Step 5: Verify that the equation contains the same type and numbers of
atoms and the same charges of both sides of the equation. −
𝟔𝐈− + 2MnO4− + 4H2O → 3I2 + 2MnO2 + 𝟖𝐎𝐇

• A final check shows that the resulting equation is automatically and

electrically balance.
Solution:
Atoms:
6–I–6
2– Mn – 2
8– H– 8
12 – O – 12

For Charges:
(6)(-1)+ (2)(-1) 8 (-1)
-8 -8
Concept Map in Electrochemistry
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
a branch of chemistry that relates
electricity and chemical reactions.
study of the interchange between
chemical change and electrical
work.
Electricity – movement of electrons
e- e- e- e-
• Certain chemical reactions can create electricity.
Oxidation-Reduction Reaction

electrons moves between atoms

• Electricity can make certain chemical reactions
to happen that would not happen otherwise.
 ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS
 Those which produce electricity from chemical reactions.
The process takes place in a voltaic or galvanic cell
wherein the positive electrode (+) is the cathode and the
negative electrode (-) is the anode.
 Those which use electricity to cause the chemical
reactions to occur. The process takes place in an
electrolytic cell wherein the positive electrode (+) is the
anode and the negative electrode (-) is the cathode.
Note:
Whether the cell is voltaic or electrolytic, oxidation (loss of
electrons) always occurs at the anode, while the reduction
(gain of electrons) always occur at the cathode
 Sample of half-reaction of redox

Loss of 2e- / oxidation

reducing agent

𝐹𝑒(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢+2(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐹𝑒+2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑢(𝑠)

Gain of 2 e-1 / reduction
oxidizing agent

Half-reaction:
𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) → 𝐹𝑒 +2(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒−
𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: 𝐶𝑢+2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒− → 𝐶𝑢(𝑠)
Net ionic equation for
the over-all reaction:
𝐹𝑒(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢+2(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐹𝑒 +2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑢(𝑠)
 When a clean copper wire is placed into a colorless solution of silver
nitrate, it is quickly apparent that a chemical reaction takes place.
 Crystals of silver metal form on the wire, and the solution takes on a
blue color.
 In this reaction, copper metal is oxidized to Cu2+,and Ag+ ions are
reduced to silver metal.
  A cell is constructed to physically separate an
oxidation-reduction reaction into two half-
reactions.

𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝑢(𝑠) → 𝐶𝑢+2(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒−

e- 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐴𝑔+ + 1𝑒− → 𝐴𝑔 𝑠 𝑥2

Ag(s) Cu 𝑎𝑞
Cu2+

AgNO3(aq) Cu  Cu2+ Ag+ Ag

𝐶𝑢 (𝑠) + 2𝐴𝑔+ (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑢+2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐴𝑔(𝑠)

oxidation reduction

electrochemical cell
 The force with which electrons travel from the oxidation
half-reaction to the reduction half-reaction is measured
as voltage (produces electricity).
 VOLTAIC (GALVANIC) CELL
The experimental apparatus for generating electricity
using of spontaneous reaction is called a galvanic cell or
voltaic cell, after the Italian scientists Luigi Galvani and
Alessandro Volta, who constructed the early versions of the
device.
o the conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy.
o creates electricity using a chemical reaction uses a
spontaneous reaction
o the anode in voltaic cell is the electrode (+) at which
the oxidation occurs.
o the cathode is the electrode (-) at which the reduction
occurs.
  The electron lost by Zn move
 The Zinc electrode (plate) is
through the external circuit (Cu wire)
immersed in ZnSO 4 solution and the
as an electric current to the cathode
Cu electrode (plate) CuSO4 solution.
where they are gained by the Cu+2
 Deflection of the needle in voltmeter ions.
takes place from zinc to the copper
 Zinc plate loses its weight. Zinc gets
plate.
oxidized to zinc ions which go into
 It is because plugs electrons from the solution.
zinc to the copper plate.
 The flow of electrons constitutes an  Copper plate gains weight. Copper
electric current, since electrons, ions get reduced to metallic copper
negative electricity flows from zinc which is deposited on the copper
to the copper plate, the conventional plate.
current, i.e., positive electricity flows  As the reactions proceeds, there will
from copper to zinc plate. be an imbalance in the
 Zinc plate serves as a negative concentration of ions in both
electrode (anode) and copper serve solutions in such case, the cell will
as the positive electrode (cathode). not work.
 The two solutions are connected by
a salt bridge containing an
electrolyte solution that does not
VOLTAIC CELL
Fig 18.1. Galvanic Cell. The salt bridge containing KCl solution provides electrically conducting medium
between two solutions. The opening of the U tube are loosely plugged with cotton balls to prevent the KCl
solution from flowing into the containers while allowing the anions and cations to move across. The lightbulb
is lit as electrons flow externally from the Zn electrode (anode) to the Cu electrode (cathode).
Reference: Chemistry 11th Edition by Chang & Goldsby @2013 The Mc Graw-Hill Co., Inc
 Components
Electrodes - conduct electricity between cell and
surroundings
Electrolyte - mixture of ions involved in reaction or
carrying charge
Salt bridge - completes circuit (provides charge balance)

