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 Chapter
MOMENTUM

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1 Define momentum and impulse.

2 Calculate the momentum of an object.

3 Calculate the impulse given to an object.

4 State the law of conservation of momentum and use it to solve

problems.
5 Apply momentum and impulse principles to car accident analysis.

6 Relate Newton's third law of motion to momentum.

7 Discuss reasons why various safety features are built into

modern motor vehicles.

Everyday experience tells us that it is more difficult to stop a heavy truck

travelling at 60 km/h than it is to stop a light car travelling at the same
speed. This is because the truck has more mass. It is also more difficult to
stop a light car travelling at 100 km/h than it is to stop the same car
travelling at 40 km/h. The two factors being considered here are mass and

(Photo 9.1)
Faster cars are more difficult to stop and cause
more damage in a collision than slower cars of the
same mass.
velocity. The product of mass and velocity is called momentum. Momen-
tum is a useful quantity to describe the motion of an object.

Momentum = mass x velocity

p = mv
(kg ms-I) (kg) (m S-I)

Momentum is a vector quantity, being the product of a scalar (mass) and

a vector (velocity). The unit of momentum does not have a special name.
The unit for momentum, kg ms-1, is the same as N s, and this is often used.
The direction of momentum is the same as the direction of the velocity.

Example 1
Calculate the momentum of a tram of mass 2000 kg travelling at 5 ms-I.

Answer
p =
mv = 2000 x 5 = 10 000 kg ms-l

Example 2
Find the momentum of the earth in its orbit around the sun. The mass
of the earth is 6.0 x 1024 kg and the radius of its orbit is 1.5 1011m. x
Answer
· circumference of orbit 2x1tx1.5x1011
V e IOClty = peno d . = 365 x 24 x 60 x 60
= 3.0 X 104 ms-l
Momentum = mv = 6.0 x 1024 X 3.0 X 104 kg ms-I =
1.8 x 1029 kg ms-l

Example 3
A bicycle and rider of total mass 100 kg travelling west at 6 mls increases
speed to 10 mls in 8 s. Find the change in momentum.

Answer
Change in momentum =
final momentum - initial momentum
Final momentum mv =
100 x 10 =
1000 kg ms-I =
Initial momentum mu =
100 x 6 =
600 kg ms-I =
Change in momentum 1000 - 600 =
400 kg ms-1 =

1 Calculate the momentum of the following objects:

(a) a 0.1 kg golf ball travelling at 16 ms-I
(b) a 1500 kg car travelling at 20 ms-1
(c) a 40 kg rock falling at constant speed 30 ms-I

2 A motor vehicle of mass 1200 kg has a momentum of 8400 kg ms-I.

Find its velocity.

3 Which object has the greatest momentum: an object of 100 kg _

mass travelling at 2 ms-2 or an object of mass 2 kg travelling at
100 ms-l?

4 A person throws a 0.1 kg ball at a brick wall. The ball hits the wall
perpendicularly with a speed of 5 ms-I. Then it bounces back with
a speed of 4 ms-I• The change in momentum of the ball is which
of the following?
(a) 0.1 kg ms-1 (b) 0.9 kg ms-l
(c) 0.4 kg ms-1 (d) 0.5 kg ms-1
In chapter 4, we saw that Newton's second I~w of motion can be written as
F = ma. We also saw that acceleration a = (~-
u)lt, where. u and v are the
initial and final velocities and t the time.' :
Combining these two equations gives:
_ m(v - u) __m_v_-_m_u__ change in momentum
F- t
- t
- .
ume
So the rate of change of momentum is equal to the external force causing
the change. This is Newton's second law in terms of momentum. The
above relationship can also be written as

The product Ft is called the impulse of the motion. Impulse measures how
hard and for how long a force is exerted. The result of an impulse is a
change in momentum, i.e. impulse is equal to the change in momentum.
The SI unit for impulse is N s, or kg ms-1•
Impulse can also be determined from the area under a force-time graph.
This area is also the change of momentum (see figure 9.1).

impulse = area under graph impulse = area under graph

1 1
=2"(10 x 4) =2"(4x5)+4x5

=20Ns = 10 + 20

=30Ns

Example 4
A person kicks a soccer ball of mass 1 kg. The ball moves from rest to a
speed of lams-I. Calculate the force of the kick if the interaction took
(a) 0.01 s and (b) 0.1 s.

Answer
(a) F = m(v - u) 1x10-1xO
0.01 =
10
0.01 = 1000 N
t

(b) F = m(v t- u) Ix 10 - 1 x a =~ = 100 N

0.1 0.1
Notice that the time interval was 10 times longer in (b), and the force
required was 10 times smaller. For the same change in momentum, the
longer the time of the impact, the smaller is the force required.

The safety of the passengers in a car during a collision also depends on the
time interval in which a moving car is brought to a stop. To reduce the force
 of impact, we have to increase the time of interaction. To do this car
manufacturers make the front and rear sections of cars collapsible. These
sections must not be too soft or too hard. They must progressively collapse,
so that the force of impact occurs over the longest possible time.
Other safety features in better designed cars include:
impact-absorbing bumpers
• an impact-absorbing body
• a rigidly constructed and reinforced cabin compartment
• a collapsible steering column
• air bags
the total absence of any sharp edges on fittings inside the vehicle
T!
r. r

(Photo 9.2)
A test in a car factory to study the effect of a
head-on collision

5 A force of ION acts on a ball of mass 1 kg for 2 s. Find the

impulse given to the ball.

6 A motorcycle of mass 500 kg is brought to rest from 30 ms-1 in

10 s. What is the average braking force?

7 A car of mass 1000 kg is travelling at a velocity of 15 ms-1• It

collides head on with a wall. Calculate the force of impact if it
stops in (a) 0.5 s and (b) 0.01 s. Which time interval is preferable
from the viewpoint of passenger safety? Why?
30 8 Figure 9.2 shows a force-time graph for a supermarket trolley of
25 mass 60 kg. The trolley is at rest prior to the force acting on it.
~ 20 (a) What is the change in momentum of the trolley during the
6-
time interval shown?
Q) 15
l: (b) What is the impulse given to the trolley?
.2 10
(c) What is the average force exerted on the trolley?
5 (d) What is the speed of the trolley immediately after it has been
o pushed?
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
time (s) 9 An impulse of ION acts on a rock of mass 5 kg. This will cause a
change in the rock's velocity of which of the following?
(a) 0.5 ms-1 (b) 2 ms-1 (c) 5 ms-1 (d) 10 ms-1

When two bodies collide, each exerts a force on the other. Newton's third
law of motion calls these two forces 'action' and 'reaction',
We have seen earlier in this chapter that
m(v - u)
F = t

i.e. the total momentum before a collision equals the total momentum after
a collision. This is the law of conservation of momentum. The conser-
vation of momentum is thus a consequence of Newton's laws of motion.

Example 5 <-
A trolley of mass 2 kg travelling at 3 ms-I collides with a stationary trolley
of mass 1 kg. The two trolleys stick together after the collision. Find their
common velocity.

c=J D
2 kg
3 ms-1
1 kg
o ms-1
1_8
Total momentum before impact = total ~omentum after impact
m1uI + = m1v1 + mzvz
mzUz
3 x 2 + 0 = 3 x v (since VI = vz)
6 = 3v
v = 2 ms- I

Example 6
A trolley of mass 2 kg travelling at 6 ms-I collides with another trolley
of mass 0.4 kg travelling in the same direction at 2 ms-I• After impact, the
2 kg trolley travels at 3 ms-I in the same direction. Find the velocity of
the 0.4 kg trolley after the collision.

GB 2 kg 0.4 kg
GB 2 kg 0.4 kg
6 ms-1 2 ms-1 3 ms-1 v

m1uI + mzuz = mlvI + mzv

2 x 6 + 0.4 x 2 = 3 x 2 + 0.4z X Vz

6.8
0.4 = Vz

Vz = 17 ms-I
 Example 7
Two stationary rocks of masses 1 kg and 2 kg respectively are held together.
An explosion occurs between the rocks. They are pushed apart with no loss
of mass. The velocity of the 1 kg rock after the explosion is 4 ms-I• Find the
velocity of the 2 kg rock after the explosion.

before after

- -
4m/s v

G 8
mllll + mzllz = m1v1 + mzvz
o = 1 x -4 + 2 X Vz
Vz = 2 ms-I

Note: In problems involving conservation of momentum, it is a good idea

to draw a diagram of the situation and set out the calculations as shown
above.
You must assign positive and negative numbers to the velocities because
of their different directions.

(Photo 9.3)
The front section of a car is made collapsible for the
safety of the passengers and driver during a
collision.

Fig 9.6 (a) When a person steps off a stationary rowboat, the boat moves in a direction opposite to that of the
person. The boat's final momentum is equal and opposite to the person's [Link], so that the
total momentum is zero, as it was before the person stepped off the boat. (b) Newton's cradle consists of
a line of steel balls suspended from two parallel rods. The strings form a V-shape so that the balls will
move only in one direction. When ball 1 is raised and then released, it strikes ball 2. As a result of the
collision, ball 2 gains momentum and strikes ball 3. This transfer of momentum continues until ball 5 moves
out at the end of the line. On its return, ball 5 strikes ball 4 and the process repeats itself in reverse order.
 Example 7
Two stationary rocks of masses 1 kg and 2 kg respectively are held together.
An explosion occurs between the rocks. They are pushed apart with no loss
of mass. The velocity of the 1 kg rock after the explosion is 4 ms-I• Find the
velocity of the 2 kg rock after the explosion.

before after

- -
4m/s v

8 8
mllll + mzllz = mtv1 + mzvz
o = 1 X -4 + 2 X Vz
Vz = 2 ms-I

Note: In problems involving conservation of momentum, it is a good idea

to draw a diagram of the situation and set out the calculations as shown
above.
You must assign positive and negative numbers to the velocities because
of their different directions.

(Photo 9.3)
The front section of a car is made collapsible for the
safety of the passengers and driver during a
collision. ..

Fig 9.6 (a) When a person steps off a stationary rowboat, the boat moves in a direction opposite to that of the
person. The boat's final momentum is equal and opposite to the person's final momentum, so that the
total momentum is zero, as it was before the person stepped off the boat. (b) Newton's cradle consists of
a line of steel balls suspended from two parallel rods. The strings form a V-shape so that the balls will
move only in one direction. When ball 1 is raised and then released, it strikes ball 2. As a result of the
collision, ball 2 gains momentum and strikes ball 3. This transfer of momentum continues until ball 5 moves
out at the end of the line. On its return, ball 5 strikes ball 4 and the process repeats itself in reverse order.
 10 An object of mass 5 kg moving at a velocity of 16 ms-1 strikes
another of mass 3 kg at rest. The two masses continue in motion
together. Find their common velocity.