Function of Salt Bridge in Electrochemical cell:

1. To complete the circuit.
2. Prevent intermixing of the solutions of both the half
cells.
3. To maintain electrical neutrality in the solutions of both
half cell.
 Electrode Potential
Cell Potential /Electromotive Force (EMF):
 The “pull” or driving force on electrons
 Measured voltage (potential difference)
E°cell= E°cathode - E°anode

work or electrical potentialenergy J

E cell   V
unit of charge moved C
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)
• Under standard-state conditions
(when the pressure of H2 is 1 atm
and the concentration of the HCl
solution is 1 M), the potential for the
reduction of H+ at 25°C is taken to
be exactly zero:
2H +(1 M) + 2e- → H2(1 atm) E° = 0 V
• The superscript “°” denotes
standard-state conditions, and E° is
the standard reduction potential,
or the voltage associated with a
reduction reaction at an electrode
when all solutes are 1 M and all
gases are at 1 atm. Hence, the
standard reduction potential of the
hydrogen electrode is defined as
zero.
Copyright @2016 The Mc Graw-Hill Co., Inc
The standard cell potential of the cell (E0cell)
conditions:
1. When all the ion concentrations are 1 M
2. Temperature is at 25ºC
3. Pressure is 1 atmosphere for gases
E0cell values:
More Positive More Negative
Stronger oxidizing agent Stronger reducing agent
More readily accepts e- More readily gives e-

Note:
 Less active metal has greater tendency to be reduced.
 More active metal has greater tendency to oxidized.
Cell Representation
An electrochemical cell can be represented by:
1. Using the overall cell reaction
𝑁𝑖(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢+2 → 𝑁𝑖+2 + 𝐶𝑢(𝑠)
2. Using the electrode reactions (cell or line notation)
Ni ǀNi+2 ∥ Cu+2ǀCu
the ǀ represent the phase boundary
the ∥ represent a salt bridge
Example: anode ∥ cathode
Anode/ electrolyte of anode // electrolyte of cathode / cathode
Ni(s) / Cu2+ (aq) (1 M) // Ni2+ aq) (1 M) / Cu (s)
 Difference between Ecell and Eºcell
• Eºcell - the standard state cell potential, which means
that the value was determined under standard states.
The standard states include a concentration of 1 Molar
(mole per liter) and an atmospheric pressure of 1.
• Ecell - the non-standard state cell potential, which
means that it is not determined under a concentration of
1 Molar and pressure of 1 atm.
Note:
The two are closely related in the sense that the
standard cell potential is used to calculate for the cell
potential in many cases.
 Thermodynamics of Redox Reaction
Nernst Equation
Under nonstandard conditions. Consider a redox reaction type
: aA + bB cC + dD
From equation: 𝜟𝑮 = 𝜟𝑮𝟎 + RT ln Q
Because 𝛥G = − nFE and 𝛥G0 = −nFE0, the equation can be
expressed as: −nFE = −nFE0 + RT ln Q
Dividing the equation through by -nF , and where Q is the
reaction quotient
Nernst Equation: 𝟎 RT
(Equation 1) 𝐄cell = 𝐄 − ln Q
nF
F – faraday constant = 9.65 x104 J / V•mol e-
R = 8.314 J/ mol•K
n = number of moles of e-
Q = in chemical equilibrium
 𝜟𝑮 = 𝜟𝑮𝟎 + RT ln Q
At equilibrium: ΔG = 0 ; Q = K
𝜟𝑮 = 𝜟𝑮𝟎 + RT ln Q
0 = 𝜟𝑮𝟎 + RT ln Q
𝚫𝐆𝟎 = − RT ln Q
ΔG, Gibbs free energy = − nFE and
ΔG0, standard Gibbs free energy = −nFE0
Derivation of Nernst Equation:
𝚫𝐆 = 𝚫𝐆𝟎 + RT ln Q
−nFE −nFE0
= + RT ln Q
−nF −nF −nF

RT
𝐄cell = 𝐄𝟎 − ln Q
nF
In Chemical Equilibrium
• A state in which the rates of the forward and reverse reactionS
are equal and the concentrations of the reactants and products
remain constant.
For a reaction: aA + bB → cC + dD
Equilibrium constant:
𝑐 𝑑
[𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡] [𝐶] [𝐷]
Keq = ; Keq =
[𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡] [𝐴]𝑎[𝐵]𝑏
Q (in chemical equilibrium) = K
Note:
Natural logarithm: lnx = log ex
ln 10 = 2.303
RT
𝐄cell = 𝐄𝟎 − ln Q
nF
(8.314 J/mol • 𝑲)(298 K)
𝐄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝐄𝟎 − ln Q
n (96 500 J/V • mol)
 (8.314 J/mol • 𝐾)(298 K)
E = E0 − ln Q
n (96 500 J/V • mol)

0.0257 V
𝐄cell = 𝐄𝟎 − ln Q
n

0.0257 V
Ecell = E0 − (2.303)
n

0.0592 V
𝐄cell = 𝐄𝟎 − log Q
n
At 298 K, the equation can be rewritten as:
0.0257V
Ecell = E0 − ln Q
(Equation 2) n
or expressing the equation using the base-10 logarithm of Q
(Equation 3)
0.0592V
𝐄cell = 𝐄𝟎 − log Q
n
Q = K, where K is the equilibrium constant.
 During the operation of galvanic cell, electron flows from
anode to cathode, resulting in product formation and a
decrease in reactant concentration.
 As Q increases, which means that E decreases. When the
cell reaches equilibrium, there will be no net transfer of
electrons, so E = 0.
Concentration Cells
 The emf of concentration cells is usually small and
decreases continually during operation of the cell as
the concentrations in the two compartments
approach each other.
 When the concentration of the ions in the two
compartments are the same, E becomes zero, and
further changes occurs

Factors that affect the voltage output of voltaic

cell:
 The activity of the half-cell potentials
 Temperature
 Concentration cells
Sample Problem
1. Predict whether the following would proceed
spontaneously as written at 298 K. Given that [Co2+] =
0.15 M and [Fe2+] = 0.68 M.
2+ Co 2+ + Fe
Co(s) + Fe (aq) (aq) (s)
The half-cell reaction:
Co 2+ + 2e-
Anode: Co(s) (aq)
Cathode: Fe2+ + 2e- Fe(s)
(aq)
E°cell= E°cathode - E°anode
= E°Fe2+ǀFe - E° Co2+ǀCo
= -0.44V – (-0.28V)
E°cell = -0.16 V
Nernst Equation:
0.0257V
E = E0 − ln Q
n
Solution:
0.0257V [Co2+ ]
E = E0 − ln 2+
n [Fe ]

E= − 0.16V − 0.0257V ln [0.15]

2 [0.68]