11 A body of mass 5 kg travels at 6 ms-1• It collides with a 2 kg

mass travelling at 3 ms-1 in the same direction. After the
collision, the 5 kg mass has a velocity of 2 ms-i• Find the velocity
of the 2 kg mass after the collision.

12 A cannon of mass 1000 kg fires a cannonball of mass 50 kg. The

initial recoil velocity of the gun is 40 ms-i• Find the m~zzle
velocity of the cannonball.

13 A heavy car, A, of mass 2000 kg travelling at 10 ms-1 collides

head on with another car, B, of mass 500 kg. Both cars stop
moving on colliding. What is the velocity of car B before impact?
14 A railway cart of mass 2000 kg rolls at 20 ms-i along a track. It
collides with four similar carts which are initially stationary. The
five carts are then joined. Assuming momentum is conserved,
find their common velocity.

Asteroid danger
On Thursday, 23 March 1989, our populated area. approaching asteroids larger than
planet came within six hours of collid- Asteroid strikes are a real threat to 0.5 km diameter .within the next 25
ing with an asteroid that was between our planet. One NASA scientist esti- years. It is estimated that there are
325 and 800 m wide. Had it hit the mated that the chance of dying due to around 10 000 of these objects of which
earth, it would have impacted with a asteroid strike is greater than the risk only 100 have currently been identified.
blast over 100 000 times more power- of dying in either an aeroplane crash The concerted hunt for dangerous
ful than the atomic bomb that destroyed or a volcanic eruption. Scientists are asteroids is only just beginning. The
Hiroshima. so concerned by the possibility that hope is that when and if we identify
Eighty-three years ago, a slightly NASA has set up a working team to any threatening objects, we'll have the
smaller asteroid did hit earth, obliter- help detect and identify all near-earth time and technology to do something
ating hundreds of square kilometres of asteroids. The hope is that a program about it.
forest in Siberia. Imagine if it had hit a can be set up to try to list all earth- From Helix, No. 29, 1991

Example 8
The earth (mass 6.0 x 1024 kg) moves around the sun with a velocity of
30000 ms-1• An asteroid of average diameter 20 km and mass 2 x 1017 kg
travelling at 50 000 ms-1 in the opposite direction collides with the earth so
that both objects stick together. What will be their combined velocity after
impact?

-~
 Using the law of conservation of momentum:

Total momentum before impact = total momentum after

impact
meue + maua = (me + m)v
(6.0 X 1024 X 30 000) + (2 X 1017 x-50 000) = (6.0 X 1024 + 2 X 1017)v
Since the mass of the asteroid is very much less than the mass of earth, the
mass of the asteroid can be ignored. This means that the loss in velocity of
the earth is so small that it cannot be detected. Hence v 30 000 ms-I. =

15 What damage would occur if a large asteroid hit earth at

(a) a major city and (b) a remote area of Australia?

16 If an asteroid with a mass equal to the mass of the moon

(7.4 X 1022 kg) collided head on with the earth, would the earth's
velocity change? Explain.

9.4 FURTHER EXAMPLES OF MOMENTUM

CONSERVATION
The propulsion of rockets is based on the law of conservation of momen-
main engine tum. A rocket moves forward because burning gases are ejected at high
fires
velocity behind it. If an engine supplies a constant force to the rocket, the
acceleration of the rocket will increase because the total mass of the rocket
decreases as fuel and oxygen are burnt. The characteristic whoosh of a
fIrework is due to the acceleration building up very rapidly as the mass of
the fuel in the rocket decreases.
Once free of the earth's gravity a rocket in space turns off its engines and
coasts at a steady speed. A rocket on the way to the moon has its engines
on for only a small fraction of the total time of the journey. As a moon
rocket approaches the moon it turns around, using thruster motors, and
then fIres its main engine again so that it slows down and goes into orbit
around the moon.
A typical rocket in earth orbit with a velocity of 8 km/s has an exhaust gas
velocity of about 2 km/s. The total mass of the rocket in orbit will be only
Fig 9.8 A rocket on its way to the moon has its about 3 per cent of the total mass of the rocket before takeoff, all the rest
engines on for only a small fraction of the having been burnt as fuel.
time for the journey. If you release an inflated balloon with its neck open, it flies off in the
opposite direction to that of the escaping air. In fIgure 9.9(a) the air has
momentum to the left while the balloon has equal momentum to the right.

cylinder of air
--,
•..••... ' •..• •...
moved backwards
by the propeller

Fig 9.9
- \
\
air
\

(a) The motion of a balloon. (b) A propeller pushes a cylinder of air backwards, causing
aeroplane to move forwards.
e
 A similar principle applies to jet engines. Jet and propeller aeroplanes
move forward because their jet engine or propellers exert a backward force
on the air. A jet engine draws in air at the front and the hot exhaust gas is
ejected at a higher speed from the back. Propellers push a mass of air
backwards at high speed. If the air has momentum backwards, then the jet
or propeller aeroplane has equal momentum forwards (figure 9.10).

Fuel

slow
air _~
~:~==:1=~::~_
~=-§~;----
combust~on ~-'"
§_§ _ f as t ex haus t
particles ~ §H---- g gas particles

~t
Compressor
Turbine to
spin compressor
Fig 9.10 How a jet engine moves an aeroplane
forwards Fuel

Space rockets carry their own fuel/oxygen supplies; jet engines use the
surrounding air. Jet-engined aeroplanes cannot fly through outer space
because there is no air in which their engines can work.

18 A rocket launched vertically sends out 50 kg of ~xhaust gases

every second with a velocity of 200 m/s.
(a) What is the upward force on the rocket?
(b) If the mass of the rocket is 500 kg, what is its initial upward
acceleration?
19 A rocket of mass M moving with a velocity v explodes and breaks
into two pieces. After the explosion one piece, of mass m, of the
rocket remains stationary in space. Which of the following is the
velocity of the other piece?
Mv
(a) m (b)~
M-m
Mv (d) Mv
(c) M + m M-m

The previous examples of collisions have occurred in a straight line, where

the force of impact is directed towards the centre of gravity of each vehicle.
The centre of gravity is the point to which a force can be applied to a body
without rotating the body.
For a two-body system, the total momentum is also equal to the product
of the total mass and the velocity of the centre of gravity.

p = (m! + m2)vCg = m!v! + m2v2

In a collision, the centre of gravity moves in a straight line at constant

speed (see figure 9.11).
 MOMENTUM 155

- V1

-V2

UJ:DO -- DO
car 1
C of8

Vcg

car 2
Fig 9.11 m1 m2

If the force of impact is directed towards the centre of gravity of a vehicle

(such a force is called a 'centred force'), the vehicle will either be slowed
down or speeded up along the direction of the force.

Many collisions, however, occur with the force of impact off-centred.

Such collisions cause vehicles to rotate about their centre of gravity.

I
[[Jt3f)
.
/
GfE]J-; -0
I
Fig 9.13 Off-centred collisions cause vehicles to
rotate about their centre of gravity.

The law of conservation of momentum also applies to off-centred colli-

sions, but is more difficult to apply. The following examples still apply to
'centred' collisions, but with more than one spatial dimension being in-
volved rather than simply a straight line.

Example 9
A car of mass 800 kg travelling due north collides with a truck of mass
2000 kg travelling due east. The police investigating the accident determine
that the truck was travelling at 36 km/h (10 ms-I) prior to impact. After the
collision the car and truck cl~ether and move in a direction N53°01'E.
Neglecting friction, determine (a) their common speed after impact and
(b) whether the car was exceeding the speed limit of 60 km/h prior to the
collision.

+ truck mTvT
h
I
:4
c:J'
(mT + mcl
v
:

~:tv-r 6
!
v-;;S-;~059'
v sin 36°59'

Ej ~,m,v,
We can equate the horizontal components of momentum and the vertical
components of momentum (before and after impact).
(a) Horizontally:
Momentum before =
momentum after
mTvT + mcvc =
(mT + mc)v cos e
(2000 x 10) + 0 =
(2800)v cos 36°59'
20000
v =
2240
So the common velocity after impact, v, is 8.92 ms-1 (32.1 km/h).
(b) Vertically:
Momentum before =
momentum after
mTvT + mcvc =
(mT + mc)v sin e
=
o + 800v c 2800 x 8.92 x sin 36°59'
Vc =
18.73 ms-1 (67.4 km/h)
Yes, the car was exceeding the speed limit.

Example 10
A body at rest explodes breaking into three pieces which move off at
different velocities, all in the same horizontal plane. Figure 9.15 shows the
experimental results as drawn from a stroboscopic photograph of the event.
The time interval between flashes was 0.10 s.

x
~ 2 kg

z __----- .•..----- .•..-----.~

# 9~'f- .
-O.80m- (
'e

"" , l?6) .,
~ '
~ '"" .• y
1 kg

The pieces X and Y, which travel at right angles to each other, are
collected after the explosion and their masses are found to be 2.0 kg and
1.0 kg respectively. Piece Z was lost after the explosion.
From this information find:
(a) the speed of Z
(b) the momentum of X and the momentum of Y
(c) the sum of the momenta of X and Y
(d) the mass of Z

Answer

Z -- distance
(a) Spee d - 0.80 m 4 0 m/
0f time - 0.20 s -. s
(b) Momentum of X =
mv =
2.0 kg x (0.40 m/O.20 s) 4.0 kg m/s =
=
Momentum of Y mv = 1.0 kg x (0.60 m/O.20 s) = 3.0 kg m/s
(c) Sum of momenta of X and Y 42 + 32 = 5.0 kg m/s=
(by Pythagoras's theorem)
(d) Momentum of Z =
5.0 kg m/s =
mass of Z x speed of Z
5.0 kg m/s
Mass of Z =4.0 m/s =
1.2 kg
20 A sphere of mass 3 kg travelling north at 2 ms-1 collides with
another sphere of mass 4 kg travelling east at 2 ms-I. What is the
magnitude of their resultant momentum after collision.

21 A van of mass 2000 kg travelling east at 15 ms-I collides with a

1000 kg car travelling north. They cling together and move off at
an angle of 30° to the initial direction of the van. Find (a) their
common velocity after impact, (b) the initial velocity of the car
and (c) whether the car or the van was exceeding the speed limit
of 60 km/h.

22 Two spacecraft P and Q, each of mass 700 kg, collide, cling

together and move off as shown in figure 9.16. Calculate their
final speed.

final speed v
•.