E = − 0.16V + 0.019V
E = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝐕 non-spontaneous
Because E is negative, the reaction is not spontaneous
in the direction written.
2.One half-cell in a voltaic cell is constructed from a copper wire
dipped into 4.8x10-3 M solution of Cu(NO3)2. The other half- cell
consists of a zinc electrode in a 0.40 M solution of Zn(NO3)2.
Calculate the cell potential.
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (4.8x10-3 M) → Zn+2 (0.40M) + Cu
(aq) (aq) (s)
Solution:
Anode: Zns) → Zn2+ + 2e- E° = + 0.76 V
(aq)
Cathode: Cu2+ +2e- → 2 Cu E° = + 0.34 V
(aq) (s)
Overall rxn: Zn(s)+ Cu2+ (aq) → Zn+2 (aq) + 2 Cu (s) E ° = + 1.10 V
n = 2e- +
[𝑍𝑛 2 ] [0.40]
𝑲𝒆𝒒= 2+ = = 83.33
𝐶𝑢 4.8 𝑥 10−3
Substitute values to the working equation:
0.0591V
E= E0 − log 83.33
n
0.0591 V
𝐄 = +1.10𝑉 − [ ] [log (83.33)] = +1.04 V
2
Or:
Substitute values to the working
+
equation:
0.0257V [𝑍𝑛2 ]
E = E0 − ln +
n 𝐶𝑢2
0.0257V [0.40]
E = +1.10𝑉 − ln
2 4.8 𝑥 10 − 3
E = +1.10𝑉 − [(0.01285) ln (83.33)]
𝐄 = +1.04 V
3.Use the Nernst equation to calculate the cell potentials of the
following cells at 298 K:
2 Ag+ (0.50 M) +Ni → 2 Ag + Ni+2 (0.20 M)
(aq) (s) (s) (aq)
Solution:
Anode: Ni(s) → Ni2+ + 2e- E° = + 0.25 V
(aq)
Cathode: 2 Ag+ +2e- → 2 Ag E° = + 0.80 V
(aq) (s)
Overall rxn: Ni(s)+ 2 Ag+ → Ni+2 + 2 Ag E° = + 1.05 V
(aq) (aq) (s)
n = 2e-
2+
[𝑁𝑖 ] [0.20]
𝑲𝒆𝒒= + = = 0.80
𝐴𝑔 1 2 0.50 2
Substitute values to the working equation:
0.0591V
E= E0 − log K eq
n
0.0591V
𝐄 = +1.05𝑉 − [ ] [log (0.80)] = +1.0528 V = + 1.053 V
2
Or:
Substitute values to the working equation:
0.0257V [𝑁𝑖2+]
E = E0 − ln + 2
n 𝐴𝑔 1

0.0257V [0.20]
E = +1.05 𝑉 − ln
2 0.50 2
E = +1.05 𝑉 − [(0.01285) ln (0.80)]
E = +1.05 𝑉 − (−2.86739 x 10−3)
𝐄 = +1.0528 V = + 1.053 V
 Free Energy, Cell Potential and
Equilibrium Constant
• Electrical Energy – is the product of the emf of the cell
and the total electrical charge that passes through the
cell.
𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑛𝐹 𝑥 𝐸°
= (mol e-)(C/ mol e- )( volts)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
= joules
Hence: 1 J = 1C x 1V
total charge = number of e- x charge of one e-
1 Faraday = 6.022 x 1023 e-/mol e- x 1.602 x 10-19 C/e-
= 9. 647 x 104 C/mol e- = 9.65 x 104 C/mol e-
 The amount of electrical energy generated by the
reaction: Zn(s)+ Cu2+ (aq) → Zn+2 (aq) + Cu(s)
with E° = +1.10V

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑛𝐹 𝑥 𝐸°
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑚𝑏
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 2 ( 96500 )(1.10𝑉)
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑉
𝐸𝐸 = 2.12 𝑥10^5 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 •
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑬𝑬 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍
Free- energy change, ∆𝐆°
 The change in free energy, ∆𝐺, is the maximum amount of
useful electrical work that can be obtain from the reaction.
𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑒= −𝑛𝐹𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
 Negative sign indicate that the electrical work is done
by the system (galvanic cell) on the surrounding.
∆𝐺 = 𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑒
∆𝐺 = −𝑛𝐹𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 (for spontaneous rxn, ∆𝐺 is negative)

(Relating free-energy change to the emf of the cell)

Hence, electromotive force, E° and free-energy
change, ∆G° at standard states (1M or 1 atm) :
∆𝑮° = −𝒏𝑭𝑬°𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍
(Relating the standard free-energy change to the standard
emf of the cell)
 For the reaction: Zn(s)+ Cu2+ (aq) → Zn+2 (aq) + Cu(s) with
E° = 1.10V, the free energy is:

∆𝐺° = −𝑛𝐹𝐸°𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑚𝑏
∆𝐺° = − 2 ( 96500 )(1.10𝑉)
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑉
∆𝐺° = −2.12 𝑥105 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 •
𝑚𝑜𝑙
∆𝑮° = −𝟐. 𝟏𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍
Equilibrium Constant, K
At equilibrium: E = 0
∆G° = −RT ln K
−nFEcell = −RT ln K
−RT −RT
Deriving K:
ln K = nFE°𝔀ell
RT
Using R = 8.314 J/ K• mol
F = 9.65 x104 J/ V • mol
T = 298 K
J
n(96500 •𝑚𝑜𝑙)E° 𝔀ell
V
ln K = J
(8.314K•mol)(298 𝑘)
𝐧𝐄°𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥
𝐥𝐧 𝐊 =
𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟕 𝐕
K = ea
Sample problem
For the reaction :Zn(s)+ Cu2+(aq) → Zn+2 (aq) + Cu(s),
compute the equilibrium constant.
Given:
E° = +1.10V
n=2
Req’d: K
Solution:
nE°cell
ln K =
0.0257 V
2 (1.10V)
ln K =
0.0257 V
ln K= 85.6 (press shift ln then enter 85.6)
K = 1.498 x 1037 = 2 x 10 37
Significance of Electromotive Force (emf):
1. Used to calculate the amount of electrical energy, EE; equilibrium
constant, K; and standard free-energy change, ∆G°
2. The K and ∆G°, are used to determine the spontaneity of the redox rxn.

The Relationship among ∆G°, K and E °

Copyright, @2013 The Mc Graw-Hill Co., Inc
The Relationship among ∆G°, K and E °
∆Gº K E°cell Spontaneity Reaction Under
of the reaction Standard-State
Conditions
Negative >1 Positive Spontaneous Favors forward
reaction reaction; favors
formation of the
products
0 =1 0 No net change At equilibrium;
reactants and
products are equally
favored
Positive <1 Negative Non- Favors reverse
spontaneous reaction; favors
reaction formation of
reactants
Sample Problem:
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the following
reaction at 25°C.
+ 2Cu 2+ Sn2+ + 2Cu +
Sn(s) (aq) (aq) (aq)
The half-cell reaction:
Sn 2+ + 2e-
Anode: Sn(s) (aq)
Cathode: 2Cu2+ + 2e- 2Cu+
(aq) (s)
E°cell= E°cathode - E°anode
= E°Cu2+ǀCu + - E°Sn2+ǀSn
= 0.15V – (-0.14V)
= 0.29 V
Formula:
𝐧𝐄°𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥
𝐥𝐧 𝐊 =
𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟕 𝐕
In the overall reaction the value of n = 2
(2)(0.29V)
ln K =
0.0257 V
ln K = 22. 6
K = e22.6
K = 6.5 x 109
 BATTERIES
 A battery is a galvanic cell or, more commonly, a group of
galvanic cells connected in series.
 Primary Cells or primary batteries. The cells in which the cell
reaction is irreversible i.e, when the cell reaction is completed or
all the reactants are exhausted, then no more electricity is
produce and the battery becomes dead. Primary cells can’t be
recharged.
 Secondary Cells or secondary batteries. Cells in which the cell
reaction can be reversed by passing direct electric current in
opposite direction. Thus a secondary battery may be used
through a large number of cycles of discharging and charging.