Example 11
A car travelling along a road at a speed of 20 ms-I runs over an 'ice slick' on
the road, and slides out of control, 'head on' into a large tree on the side of
the road. The momentum of the car in the instant before the collision is
4 x 104 kg ms-I• The impact with the tree brings the car to rest in 0.05 s.
(a) What is the average force exerted on the car by the tree during this
collision?
(b) What is the average force exerted on the tree by the car?
(c) The car suffered considerable structural damage during this collision,
yet the only visible sign of a collision on the tree was a small
indentation in the trunk and some small pieces of missing bark.
Explain the observed differences in damage to the car and the tree.

Answer
(a) Change in momentum =
impulse
mv - mu =
Ft
=
4 x 104 F x 0.05
F =
8 X 105 N
(b) The force exerted on tree by car =the force exerted by car on tree
=8 x 105 N
(c) The tree and the earth have a much larger mass than that of the car,
so the forces involved have a much greater effect on the lighter
car. The tree is also more rigid than the car (which is purposely
designed to crumple on impact).
• The momentum p of an object of mass m moving at a velocity v is
defined as the product mv.
• The law of conservation of momentum: The total momentum of a
system remains constant, provided that the system is not subjected to
any external forces.
• The total momentum before a collision equals the total momentum after
the collision.
• The product of the average force and the time interval during which the
force is applied is known as the impulse.
• For the same change in momentum, the force applied is reduced if the
time interval of interaction is lengthened.
• Safety features in better designed motor vehicles aimed at reducing the
force of impact include body panels at front and rear that crumple
progressively on impact, impact-absorbing bumpers and panels, collaps-
ible steering wheels, and air bags.

23 When catching a softball or a cricket ball, it is advisable to move

your hands backwards. This 'follow-through' motion is important
because it reduces which of the following?
(a) the ball's change of momentum
(b) the magnitude of the impulse
(c) the force exerted by the ball
(d) the ball's inertia

24 A car of mass 1000 kg travelling west slows down from 54 km/h

to rest in 6 s. Calculate the force on the car and its change in
momentum.

25 A rocket ejects gases at a speed of 740 ms-1, discharging 10 kg in

2 s. Find the average lifting force.

26 Use the law of conservation of momentum to explain why:

(a) an astronaut moves backward when throwing a hammer
forward in space
(b) a rocket in space moves forward when it fires its engines
(c) you fall backWards when throwing a heavy log in front of you

27 A railway truck of mass 1000 kg rolls at 15 ms-1 along a track

and collides with two similar trucks which are initially stationary.
The three trucks are then joined. Assuming momentum is
conserved, calculate their velocity.

28 A tennis ball of mass 100 g bounces vertically on a cement floor.

Its velocity changes from 10 ms-1 down to 5 ms-1 up in 0.1 s.
Find the force exerted on the ball.

29 A 0.1 kg billiard ball travelling with velocity 2 ms-1 collides with

an identical stationary ball. The incident ball stops on impact.
(a) With what velocity does the initially stationary ball move after
impact?
(b) What is the direction of this ball?
30 A 2000 kg railway truck is running on its own along a track at a
constant velocity of 20 mls. As the truck is running, a 500 kg
bale of wool is dropped onto it. The velocity of the truck
containing the wool is which of the following?
(a) 5 mls (b) 16 mls (c) 26 mls
(d) 50 mls (e) 80 mls

31 A pile-driver of mass 2 kg is raised to a height of 5 m. It is then

allowed to fall on a pile of mass 8 kg. The pile is driven into the
ground. Assume that the acceleration due to gravity is 10 ms-2•
(a) Calculate the velocity of the pile-driver just before it strikes
the pile.
(b) If the pile-driver and the pile move together after impact,
calculate their common velocity.
(c) If the system comes to rest after penetrating 0.1 m into the
ground, calculate the average retarding force exerted by the
ground.
32 A body of mass 3.2 kg is acted on by a resultant force. The force
varies with time as shown in figure 9.17.

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-
~. -H
'iti 'I+c~;':
."
'-, II
"f
it.:t=- 1 'i !--1~in

Find (a) the change in momentum of the body in 10 s and

(b) the velocity after 10 s.

33 A truck of mass 500 kg moving at 4 ms·1 collides with another

truck of mass 1500 kg moving in the same direction at 2 ms-I•
What is their common velocity just after the collision if they
move off together?

34 (a) A 0.1 kg baseball travelling at 30 ms·1 lands in a 0.2 kg mitt

(or glove). What is the momentum of the baseball?
(b) What would be the speed of the ball and the mitt together if
the fielder's hand and arm were not also involved?
(c) What would be the effect of including the fielder's hand and
arm?
(d) If the fielder's mitt stops the ball over a period of 0.1 s what
average stopping force was applied to the ball?
35 A truck of mass 2000 kg travelling due south collides at an
intersection with a car of mass 1200 kg travelling due east. The
car and truck become entangled and move off to the south-east.
 The truck driver claims to have been travelling at exactly 60 km/h
(the speed limit) just prior to impact. Determine whether the car
was exceeding the speed limit.

36 A 7.5 t truck travelling at 5 ms-1 east collides with a 1.5 t car

moving at 20 ms-1 in a direction 30° south of west on an icy
road. The two vehicles remain tangled together. Calculate the
momentum of the wreckage (include direction),
37 A rocket is set for vertical firing from the surface of the earth.
When ignited the engine bums fuel at the rate of 500 kg/s and
ejects exhaust gases with an average speed of 750 ms-l,
(a) What is the value of the maximum thrust developed by the
rocket engine?
(b) The rocket is released from the launch pad locks and allowed
to ascend. The mass of the rocket and fuel at release is 20 t.
What is the initial acceleration of the rocket?
38 Why do manufacturers of modem cars make them with front and
rear sections that crumple progressively in collisions?
39 What features of modem motor vehicles help spread impact
forces over the largest possible area? Why is this desirable?

40 An explosion of a stationary rock produces three pieces that fly

off in a horizontal plane. The masses and velocities are shown in
figure 9.18.

Piece 1 m, =2 kg
v, = 50 m/s

Piece 3 Piece 2
m3 =? m2 = 5 kg
v3 = 100 m/s v2 = 20 m/s
Chapter
f~'/'. r
, I ~ ENERGY AND MOTION
,I"
!-
f.'. "n.•.
I .
•
f
'·f
~ . 't
. I

.~

List various sources and types of energy.

State examples of energy transformations.

Define work, kinetic energy, potential energy and power.

Use the definition of work to calculate energy transfer.

Solve problems involving energy changes.

State the principle of conservation of energy ..

Distinguish between elastic and non-elastic collisions.

Discuss elastic potential energy. Solve problems involving

elastic potential energy.

State Hooke's law. Solve problems involving Hooke's law.

Discuss energy changes occurring in a swinging pendulum and

objects moving in a vertical circle.

Energy is important in every aspect of our lives. Primitive people were able
to release the energy stored in wood when they discovered fire. Later people
learnt how to use the energy of the wind and running water. In time,
humans found that they could release energy from 'fossil fuels' like coal and
oil.
biogas
Today, we draw on a variety of energy sources. However, there is
coal
increasing concern that our supplies of fossil fuels are fast running out and
oil
that we have to look towards alternative sources of energy.
natural gas
Energy exists in many forms - for example, heat, light, mechanical,
geothermal
chemical, sound, electrical and nuclear.
hydroelectricity
Energy can be transferred from one form into another, but it cannot be
nuclear power
created or destroyed (the law of conservation of energy). When coal burns,
ocean thermal
chemical energy in the coal is changed to heat energy. This heat energy can
solar power
be used to turn water into steam which can drive a turbine connected to an
tidal power
electricity generator (i.e. heat ~ mechanical ~ electrical). When a torch is
wind power
switched on, chemical energy in the batteries is used to produce electrical
Chapter
ENERGY AND MOTION

List various sources and types of energy.

State examples of energy transformations.

Define work, kinetic energy, potential energy and power.

Use the defmition of work to calculate energy transfer.

Solve problems involving energy changes.
State the principle of conservation of energy ..

Distinguish between elastic and non-elastic collisions.

Discuss elastic potential energy. Solve problems involving
elastic potential energy.

State Hooke's law. Solve problems involving Hooke's law.

Discuss energy changes occurring in a swinging pendulum and
objects moving in a vertical circle.

Energy is important in every aspect of our lives. Primitive people were able
to release the energy stored in wood when they discovered fire. Later people
learnt how to use the energy of the wind and running water. In time,
humans found that they could release energy from 'fossil fuels' like coal and
oil.
biogas
Today, we draw on a variety of energy sources. However, there is
coal
increasing concern that our supplies of fossil fuels are fast running out and
oil
that we have to look towards alternative sources of energy.
natural gas
Energy exists in many forms - for example, heat, light, mechanical,
geothermal
chemical, sound, electrical and nuclear.
hydroelectricity
Energy can be transferred from one form into another, but it cannot be
nuclear power
created or destroyed (the law of conservation of energy). When coal burns,
ocean thermal
chemical energy in the coal is changed to heat energy. This heat energy can
solar power
be used to turn water into steam which can drive a turbine connected to an
tidal power
electricity generator (i.e. heat ~ mechanical ~ electrical). When a torch is
wind power
switched on, chemical energy in the batteries is used to produce electrical
 energy which in turn produces light energy (i.e. chemical ~ electrical ~
light).
Energy transfers are never 100% efficient since much of the energy
available initially is converted into forms other than that required. For
example, in a coal-burning power station less than 40% of the energy that
is released by combustion ends up as electricity; the other 60% is lost
mostly as heat to the surroundings.

Machine Energy conversion Efficiency (%)

Car battery Chemical ~ electrical 17

Wind turbine Mechanical ~ electrical 60
Fluorescent light Electrical ~ light 22

I
Solar cell Light ~ electrical 18
Car engine Chemical ~ mechanical 20-30

(Photo 10.1)
In a geothermal power station, steam from
underground is used to spin turbines connected to
electricity generators. What energy changes occur?

Modelling energy options

A detailed mathematical model, different fuels will be put to. year, which means that it will slightly
known as MARKAL (from MARKet Among the fuels being looked at are more than double by 2020.
ALlocation), examining the world's brown coal, black coal, natural gas, And they assumed that Australia's
energy options into the next century, is liquid petroleum gas (LPG), com- population will reach 19.5 million by
being worked on by a team of scientists pressed natural gas (CNG), nuclear the year 2000 and 25.4 million by 2020.
from the CSIRO Division of Energy power, petrol, plus liquid fuels blends The model saw that certain changes
Technology. It is part of an inter- including methanol and/or ethanol. would take place in fuel usage. At sea,
national project which involves several The level of detail MARKAL coal became a major fuel of bulk carri-
developed countries, which are mem- operates at is impressive; in the ers, bulk railway lines heavily used for
bers of the International Energy Agency Australian study is handled data on 15 freight traffic would become electri-
(lEA). types of electricity-generating plant, 50 fied. In 2020, more private automobiles
Researchers working with the model other energy-conversion processes, and would be powered by LPG, CNG and
are able to make predictions about the more than 60 energy-use technologies. electricity, although motor spirits re-
sources of fuel that will be available Among the assumptions the mained the main fuel.
and their relative costs and abundance researchers adopted was that the price From Eeos, No. 37
between now and the year 2000. They of oil (the real price, adjusted for
can also estimate the changing uses the inflaticn) will rise by about 2% per
 1 What is a fossil fuel? List three examples. Are fossil fuels
renewable or non-renewable?

2 Which forms of energy are derived from solar radiation? What use
do we make of these forms?

3 An incandescent light globe is only 5% efficient. Where has the

other 95% of energy gone to? What energy conversions occur
when an incandescent globe is switched on?

4 In the above article, what predictions about future energy usage

are made? Why might scientists want to use models to predict
future energy demands?

In chapter 9 we saw that the momentum (p) of a moving object was equal
to its mass (m) multiplied by its velocity (v), i.e. p mv. =
An object with momentum also has kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is
energy of motion. The kinetic energy (KE) of an object is equal to one half
of its mass multiplied by the square of its velocity.

Kinetic energy is measured in joules 0). Objects obtain kinetic energy and
momentum from forces acting on them for a period 'of time.

(Photo 10.2)
A 737-300 aeroplane has a mass of about 62 000 kg
and can cruise at 818 km/h. At this speed it has an
enormous amount of kinetic energy, over 7 million
joules.

Consider a mass m which is acted on by a steady force F so that its

velocity changes from u to v over a distance s. We know that
v2 - u2
a = 2s and F = ma
m(v2 - u2)
so F = 2s

i.e. Fs = 2;l' m(v 2

- u2) = 2;1 mv 2;1 mu
2
-
2

Note: If u = 0, then Fs = 2;1 mv 2

•
 The product Fs is the work done (W) on the mass to change its velocity,

while ~ mv2 - ~ mu2 is the change in kinetic energy. Thus:

Work done equals the change in kinetic energy.

=
Work is measured in joules (1 J 1 Nm); it is a measure of energy transfer.
Both work and kinetic energy are scalar quantities.

Work can also be found from the area under a force-displacement graph.
The work done by muscles as a sprinter starts a race is partly changed
into kinetic energy of the sprinter.

Example 1
Calculate the kinetic energy of a bus of mass 3000 kg moving at a constant
speed of (a) 36 km/h and (b) 72 km/h.

5
Answer
Fig10.1 Workequalstheareaundera force-
displacement
[Link] (a) 36 km!h =
10 ms-1
1 1
~ x 10 x 5 = 25 J. KE = - mv2 = - x 3000 x 102 = 150 000
2 2
J
(b) 72 km/h =
20 ms-1
1 . 1
KE = 2 mv2 = 2 x 3000 X 202 = 600 000 J

Example 2
(a) Find the work done by a car of mass 1000 kg when it is accelerated
from rest at 2 ms-1 in 20 s.
(b) What is the KE of the car after 20 s?
(c) Calculate the velocity of the car after 20 s.

Answer
(a) F = ma = 1000 x 2 = 2000 N
1 1
s = ut + 2 arZ = 0 + 2 x 2 X 202 = 400 m
W= Fs =
2000 x 400 800000 = J
(b) Final KE = work done = 800 000 J (the initial KE was zero since the
car was at rest).
1 .
(c) 2 mv2 =
800000
2 _
v -
800 000 x 2
1000
1600 =
v =J 1600 = 40ms- 1

Example 1 shows us that if the speed of a motor vehicle doubles, its KE

increases by four. This means that in a collision the force of impact also
increases fourfold. The force of impact is also dependent on the distance
over which the deceleration takes place: the shorter the distance, the more
severe are the impact forces.
For a car brought to rest in a collision,
1
Fs = 2 mv2 - 21 mu 2
(F = force of impact)

= -21 mu 2
(since v = 0)
-mu2
F=2S
(Photo 10.3)
Since KE depends on v2, a vehicle such as a train
travelling at 100 km/h has four times the KE it has
at 50 kmlh. It thus takes four times the force to
stop it, over the same distance.

The above considerations are vital to people inside a vehicle at the time
of a collision. People without seat belts will continue to move forward at
their previous speed until they hit something. In a head-on collision, it may
take a metre or so for a vehicle to come to rest. In contrast, the head of a
person in the vehicle will probably come to rest in less than 20 mm, when
he or she hits something inside the vehicle. The injury forces are thus very
high.

Seat belts in motor vehicles are designed to reduce the forces imposed on
a person in the vehicle during a collision. Seat belts increase the decelera-
tion distance and spread the impact force over a much larger area of the
body (i.e. over the pelvis and chest).
When a car is brought to rest, its KE is converted into other forms of
energy. The brakes, for example, convert KE into heat. When a collision
occurs, the KE is absorbed when the front of the vehicle crumples, and
other objects outside the car will also absorb some of this KE when they are
struck during the collision.
Distance
Fig 10.3 The force exerted on a driver during a car
collision can have a low average value but
still cause severe injury as a result of there
being large forces applied at certain places.

5 Calculate the kinetic energy of the following:

(a) a 15 kg trolley travelling at 2 mls
(b) a 1200 kg car travelling at 36 km/h
(c) a 2 g bullet travelling at 400 m/s

6 A force of 5 N acts on a brick of mass 3 kg, moving it 8 m

horizontally from rest. Find (a) the work done by the force,
(b) the KE gained by the body and (c) the velocity of the body.
 7 Calculate the work done by the motor in a car of mass 1000 kg
in accelerating the car from rest at 4 mls for 10 s from rest.
Express your answer in kilojoules.
8 A cyclist accelerated from 2 mls to 8 mls. The mass of the cyclist
and bicycle is 90 kg. What is the magnitude of its change in
kinetic energy? What is the work done in this situation?
9 (a) Explain briefly how the speed of a vehicle involved in an
accident affects the force of impact.
(b) How do seat belts reduce the extent of potential injury in a
car accident?

30N d 20kg t-= 100N

10 A box of mass 20 kg is pulled along a rough floor with a force of
100 N. The friction force acting on the box is a constant 30 N
(figure 10.4).What is the change in kinetic energy of the box?
11 Work done can be found from the area under a force-displacement
graph. In graph (a) of figure 10.5, a constant force acts. In graph
(b), the force is increasing with time. Find the work done in each
case.

12 Two cars, each of mass 1000 kg, which are travelling at 15 mls
have a head-on collision and become locked together.
(a) What is the total momentum of the two cars before collision?
(b) How much kinetic energy is lost in the collision?
(c) Where has this lost KE gone?

A Holden Commodore car will normally take 9 s to reach 100 km/h from
rest. A racing Commodore (of the same mass) will take 6 s to reach the
same speed. The racing version can gain kinetic energy more rapidly
because it has a more powerful engine. Power is defined as the rate of doing
work, or the rate of change of energy.
work done (W)
A light globe 100W Power (P) = time taken (t)
A person walking 300W
An electric radiator 1000 W Power is measured in joules per second or in watts (1 W =
1 J/s). Power is
A small car 60 kW a scalar quantity.
A racing car 400 kW Instantaneous power is also equal to the product of the force and the
=
velocity of an object CP, Fv).
 Jet aeroplanes must be given maximum power, when taking off from a
runway, to accelerate. At takeoff the plane has maximum mass. Once at
cruising height, less power is needed to keep the plane travelling at steady
speed.

Example 3
A trailer is pulled by a car with a horizontal force of 1000 N, so that it
moves a distance of 300 m in 60 s along a horizontal road. What is the
average power exerted by the car on the trailer.

Answer
W= Fs = 1000 X 300 = 300 000 J
p = ~ = 30~gOO = 5000 W

13 A force of 588 N acts on a box to move it 4 m in 40 s. Find the

power used.

14 A crane lifts a mass of 600 kg through 100 m in 40 s. Find the

power required to do this.
15 A crane, A, lifts a load of 400 kg through a vertical height of
10m in 4 s. Another crane, B, lifts 300 kg through 15 m
vertically in 5 s. Which of the two cranes uses more power?

(Photo 10.4)
Objects acquire momentum and kinetic energy from
forces acting on them for a period of time. The
greater the duration of interaction, the greater are
the momentum and KE acquired. In sports like golf
and hockey, players 'follow through' with their clubs
(or sticks), so that force is applied to the ball for the
longest possible time. This causes the ball to travel
faster and further.

In chapter 9, we saw that during a collision between two masses, momen-

tum is conserved. It is appropriate at this point to look at kinetic energy
during collisions.
There are two types of collision - elastic and inelastic.

This means that the total kinetic energy before the collision equals the total
kinetic energy after the collision. The collision between two steel balls is
approximately elastic. The collision between gas molecules at room tem-
perature is perfectly elastic. Momentum is also conserved in such collisions.
(Photo 10.5)
An elastic collision between two balls. The balls
move off at right angles after the collision.

Example 4
A 3 kg mass with velocity 4 ms-I collides with a stationary 1 kg mass. After
impact, the 3 kg mass continues moving in the same direction at 2 ms-I.
The 1 kg mass moves at 6 ms-1 in the same direction as the 3 kg mass. Is
this an example of an elastic· collision?

Answer

Total KE before collision = ~ ml Ul2 + Q =~. X 3 x ':F = 24 J

. .
Total KE after collIslOn = -21 m v
,1 1
2
1
=-
+ -2 m 2v 22
.' 1 2
1
2·x 3 x· 2 + 2
- x -1 X 62

=
24 J
So the total KE before the collision equals the total KE after the col-
lision, and therefore the collision is elastic. Note: Momentum is also con-
served in this case.

In an inelastic collision, the total kinetic energy is not conserved.

There is a loss of kinetic energy. The 'lost' energy is transformed into other
forms of energy such as heat and sound.
When two colliding objects cling together after impact, the collision is
completely inelastic. Momentum is still conserved in inelastic collisions.

Example 5
An 8 kg mass travelling at 5 ms-1 strikes a 2 kg mass at rest. After impact,
the two masses cling together and move off at 4 ms-I• Is the collision elastic?