Note: Refer to Chemistry 10th Edition by Chang & Goldsby – for the
redox reaction of the batteries.
 Primary Cell

Wet Cells (Daniel cells)

 The emf of the cell is 1.5
volts
 anode: Zinc
 cathode: Cu

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniell_cell#/me
dia/File:NMAH-
Daniell_cell_batteries_1836.JPG
 Primary Cell

THE DRY CELL

A. Carbon-Zinc Dry Cell
 the emf voltage of the cell is
1.5 V
 anode: Zinc
 cathode: carbon rod
Application:
 Remote control
 Flashlights
 Clocks
 Transistor radios
 Primary Cell
B. Alkaline cell
 Also uses Zn and MnO2 but
KOH is the electrolyte.
 The voltage is about 1.54V
 It has a longer shelf-life and
delivers higher currents for
longer period than Zn-C cell.
Application:
 Watch battery
 Battery used in flashlights
 MP3 players
 Handheld video games
 Primary Cells
Mercury cell
 Can be made compact so it is used
where small size is important as in
pacemakers, hearing aids and electric
watches.
 The electrolyte is KOH
 The Hg does not flow since it is mixed
with HgO and graphite powder.
 The electrolyte is held by an adsorbent
cotton pad.
 The emf is 1.3 V
Application:
 Pacemakers Copyright@© 2011 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
 Hearing aids
 Electric watches
 Primary Cells
Silver oxide cell
 The miniature of battery
used in wristwatches,
calculators, and auto-
exposure cameras.
 The silver content
increases the cost of the
cell.
 The emf is about 1.5 V.
Application:
 Wrist watches
 Calculators
 Autoexposure cameras
http://kcseelectricity.blogspot.com/2014/07/silver-oxide-cell.html
 Secondary Cell

Edison storage battery

 Consist of steel anode plates packed
with iron and cathode plates packed
with hydrated NiO2.
 The electrolyte is 21% KOH solution
with some LiOH.
 The emf of each cell is about 1.47 V
 The battery is sealed otherwise the
KOH and LiOH will form carbonates
with atmospheric CO2
 The Edison storage battery is lighter
and more durable than the lead
storage battery, but it is more https://nationalmaglab.org/education/magnet-academy/history-of-
expensive. electricity-magnetism/museum/edison-battery
 Secondary Cell
Lead Storage Battery
 Functions as voltaic cell when used as a
source of direct current e.g. to start the
engine of a vehicle or to supply power
to the electrical accessories of the
vehicle.
 When the engine is running, it receives
part of the electrical energy for
recharging and at such instance it
functions as an electrolytic cell.
 The components are
a. anode: Pb (spongy)
b. PbO2 (Pb screens impregnated with
PbO2)
c. diluted aqueous solutions of H2SO4
 Secondary Cell
Lead Storage Battery
Application
 Emergency light
 Electric motors
 Motor Vehicles
 Back up power supplies in
telephone towers, computer
centers and hospitals
 Secondary Cell
Nickel-Cadmium Battery
 The Nickel-Cadmium storage
cell is the battery that powers
rechargeable electronic
calculators, electric shavers,
and power tools.
 The emf of the cell is about
1.4 V.
Application
 Rechargeable electronic
calculators
 Electric shavers
 Power rods
 Secondary Cell
Hydrogen fuel cell
 A fuel cell is composed of an
anode, a cathode, and an
electrolyte membrane.
 A fuel cell works by passing
hydrogen through the anode of a
fuel cell and oxygen through the
cathode.
 At the anode site, the hydrogen
molecules are split into electrons
and protons.
 The protons pass through the
electrolyte membrane, while the
electrons are forced through a
circuit, generating an electric
current and excess heat.
 Secondary Cell
Hydrogen fuel cell
 At the cathode, the protons,
electrons, and oxygen combine to
produce water molecules.
 Due to their high efficiency, fuel
cells are very clean, with their only
by-products being electricity,
excess heat, and water.
 In addition, as fuel cells do not
have any moving parts, they
operate near-silently.
Application
 Transportation
 Stationary power station
 Telecommunication
 Emergency backup power
 Micro power
 Secondary Cell