Answer

Total KE before collision = ~ m1Ul2 + 0 = ~ x 8 X 52 = 100 J

Total KE after ~ollision = ~ (m1 + m2)v2 = ~ (8 + 2)42 = 80 J
The collision is inelastic because there is a loss of KE. Momentum is,
however, conserved. These ideas are summarised as follows:

Elastic collision Inelastic collision

Momentum conserved Momentum conserved

KE conserved KE lost
Imagine a person throwing a 2 kg ball vertically upwards with velocity of
5 mfs. Experience tells us that the ball will lose speed as it travels upward.
At its maximum height its velocity is, for a moment, zero and then it begins
to fall downwards, gaining speed as it falls. The initial throw of the ball
gives it kinetic energy of 25 J (check this before you read further). At its
maximum height the ball has no kinetic energy because it has zero velocity.
Where has this kinetic energy gone?
Energy is never lost - it just gets changed into other forms. In this case,
the kinetic energy is changed into gravitational potential energy.
Potential energy (PE) is stored energy.

PE = mgh
where m is the mass (kg), g is the acceleration due to gravity (ms-2), and h
is the height above earth's surface (m).
As the ball gained height, its kinetic energy was converted into potential
energy. As the ball fell, its potential energy was converted back into
kinetic energy as it gained speed. Part of the way up (or down) the ball had
some kinetic energy and some potential energy; however, the total energy
(KE + PE) remains constant throughout the motion.

PE= mgh
KE = 0

Note: The work done in moving a body against gravity equals the change
in PE.

Example 6
A 1 kg mass is thrown to a height of 20 m.
(a) What is its potential energy at this height?
(b) What is its kinetic energy at this height?
(c) What is its kinetic energy as it hits the ground again?
(d) With what velocity will it hit the ground?

Answer
(a) PE =mgh =
1 x 10 x 20 =200 J
(b) KE =0, since it is at rest at its maximum height.
(c) KE gained =
PE lost = mgh = 1 x 10 x 20 = 200 J
1 1
(d) "2 mv2 ="2 x 1 X v2 = 200

v= J 400 = 20 mls

Example 7
How much work is required to lift a 2 kg hammer from a height of 50 m to
a height of 60 m above tbe ground?

Answer
Work required = mgH - mgh =2x 10 x 60 - 2 x 10 x 50 = 200 J
(Photo10.7)
Ina hydroelectricpowerstation,the turbinesare
movedbywaterfallingfroma greatheight.
Electricityis thus generatedbymakinguse of the
conversionof gravitationalpotentialenergyto
kineticenergy.

20 What is the gravitational potential energy of a car of mass 1.2 t

(1200 kg) after it has been driven to the top of a mountain
2000 m high?

21 How much work is done in lifting an engine of mass 200 kg from

a motor car if the engine is lifted 1.6 m?

22 A football is kicked vertically upwards with an initial velocity of

20 m/s. How high will it fly? What assumption is made in this
calculation?

23 A stunt car is driven off the top of a seaside cliff 45 m high at a

horizontal speed of 72 kmIh (20 mls) and lands in the sea below.
(a) At what vertical speed does the car strike the sea?
(b) At what horizontal speed does the car strike the sea?
(c) At what speed does the car strike the sea?
24 A 50 g golf ball falls from a height of 2 m and returns to a height
of 1.5 m after bouncing.
(a) Describe the energy changes occurring in this situation.
(b) How much PE is lost during one bounce? Where has this
energy gone?
(c) Is the collision with the ground elastic or inelastic? Why?
25 A ball of mass 2 kg is thrown vertically into the air with velocity
10 mls. Which of the following statements is/are correct?
(1) The initial KE of the ball is 100 J.
(2) The PE of the ball at its maximum height is 200 J.
(3) As it moves up, the ball loses PE and gains KE.
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and 3

A stretched spring or rubber band possesses a special type of potential

energy called elastic potential energy. Elastic objects can be made to do
work, and are often found in machines (e.g. 'rubber band aeroplanes',
clocks, etc.).
(Photo 10.8)
Springs are used in the front suspension of cars.

When a spring is stretched (action) there is a restoring force (reaction)

which tries to restore the spring back to its original length. These two forces
are equal but opposite in direction.

When a graph is ploned of the force applied against the extension

distance (x), a straight line is produced.

1
1
.,1
1

extension x

Stiffer springs require greater force to stretch them by the same amount.
The result, F DC x, is known as Hooke's law. Hooke's law states that:

The restoring force, F, in an elastic material is proportional to the extension, x,

of the material.

=
The formula F -kx is used to represent Hooke's law, where k is called
the spring constant (unit Nm-1). The minus sign indicates that the exten-
sion is in the opposite direction to the restoring force.
There is a limit as to how far a spring can be extended (its elastic limit).
Beyond this limit the spring will not return to its original length. Springs in
watches tend to have a spring constant of about 1 Nm-1, while car springs
have a value about 10 Nm-1•
 For a varying force, the work done equals the area under a force-
displacement graph. For an F-x graph that passes through the origin:

Work = area under the force-displacement graph

1
=2Fx
= 21 kx2
(since F = kx)
This is the elastic potential energy of the spring (measured in joules).
The elastic potential energy indicates the energy transferred to the spring
when it is stretched.

Example 8
Figure 10.9 shows the force-extension graph for a spring.
4 -~----------------~1 (a) How much work is done in stretching the spring 0.20 m?
I
I
I
(b) What is the elastic PE of the spring when it is stretched 0.1 m?
I
I
I
I Answer
I

o
I
(a) Work = area under F-x graph = 21 x 4 x 0.2 = 0.4 J
Fig 10.9 (b) PE = work done = 21 x 2 x 0.1 = 0.1 J
Example 9
Figure 10.10 shows a force-compression graph for a spring.
10 ---------------------, (a) How much work is done in compressing the spring 0.4 m?
- I
I
I (b) What is the PE of the spring when it is compressed by 0.4 m?
I
I
I
(c) A mass of 2 kg is placed against the spring when it is compressed
I
I 0.4 m on a horizontal frictionless table and the spring released.
I
I What is the kinetic energy of the mass as it passes the point where
o the spring is compressed by 0.2 m?
Fig 10.10
Answer
Note: In this case, the work done does not equal ~ Fx because the line
does not pass through the origin. However, work still equals area under the
graph.
. 1
(a) Work =area under graph =
(2 x 5 x 0.4) + (5 x 0.4) 3.0 J =
(b) PE = work done = 3.0 J
(c) KE gained = PE lost = area between 0.2 m and 0.4 m
= 0.5 + 1.5 = 2.0 J

26 Make a list of machines that use a spring (or springs) to move

something. Say what the spring actually does in each case.
27 For figure 10.9, (a) what is the elastic PE of the spring when it is
stretched 0.05 m, and (b) what is the value of the spring constant?

28 For figure 10.10 above:

(a) How much work is done in compressing the spring 0.2 m?
(b) What is the PE of the spring when it is compressed 0.2 m?
(c) A mass of 0.4 kg is placed against the spring when compressed
0.2 m on a horizontal frictionless surface, and the spring is
released. What is the maximum KE gained by the mass?
 29 A person sits in a car. The suspension has a spring constant of
105 Nm-1• If the springs are compressed 2 cm, how much energy
is stored in the springs?

When a pendulum swings backwards and forwards, energy changes from

potential to kinetic and back again repeatedly. However, the total energy of
the system remains the same.
When the bob of a simple pendulum is pulled to one side, it is raised
through a vertical height of h. At this height, it has PE equal to mgh. When
released, it loses PE and gains' KE. At its lowest height, it has all KE and no
=
PE (since h 0). At this lowest height, its velocity is maximum. As it swings
to height h on the other side, it gains PE and loses KE. At height h on the
other side, it has all PE and no KE (since it is momentarily at rest). These
energy changes are shown in figure 10.11.

I'

:"
I '
I "
I '
I "
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
zero KE • I
maximum PE
--------------T--------------
I
I
I
I

Fig 10.11 Interconversion of PE and KE in a [Link]

simple pendulum zero PE

Example 10
A pendulum bob of mass 0.1 kg is raised to a height of 0.4 m above its
lowest point. It is then released.
(a) What is its PE at this height?
(b) What is its KE at its lowest height?
(c) What is its maximum velocity?

Answer
(a) PE = mgh = 0.1 x 10 x 0.4 = 0.4 J
(b) KE =
loss in PE =
0.4 J
1 1 ~
(c) KE = 2 mv2 = 0.4 J, so 2 x 0.1 X v2 = 0.4, so v =..; 8 = 2.8 m/s

30 A pendulum bob of mass 2 kg is raised to a height of 1 m above

its lowest point. It is then released.
(a) What is its PE at this height?
(b) What is its maximum KE?
(c) What is its maximum velocity?
 A pendulum bob is raised to a height of 3.2 m above its lowest
position. It is then released. What is its maximum velocity, and
where does this occur?

A heavy ball on the end of a string of length r is raised to a

horizontal position and then released (figure 10.12).
Its speed at the lowest point of its path will be equal to which of
the following?

(d) J 1t;r

Most objects moving in a vertical circular path have non-uniform velocity

(see chapter 5). These objects have a maximum velocity at their lowest
position and a minimum velocity at their highest position.
Although v changes for motion in a vertical circle, it is likely (provided
that air resistance, etc. is negligible) that the body will be rotating with
constant total energy. So the loss in KE of the body (between the bottom
and top of its path) is equal to its gain in PE. Therefore we can write:
1 1 2
-2 mv2 max2
- - mv . = mg(2r)
mm

where 2r is the diameter of the circle (i.e. the distanc~ between the bottom
and top of the circular path).

Example 11
An aeroplane, when flying at the lowest point of an acrobatic 'loop', is
travelling at 80 mls in a vertical circle of radius 100 m. What is the velocity
of the aeroplane at the top of its loop?

Answer
Velocity is minimum at the top of the circle.
1 1
-2 mv2 max2- mv2 mm
. = mg(2r)

Sov. mm =)v2 max

-4gr~)(80X80)-4XI0XIQ()=49m/s'

(Photo 10.9)
An example of circular motion at a fun park
33 A small trolley of mass M is released from rest and runs down a
frictionless track, dropping through a vertical height H. It then
enters a vertical circular loop of radius R. The gravitational field
is g.

Using only symbols defined on the figure, what is (a) the kinetic
energy of the trolley when it is at the top of the loop and (b) the
velocity at the bottom of the loop?

• Kinetic energy is energy of motion, given by KE = ~ mv 2

•

• Work is a measure of energy transfer.

• Work = force x distance = change in kinetic energy.
• When a force acts ·on a body moving it with velocity v, the instantaneous
=
power is given by P Fv.
• In an elastic collision, momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
• In an inelastic collision, momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is
lost.
• The law of conservation of energy: Energy can be transformed from one
form into another, but it cannot be created nor destroyed. When energy
is converted from one form to another, the total energy is conserved.
. work done
• Power = rate of domg work =time taken .
• Potential energy is stored energy. Gravitational potential energy =
mgh.
• Elastic objects contain elastic potential energy.
• Hooke's law states that the restoring force F in an elastic material is
proportional to the extension x of the material, i.e. F =-kx.
• For a varying force, work equals the area under a force-displacement
graph.

34· A stone of mass 2 kg is dropped from the top of a building 4 m

high. The KE-of the stone just before it hits the ground is which
of the following?
(a) 160 J (b) 80 J (c) 16 J (d) 8 J
35 An object of mass 2 kg is fired vertically upwards with KE 100 J.
Which of the following gives the greatest height to which it will
reach?
(a) 10 m (b) 20 m (c) 200 m (d) 5 m
36 An object is acted on by a retarding force of 10 N. At a
particular instant, its kinetic energy is 6 J. The object will come
to rest after it has travelled which of the further distances?
(a) 0.6 m (b) 1.66 m (c) 4 m (d) 16 m

37 An object is projected vertically upwards. Which of the following

graphs shows how the KE varies with height? .

38 The frictional force on a small car moving along a level road is

estimated to be 500 N. Calculate the power exerted by the
engine to maintain a constant velocity of 14 mls.

39 A car of mass 1000 kg starts from rest and accelerates uniformly

for 10 s along a straight road with an upward slope. During these
10 s, the car travels a distance of 100 m along the road and rises
10m vertically.
(a) What is the acceleration of the car?
(b) How much potential energy is gained by the car in these 10 s?
(c) How much kinetic energy is gained by the car in these 10 s?
(d) The kinetic energy and potential energy o(the car are
supplied by the fuel. State briefly the energy conversions that
take place in the process.
(e) What is the average useful power developed by the car engine
in this 10 s interval?

40 A 5 t truck travelling at 15 mls slams into a brick wall, stopping

in a distance of 6 m.
(a) What energy changes occur?
(b) What is the energy lost by the truck?
(c) What is the average force on the truck?

41 A person throws a ball of mass 0.20 kg with an initial speed of

12 mls from a height of 1.4 m above the ground. It travels in a
path as shown in figure 10.17, reaching a maximum vertical
height of 3.0 m above the starting point. X is the highest point
=
the ball reaches. Assume g 10 N/kg and neglect air resistance.

--- X
t---
~-r~~~:-----------------
~~-~-----~-----"-------

(a) What is the kinetic energy of the ball immediately after it

leaves the person's hand?
(b) By how much does the potential energy at point X exceed
the potential energy of the ball as it leaves the person's hand?
(c) What is the kinetic energy of the ball at point X?
 (d) What is the speed of the ball at point XJ
(e) What is the direction of the acceleration of the ball at point XJ
42 A gun's firing mechanism consists of a compressed spring. If the
spring has a constant of 103 N/m, find the force required to
compress it 16 cm.
43 A body of mass 50 kg moving with a speed of 20 mls is brought
to rest by a constant force in a distance of 5.0 m. Find:
(a) the loss in kinetic energy of the body
(b) the work done by the force
(c) the size of the force

44 Figure 10.18 shows how a force varies with distance as it acts on

a mass of 4.0 kg, initially at rest.

3 4 5
Distance (m)

(a) How much work was done by the force in moving the body
8 m?
(b) How fast was the mass moving when it had been pulled a
distance of 2 m?
(c) How much kinetic energy did the mass have by the time it
had been moved 5 m, and what was its speed then?

4S The frictional forces on a motorcycle moving along a flat road are

estimated to be 500 N. Calculate the power exerted by the
engine to maintain a constant velocity of 14 mls.

46 (a) A schoolgirl climbs to the top of a fire lookout in one hour. If

she does 180 000 J of work against gravity during her climb
what average power is involved?
(b) If her body transforms energy to work with an efficiency of
10%, how much chocolate cake (30 MJ/kg) will she need to
consume to fuel her climb?
(c) Describe two other energy transformations that will be
occurring during her climb.

47 What is the function of brakes in a car? How does the speed of a

car affect its braking distance? Why do brakes get hot during
braking?
48 With the rising price of petrol, Australians are now buying
smaller, lighter cars and driving at lower speeds. This helps
 drivers achieve better fuel economy. Two cars are shown in figure
10.19: a Mercedes with a mass of 2 t (2000 kg) and a cruising
speed of 100 km/h and a Suzuki with a mass of 0.5 t (500 kg)
and a cruising speed of 50 km/h.

(a) When the cars are travelling at their cruising speeds which
has the greater kinetic energy? Show your working.
(b) What is the ratio of the kinetic energies of the two cars when
they are travelling at their respective cruising speeds?
(c) In normal city driving, how might you expect the fuel
economy of the two cars to compare? Assume that the two
engines are equally efficient.
(d) What is the gravitational potential energy of the Mercedes
after it has been driven to the top of a mountain 1500 m
high? Assume g = ION/kg.
(e) What major energy transformations occur as the Mercedes
descends the mountain?

49 (a) Describe how you would obtain, as accurately as possible, a

series of readings for the load and corresponding extension of
a spiral spring.
(b) A student obtained the following readings:

Load (N) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
--
Length of spring (em) 10.0 11.5 13.0 14.5 16.0 18.5 24.0

Using these results, plot a graph of load against extension and

estimate the load beyond which Hooke's law is no longer obeyed.
A small trolley is' allowed to roll from rest down a uniform,
frictionless incline, and onto a frictionless horizontal plane.

The trolley rolls down the incline for 3.0 s before reaching the
horizontal plane. The potential energy of the trolley relative to
the horizontal plane has values as given in the following table:

Time elapsed (s) 0 1.0 2.0 3.0

--- -- -- - ,
Potential energy (J) 9.0 8.0 5.0 0

(a) On graph paper plot and label P, a graph of potential energy

of the trolley against time for the first 5.0 s of its motion.
 From your graph, estimate the potential energy of the trolley
1.5 s after the start.
(b) What is the kinetic energy of the trolley at time 2.0 s?
(c) On the same grid draw and label K, a graph of the kinetic
energy of the trolley for the first 5.0 s on its motion.
(d) From your graph estimate the kinetic energy of the trolley at
times 2.5 sand 4.0 s.
S31SALId leWJ3111
IIN
Chapter
HEATING AND COOLING

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1 Discuss the importance of heating and cooling in our everyday

lives.

2 Discuss the use of different types of thermometer.

3 Define the fixed points on the Celsius temperature scale.
4 Convert Celsius temperatures into Kelvin temperatures.
5 Distinguish between hyperthermia and hypothermia in humans.
6 Distinguish between heat and temperature ..

7 Explain what is meant by 'heat capacity' and 'specific heat

capacity'.

8 Solve problems involving heat capacity and specific heat

capacity.

9 Discuss the importance of the high specific heat capacity of

water.
10 Describe thermal expansion in solids and liquids. Solve
problems involving linear expansion.

Heat plays an important role in our lives. When we think of heat we usually
think of how heat makes us feel. On a hot day excessive heat makes us feel
uncomfortable. On a cold day less heat makes us feel cooler. In cold
weather we wear warm clothes to hold in our body heat. During hot
weather we wear light, cool clothes that allow us to release unwanted heat
to the surrounding air.
In our homes we use heat in many ways. We use it for cooking food and
ironing clothes and to provide hot water for washing. Our food is kept fresh
in refrigerators which pump heat away from the contents. We use air
conditioners to heat or cool the air inside our homes.
Heat is widely used in industry. It is used to weld and cut metals, and to
make glass, paper, textiles and many other products. The heat from burn-
ing fuels in engines provides the power to move cars, aeroplanes, rockets,
 ships, submarines and hot-air balloons. Coal-burning power stations use
heat to change water into steam; steam is used to turn turbines connected
to electricity generators.
Heat is very useful but it can also cause problems such as bushfires and
explosions. Heat inside the earth can generate volcanic eruptions. Lava
from volcanoes causes much damage to the environment.

(Photo 11.1)
Gas heaters are a source of heat in homes.

Most of us have a rough understanding of what temperature is. We know,

for example, that if the weather forecast says that the air temperature will be
SaC, it will be cold. If the air temperature is going to be 3SoC, it will be very
hot.