Sodium-sulfur battery
 sodium sulfur battery is a high-
temperature battery.
 It operates at 300°C and utilises a
solid electrolyte, making it unique
among the common secondary cells.
 One electrode is molten sodium and
the other molten sulfur, and it is the
reaction between these two that is the
basis for the cell reaction.
Application
 Winds farms
 Solar generation plants
 Electric grid
@Copyright 2011 – Brown - Brooks/Cole - Cengage Learning
LIMITATION OF BATTERIES:
 Most chemical cause for the loss of performance of battery is
corrosion.

CORROSION:
 Corrosion – the chemical attack on the metal or deterioration of
metal through oxidation by its environment.
 Galvanic corrosion is either a chemical or an electrochemical
corrosion. The latter is due to a potential difference between two
different metals connected through a circuit for current flow to
occur from more active metal (more negative potential) to the
more noble metal (more positive potential).
 Galvanic coupling is a galvanic cell in which the anode is the
less corrosion resistant metal than the cathode.
@Copyright 2011 – Brown - Brooks/Cole - Cengage Learning
 The rusting of iron
exposed to the weather even
support iron underneath
concrete is an example of
uniform corrosion.
 Iron is oxidized, and
oxygen from the air is
reduced.
 Water is needed for ion
mobility between the
anodic and cathodic
regions, and the presence
of ionic salts speeds the
reaction considerably.

@Copyright 2011 – Brown - Brooks/Cole - Cengage Learning

Prevention of Corrosion
 Coatings
o coating the metal with other metals
o coating the metal with metallic compounds and
lacquers
 Alloying the metal with other metals
 By using chemical to form a surface coating
 By attaching a more active metal (cathodic protection)

@Copyright 2011 – Brown - Brooks/Cole - Cengage Learning

 Electrolysis
 A process that utilizes electrical potential energy to
cause a chemical reaction that does not occur
spontaneously.
 absorb free energy from an electrical source to
drive a nonspontaneous reaction
 Forcing a current through a cell to produce a
chemical change for which the cell potential is
negative.
 The process takes place in an electrolytic cell
wherein the positive electrode (+) is the anode
and the negative electrode (-) is the cathode.
 Electrode Product
 At inert cathode (-):  At inert anode (+):
1. If a metal is below 1. Oxygen is liberated during
hydrogen activity, electrolysis of most salts with
electrolysis of aqueous anions containing oxygen,
solution of its salts causes such as SO4-2 and NO3-
the metal to form at the 2. Anions such as Cl-, Br-, and
cathode. I- except for F-, are more easily
2. If a metal is above oxidized than water. Thus, the
hydrogen activity, the free halogen are liberated.
electrolysis of aqueous Electrolysis of molten or
solutions usually liberates concentrated NaCl, chlorine is
hydrogen gas at the liberated at the anode. In
cathode. diluted solution, oxygen as
well as chlorine are formed.
 Schematic Representation of the electrolysis of:

(A) Molten NaCl (B) Aqueous Solution of

Anode: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e- NaCl
Cathode: Na+ + 2e- → Na Anode: 2O-2 → O2 + 4e-
2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
Cathode: 2H+ + 2e- → H2
 Schematic Representation of the electrolysis of:

(A) Molten NaCl (B) Aqueous Solution of

Anode: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e- NaCl
Cathode: Na+ + 2e- → Na Anode: 2O-2 → O2 + 4e-
2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
Cathode: 2H+ + 2e- → H2
Schematic representation of the electrolysis of water