40°C 40°C
30°C 30°C
20°C 20°C
10°C 10°C
O°C O°C

Many people regard temperature as a measure of the degree of hotness

or coldness of an object. Scientists, on the other hand, have a more precise
definition of temperature that we will learn about in this chapter.
Throughout history various people have made attempts at setting up a
scale to measure temperature. One of the earliest of these scales was that of
Sir Isaac Newton in about 1700. Newton took the freezing point of water
as 0 and normal human body temperature as 12. Gabriel Fahrenheit
(1686-1736), a German physicist, developed a scale 1;>asedon three fixed
temperatures: OaF for the freezing point of an ice and salt mixture; 32°F for
the freezing point of pure water; and 96°F (later 98°F) for the normal
temperature of the human body. Fahrenheit's scale was marked on the
outside of a glass tube containing mercury. When the temperature in-
creased, the mercury rose up the inside of the tube - the height of mercury
indicated the temperature. When the temperature dropped, so did the
height of the mercury. Such measuring devices are called thermometers:
 Some 'liquid in glass' thermometers have used alcohol instead of mer-
cury as the liquid. To make thermometers sensitive, a long narrow glass
tube with a large bulb at the bottom (to store the liquid) are needed. The
bulb is made of thin glass, so that heat can easily pass through. The liquid
needs to expand uniformly with [Link] temperature. Water is not
suitable for use in thermometers because its freezing point is too high and
its expansion is irregular.
Today, the most common thermometer is the Celsius (formerly
centigrade) scale thermometer, originally developed by the Swedish
scientist Anders Celsius in 1742. This scale uses two fixed points: the lower
fixed point, O°C, is the temperature at which pure ice melts (ice point),
while the upper fixed point, 100°C, is the temperature at which pure
water boils (steam point). The Celsius scale is the metric (SI) scale of
temperature.
Note: 180 Fahrenheit units 100 Celsius units. The Fahrenheit scale is =
still used in the USA.

~~~§~~~' ~i i i~'~'~' ~~i i~i i~'§j '§'

i ~i i~ii '§' ~' §' ~i i i~' ~'~i i '~i i~'§'~' ~i i~1 i '§' i~i '§' ~i i i~'~j i~i i~i i~i i~i j '§' '§' ~I '§'§' '§' ~~:::J~)
i ~j I

\
bulb of mercury

Fig 11.2 A Celsius thermometer

Another temperature scale used in science is the Kelvin scale, named after
Lord Kelvin (1824-1907). Kelvin first suggested -the use of the gas ther-
mometer for accurate temperature readings. On this scale (the Kelvin
thermodynamic scale), absoiute zero is equal to -273.15°C (-459.67°F).
Absolute zero is the coldest possible temperature. At absolute zero the
particles which make up substances have their lowest possible energy.
When a sample of gas at constant volume is heated, its pressure is
proportional to its temperature. Figure 11.3 shows a graph of pressure
plotted against temperature. Extrapolation suggests the pressure of the gas
(and hence its molecular motion) would become zero at -273°C. This is
called 'absolute zero' on the Kelvin scale of temperature.

Ie: T ._,

.,,/'/ ~
,,-'- ~ ••. ' ~ 'C ::~ ./ - .-. .~

'. 'L' '1~:: r.

-..,
.. ,~"",
.: IT'-~"/"~:

.. .....
/ ... ~r:I ._ :_," -~
...-..: - .,
..;. ":' : .. ---
;-;- "~I,G ~~ I· ,h :...:.;,..i~ ,111~O ! 2Q(.-,-'3H3·;c:
:J':;t (-h:~ T~ f..-j i :: 1::-4-1,. -1:... '''':;;

It is useful to be able to convert from Celsius degrees to Kelvin units and

vice versa.
 373 K 100°C Kelvin units = Celsius degrees + 273

Note: Kelvin temperatures do not have a degree symbol.

273 K O°C

173 K -100°C
Different types of thermometer have been developed over the years for
different purposes.
73 K -200°C A bimetallic strip thermometer is made of two different metal strips
joined together. When heated, the metal strip bends because the two metals
OK -273°C expand by different amounts as the temperature rises. The bending turns a
Kelvin scale Celsius scale pointer situated above a scale. Such thermometers are not easily damaged
and have a large working range.
A thermocouple contains of two wires made of different metals. These
wires are connected to a sensitive electrical current meter as shown in
figure 11.5.
One junction (the reference junction) is placed in contact with an object
whose temperature is known (e.g. ice at O°C). The other junction is used to
do the measuring after it is calibrated at the boiling point of water (lOO°C).
The thermocouple generates a current that is proportional to the difference
in temperature between the two junctions. Such thermometers are used to
measure high temperatures such as those found in the exhaust gas of jet
engines or in furnaces and ovens.
Modem digital thermometers have a circuit which changes electric
temperature signals into numbers. The numbers appear in a display win-
dow. .

Digital Bimetallic Thermocouple

thermometer thermometer thermometer

Digital
display

Integrated
circuit

Reference
junction -

Clinical thermometers are used for measuring the temperature of the

human body. They have a smaller range (34-44°C) and a higher accuracy
than a common thermometer. Furthermore, it is important that the tem-
perature recorded must be unchanged after the thermometer is removed
from the patient. For this reason, the thermometer has a constriction
(narrow part) in its stem. This prevents the mercury from going back into
the bulb. Once the reading has been taken, the thermometer is shaken
carefully so that the mercury moves back into the bulb.
Example 1
Figure 11.7 shows a simple constant pressure air thermometer. It consists
of a uniform thin glass tube containing dry air with a mercury index. It is
fIxed to a half-metre rule. The length of the column of trapped air is
measured at different temperatures. In melting ice the length of the column
is 280 mm, while in boiling water the length is 385 mm.
Plot a calibration graph for the thermometer and use this to determine
the temperature corresponding to a column length of 322 mm.

Answer
Assume the variation of the length with temperature to be linear. The graph
of T versus L is a straight line.

-------------------1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

o
200 250 300 350 400 450 L (mm)
322

From the graph, we estimate the temperature corresponding to a column

length of 322 mm to be 40°C.

Example 2
One junction of a thermocouple is kept in melting ice and the other in
boiling water. The current reading on a micro ammeter is 60 /lA (1 /lA =
10-6 A). If the microammeter reads 42 /lA when the 'hot' junction is
immersed in hot water, fInd the temperature of the hot water.

Answer
The current of 60 /lA is equivalent to a temperature difference of lOO°e.
Therefore a current of 42 /lA indicates a temperature difference of:
42
-
60
X lOOoe = 70 e
0
(Photo 11.2)
Variations in skin temperature can be detected on
infrared film. Such thermograms are used to detect
tumours below the skin surface. Tumours release
more heat than the surrounding tissue and show up
as a different colour on the thermogram.

The body of humans can be kept cool by sweating. Sweating is the

evaporation of water through pores in the skin. Evaporation from a surface
has a cooling effect. The skin of humans also contains sense receptors
which detect heat, cold, touch, pain and pressure. Sensory nerves run from
these receptors to the brain.
The high body temperature of humans allows muscles to be continually
moved, allowing us to remain active for long periods of time. Shivering is
the involuntary movement of muscles to help generate more heat when
body temperature drops below normal.
Hypothermia is a condition in which the temperature of the human
body drops below normal. It generally results from accidental exposure to
cold, e.g. when skiers are trapped in the snow. During hypothermia heart
rate and blood pressure decrease, and breatl!ing is slower and shallower. At
body temperatures between 30°C and 28°C't1ie victim becomes subcon-
scious, and below 18°C the action of the heart, blood flow and brain activity
may cease. A person suffering from hypothermia can be rewarmed (if not
dead) by immersing the body in warm water and later wrapping the body
in warm blankets.
Hyperthermia (heat stroke or heat exhaustion) is a condition in which
the temperature of the body becomes too high. Above 41°C, the cells of the
brain, liver, kidneys and other orgcns are damaged and the temperature-
regulating ability of the body is lost. Survival is usually not possible beyond
44°C.
A person suffering from hyperthermia should be placed in a cool place
and covered with a wet towel. He or she should be given water slowly only
if conscious. Unnecessary clothing should be removed to aid cooling.
Athletes who compete in hot conditions may suffer from hyperthermia if
their body is unable to lose heat quickly to their surroundings or if they fail
to replace lost body fluids.

6 Which of the following factors would tend to (i) lower and

(ii) increase the body temperature of a human?
(a) increased muscular activity
(b) increased sweating
(c) narrowing of blood vessels in the skin
(d) vigorous exercise
(e) shivering
(f) very high air temperature
7 How might Arctic animals manage to conserve body heat?
8 What is the difference between hyperthermia and hypothermia?
What might causes each?

9 Name an ectothermic animal and an endothermic animal.

People's ideas about what 'heat' is have changed over the centuries. In the
eighteenth century, 'heat' was regarded as some sort of invisible substance
which was contained in all objects. A hot object had more of this substance,
while a cold substance had less.
One of the first scientists to study the process of heating was the English
scientist James Joule (1818-89). Joule investigated the relationship between
the amount of work done and the amount of heat produced. Joule used the
apparatus shown in figure 11.9 to perform an experiment.

lead 8 moving lead

weight vanes weight

4 fixed
vanes

In this experiment water in a copper vessel was stirred by a rotating

paddle. The paddle was turned by two falling weights. Joule found that the
quantity of heat produced was proportional to the amount of work done.
Joule was able to connect energy with heat and concluded that 'heat was a
form of energy'. Today, we know more about heat to say that Joule's
conclusion was not entirely correct, but it was an important contribution
for many years.

It is now generally recognised that heat is not a form of energy but a process
of energy transfer as a result of temperature difference.
When we place a red-hot metal cube into cool water, the water becomes
hotter. There is a transfer of energy from the hot cube to the cool water. As
a result~ the cube becomes cooler and the water hotter. Such a transfer is
due to the temperature difference between the water and hot metal cube.
This transfer process is called heating. Thus the term 'heat' is used to
describe the energy transferred through the heating process.
 The energy possessed by an object is called its internal energy. The
internal energy of an object is the sum of the potential and kinetic energy
of its particles. Thus the higher the temperature of an object, the more
internal energy it has.
Heating is not the only way that energy can be transferred to or from a
body. When we rub our hands together, energy transfer occurs without any
difference in temperature. In this case, energy is transferred by doing work.
Other examples of energy being transferred by work are:
• applying the brakes to stop a car - the brakes become hot
• passing an electric current through a resistor - the resistor becomes hot
In figure 11.1 O(a), work is being done by a piston on a gas. As the piston
is pushed down, the gas particles gain internal energy because their kinetic
energy increases. In figure 11.10 (b), the internal energy of the gas increases
as heat flows from the surroundings through the wall of the cylinder to the
cooler gas inside.

Fig 11.10 Internal energy can be increased by

(a) doing work or (b) heating.

Heat energy available from the combustion When the energy transferred by heating and the energy transferred by
(burning) of some common fuels doing work have become internal energy, we cannot distinguish between
them. Without knowing the history, we cannot say how much of the
Heat energy internal energy has come by way of heat and how much by way of work.
(kJ per gram) The energy transferred by heating or by doing work is measured in joules
0).
Hydrogen 143 Although internal energy and temperature are related, they are not the
Methane 56 same thing. The temperature of an object is a numerical figure that is
LPG 51 related to the average kinetic energy of the particles of the object. Changes
Ethanol 30 in potential energy do not affect ;he temperature. Remember that the
Coal 28 internal energy is the sum of the kinetic and the potential energy. If energy
Petrol 48 is transferred to an· object and only its potential energy changes, there will
Diesel 46 be no rise in temperature (a change in state will actually occur - see