Source: shutterstock.com
Sample Problem:
 Application of Electrolysis
 Electrolysis is used to electroplate objects (coat them with a
thin layer or metal). This is useful for coating a cheaper metal
with a more expensive one, such as copper or silver.
 Electrolysis with active electrodes has several industrial
applications among which are:
 Electroplating
 the production of some common chemicals like aluminum,
magnesium, chlorine, sodium, sodium hydroxide
 the refining of copper
 the synthesis of sodium hydroxide and sodium hypochlorite.
 Electroplating is a process of coating a material with metals
to improve its appearance and durability.
 Application of Electrolysis
1. Electroplating
2. Production of Aluminum
3. Production of Magnesium
4. Purification of Copper
 ELECTROPLATING
 a process of coating a material
with metals to improve its
appearance and durability.
 the negative electrode should
be the object to be
electroplated.
 the positive electrode should be
the metal that you want to coat
the object with.
 the electrolyte should be a https://www.sgproto.com/single-
solution of the coating metal, post/2018/01/06/Prototype-Surface-
Finishing-of-Electroplating
such as its metal nitrate or
sulfate.
 PRODUCTION OF
ALUMINUM

• Aluminum has low

density and excellent
corrosion resistance.
Hall-Heroult, the
commercial process for
aluminum production.
The electrolytic process
for extracting aluminum
ore, as well as the
process for recycling
the aluminum objects.
Hall-Heroult process for aluminium production
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Hall-
Heroult-process-for-aluminium-production_
 http://arlingtonplating.com/substrates-specifications/plating-on-magnesium/
• Magnesium castings and thixomolded components can both be
electroplated to improve the appearance and corrosion
resistance.
PRODUCTION • Magnesium metal is two thirds the weight of aluminum and can
be formed using a thixomolding process which helps to produce
thin walls and intricate geometry.
OF • Common alloying elements for magnesium plating include
MAGNESIUM aluminum, zinc, and manganese.
• Magnesium and magnesium alloys are used in a wide variety of
structural applications including:
• automotive
• Industrial
• Materials-Handling
• Commercial and Aerospace Equipment
 PURIFICATION
OF COPPER
• Copper is purified by
electrolysis. Electricity
is passed through
solutions containing
copper compounds,
such as copper (II)
sulfate. The anode
(positive electrode) is
made from impure
copper and the
cathode (negative
electrode) is made
from pure copper.
Pure copper forms on
the cathode.

Copper electrorefining tank house

https://copperalliance.org.uk/
 Factors affecting the rate of deposition of
metals
1. Concentration of solution (electrolytes)
2. Amount of current
3. Time interval
4. Temperature
5. Type of solution
6. Oxidation state of the metal ions
 Faraday’s Law
Michael Faraday experimented extensively to determine the
relationship between electric charge and chemical change. The following
statements are known as Faraday’s Law:
1. the mass of an element releases at the electrode during electrolysis
varies directly as the electricity that is passed through a solutions.
2. the quantity of different elements that can be deposited by the same
amount of electricity depends on the equivalent masses of these
elements. Chemists measure the quantity of electrons in moles. Electricity
is measured in coulombs (C). One coulomb is the quantity of electricity in
one ampere (A) flowing for one second. The relationship of all these
quantities is
1 mole e- = 96 500 coulomb = 1 ampere • second
Thus 96 500 coulombs passing through molten Al2O3 will liberate
1/3 of an equivalent mass of aluminum (27.0 g) and ½ of an equivalent
mass of oxygen (16.0 g).
96 500 C = 9.0 g Al = 1/3 mol Al = 6.02 x 1023 e-
96 500 C = 8.0 g O = 1/2 mol O = 6.02 x 1023 e-
References:

 Worktext in Chet 2019, Chemistry Dept. , COS – TUP

Manila
 Chemistry 11th edition by Chang & Goldsby 2013 @ Mc
Graw-Hill Co.,Inc.
 Chemistry for Engineering Students by Brown & Holme
2011 @ Brooks/Cole - Cengage Learning
 Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity by Kotz & Purcell1987
@Saunders College Publishing
 Solving Problems in Chemistry by Smith & Himes 1984
@ Merrill Publishing Company
 Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Changes
by Silberberg @ The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.