chapter 12). However, in most cases, when an object's internal energy
increases its temperature will rise.

A research team working at the iron particles inside a sachet of open- thermal barrier to the outside cold wa-
CSIRO Division of Mechanical Engi- weave material. ter, yet retained sufficient sea water for
neering in Melbourne investigatedways Placed within the divers' glovesand the reaction and to act as a heat carrier.
of improving the comfort of divers. In soaked with seawater, the mixture be- The reaction begins after 20 min-
freezing water, the team found that haves likea multitude of short-circuited utes in seawater, peaks after 40 min-
the divers' hands were ftrst to feel the batteries. The magnesium is consumed utes, and gradually cools down. If two
cold, gradually becoming useless and with the production of heat while the of the pads were used in each glove,
painful. iron particles catalyse the reaction. By the hand could remain comfortable for
The solution was a heating pad con- choosing different particle sizes and up to two hours in water at ftve degrees
taining chemicals which warmed the mixing them in different proportions, Celsius.
divers' hands when they reacted with a range of heating rates can be obtained. From Scifzle, No. 12
seawater. The heating pads consist of a The neoprene glove used in conjunc-
mixture of granulated magnesium and tion with the experiment provided a
 10 What is meant by the 'internal energy' of an object? Which has
more internal energy: an object at 50°C or an object at -50°C?

11 What are the two ways energy can be transferred to or from an

object?

12 Heating occurs when energy is transferred to a body. What term

could be used when energy is transferred from a body?
13 Give two examples where work done on a body increases its
internal energy.

14 A table above shows the heat energy available from a variety of

fuels.
(a) Which fuel produces the most energy per gram?
(b) How much energy is obtainable from the combustion of
100 kg of petrol?
15 In the above article, what new technology is being described?
Who will benefit from this new technology and why? Will the
internal energy of the divers' hands increase by heating or by
work being d01 Explain.

I Substance I Specific heat

capacity
(J kg-1°C-I) The heat capacity, C, of an object is the quantity [Link] which must be
transferred to it to give it one degree rise in temperature. The SI unit for
Water 4200 heat capacity is the joule per degree Celsius arC) or joule per kelvin aIK).
Ice 2100 In equation form this definition becomes
Alcohol 2500
Glycerine 2400
C=SL
!:1T
Brine 3900
Paraffin 2200 where Q is the quantity of heat energy transferred or supplied and !:1T is the
Glass 670 temperature change. Remember that !:1 (delta) means 'change in'.
The term specific heat capacity, c, is used to describe the heat capacity
Aluminium 880
Copper per unit mass. It has the SI unit J kg-I °C-l or J kg-1 K-l. The specific heat
390
Lead 130 capacity of a substance is a property of the substance and does not depend
Silver 230 on the size or shape of the substance.
Mercury 140 =
Specific heat capacity therefore can be written as c Clm, where m is the
Iron 460 mass of the object and C is its heat capacity. Combining the above equa-
Air 720 tions gives us

energy energy
transferred transferred
(J) (J)

temperature rise (0G) mass (kg)

Experiments show that the energy transferred to a body by heating is proportional to the
temperature rise and the mass. Graph (a) is for a constant mass, graph (b) is for a
constant temperature rise.
 Note: Since the temperature interval on the Kelvin scale is the same as
that on the Celsius scale, the temperature change can be expressed in either
unit.

Example 3
Figure 11.12 shows the apparatus set up to measure the specific heat
capacity of a liquid. The energy transferred is measured by a joulemeter. It
is assumed that all the energy transferred from the immersion heater goes
into the liquid.

low-voltage
immersion heater

to 12 V
power supply

Data collected: Energy transferred =

12 209 J
Mass of liquid =
0.8 kg
Original temperature =
26.8°G
Final temperature =
33.0°C

Answer

Q -- mcuAT',I.e. c -- ~m~T -- 0.8 x (33.0

12 209 - 2461 J k I 0C-I
- 26.8) - g-

Example 4
Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 10 kg of brass from
10°C to 90°C. Specific heat capacity of brass =
377 J kg-1°C-I.

Answer
=
Q mc~T= 10 x 377 x (90 -10) = 301 600 J
Example 5
=
A kettle containing 1 kg of water (c 4200 J kg-1°C-I) is placed on top of
an electric heater of power 1000 W. It takes 5 min for the water tempera-
ture to increase from 20°C to 90°C. Find (a) the energy released by the
heater and (b) the energy absorbed by the water. Account for any losses in
energy.

Answer
(a) Q = power (W) x time (s) = 1000 x 5 x 60 = 300 000 J
(b) Q = mc~T = 1 x 4200 x (90 - 20) = 294 000 J
There is 6000 J of energy lost to the surroundings and container.

Example 6
A well-insulated hot-water tank for a house contains 140 kg of water at
15°C. The tank itself has a heat capacity of 6000 J K-I. Find how long it will
 take an immersion heater to raise the temperature of the water to 50°C if
the tank is well insulated and the power of the heater is 2200 W. (Specific
heat of water = 4200 J kg-1°C-I.)

Answer
Heat transferred to the water = mc!J.T
= 140 x 4200 x (50 - 15) = 20 580 000 J
Heat transferred to tank = C!J.T
= 6000 x (50 - 15) = 210 000 J
(Assuming that the tank reaches the same temperature as the water.)
Total quantity of heat required = 20 580 000 + 210 000 = 20 790 000 J
Power supplied =
2200 W =
2200 J/s
Time required = 20 ;;~oooo= 9450 s (i.e. about 2.6 h)

(Photo 11.3)
A domestic hot-water system that uses solar panels
on the roof to heat the water

16 Explain the difference between heat capacity and specific heat

capacity.

17 Calculate the heat energy required to raise the temperature of

5 kg of water from 20°C to 100°C.

18 In an experiment 920 000 J of energy is transferred to 2 kg of

=
iron (c 460 J kg-1°C-I). The initial temperature of the iron is
25°C. What is the final temperature of the iron?

19 Calculate the heat energy required to raise the temperature of

5 kg of a substance from 15°C to 65°C if the substance is
(a) water, (b) copper, (c) aluminium and (d) glass.

20 A kettle containing 2 kg of water is placed on top of an electric

heater of power 500 W. It takes 6 min for the water temperature
to increase from 30°C to 50°C. Find (a) the energy released by
the heater and (b) the energy absorbed by the water. Account for
any difference between (a) and (b).
 Many experiments on heat transfer are performed using a calorimeter. A
calorimeter is a device which reduces heat losses through the use of insu-
lation.
When a hot solid is placed in a cooler liquid, inside the calorimeter,
energy is tran~ferred from the hot solid to the cooler liquid. The transfer
continues untll both substances are at the same temperature. Because the
calorimeter is well insulated, energy lost by the hot object is equal to the
energy gained by the cool liquid. There is no overall change in the total
internal energy of the system.

Energy lost by hot object = energy gained by cold body

This agrees with the principle of conservation of energy. In practice there is
always some loss of energy to the surroundings. To minimise errors caused
by this loss, the rate of loss and the time spent on the experiment should be
reduced as much as possible. The rate of loss can be reduced if the
temperature inside the calorimeter does not differ greatly from that of the
surroundings.

hot water Example 7

mass 50 9
temperature If 200 g of cold water at 20°C is added to 50 g of hot water at 80°C in an
80°C insulated vessel, find the final temperature of the water.
cold water
mass 200 9
temperature Answer
20°C
Let T be the final temperature.
Fall in temperature of hot water = (80 - 1)
Rise in temperature of cold water = (T - 20)
Energy lost by hot water = energy gained by cold water
m1c/)"T= mzcz!!>.T
50 X 4200 X (80 -1) = 200 X 4200 x (T- 20)
mixture 50 (80 - 1) = 200(T - 20)
temperature?
=
80 - T 4(T - 20)
T= 32°C

21 Find the final temperature when 80 kg of iron pellets at

lOOoe are dropped into 200 kg of water at 20°C. (Specific heat
of iron= 440 J kg-1 °e~l; specific heat of water =
4200 J kg~l °e~l.)

22 =
In an experiment 200 kg of aluminium (c 880 J kg~l °e-I) at
lOOoe is ckopped iiit6 256 kg of kerosene at 15°C. The n-¥xture
reaches a temperature of 50°C. What is the specific heat of kerosene?
23 A lump of metal was transferred to 1 kg of water and the temperature
of the water increased from 20°C to 60°C. Find (a) the energy
lost by the metal and (b) the energy gained by the water.

Water has a high specific heat capacity when compared with other sub-
stances. This property has many uses.
• Water is used in the cooling system of motor cars because it can take in
a lot of energy with only a small temperature rise. The water is heated as
 it flows alongside the cylinders of the engine and cooled as it passes
through the long narrow tubes of the radiator. This cooling is aided by
air drawn in from the outside by the fan. Because of the high specific heat
capacity of water, considerable heat energy is released as it cools. In fact,
each gram of water releases 4 J for each 1°C it cools.

(Photo 11.4)
Water is used as a car engine coolant.

• Seawater takes a longer time to heat up and cool down than land. The
small temperature change in seawater is one reason why coastal areas
have a cooler summer and a milder winter than inland areas. Islands are
surrounded by water - they therefore experience much smaller changes
of temperature from summer to winter than do large land masses such as
central Australia.
• Living organisms, including humans, contain a lot of water. This allows
them to respond slowly to changes in the surrounding temperature.

In general, when matter is heated it expands and when cooled it contracts.

The forces created as a result of expansion or contraction are sometimes
useful but can also be a nuisance.
In order to make a gearwheel fit onto an axle easier, the axle is often
cooled in liquid nitrogen (at -196°C). The contraction of the axle allows
the gearwheel to slip on more easily. On regaining normal temperature the
axle expands to give a very tight fit.
White hot rivets are 'often placed in the rivet hole and the end hammered
flat. On cooling the rivet contracts and pulls the plates together. During
shipbuilding steel plates are riveted together.

hot
rivet
plates
./ "'"
~ i

rivet '7--"
hammered
flat

Telephone wires are hung loosely between poles in order to prevent

breakage in cold weather when the wires contract.
Steel and concrete bridges often have one end resting on rollers to allow
for expansion during hot weather and contraction during cold weather. The
same bridges also have expansion joints along their surface .
.Bimetallic strips are used in fire alarms and thermostats. Bimetallic strips
consist of two equal lengths of different metals riveted together. One of the
 metals expands more than the other when heated. This causes the strip to
bend. Figure 11.16 shows a fire alarm that uses a bimetallic strip as the
trigger. Heat from the fire causes the strip to bend and complete the
electrical circuit, so ringing an alarm bell.

t_
, heat from fire
iron
Fig 11.16 (a) How a bimetallic strip works. (b) A fire alarm using a bimetallic strip

Linear expansivities of some common

materials (per DC)
Engineers always have to allow for the linear (lengthways) expansion of
structures when designing and building them. The expansion can be calcu-
Fuel Heat energy
lated if the engineer knows the length of the structure, the range of tem-
(kJ per gram)
peratures it will experience, and the linear expansivity of the material to be
used.
Aluminium 0.00003
The linear expansivity of a substance is the increase in length of unit
Concrete 0.00001
length per degree rise in temperature.
Copper 0.00002
The linear expansivity of a material is found by experiment. For steel this
Brass 0.00002
value is 0.000 012 per dc. This means that 1 m will become 1.000012 m
Glass 0.000009
Platinum if the temperature rises by 1°C.
0.000009
Steel 0.000 012
I Expansion = linear expansivity x original length x temperature rise

Example 8
Calculate the expansion of (a) a 100 m long copper pipe and (b) a 20 m
long concrete beam if both are heated through 50°C?

Answer
(a) Expansion = linear expansivity x original length x temperature rise
= 0.000 02 x 100 x 50 )
=0.1 m
(b) Expansion = linear expansivity x original length x temperature rise
= 0.000 01 x 20 x 50
= 0.01 m

ice + water When water is cooled to near 4°C it contracts, as we would expect. How-
/ ever, between 4°C and O°C it expands. Water therefore has a maximum
density at 4°C.
When water freezes at O°C it undergoes considerable expansion and
every 100 cm3 of water becomes 109 cm3 of ice. This explains why waterpipes
often burst on frosty mornings. The expansion of water between 4°C and
Temperature (0C) O°C is due to the rearrangement of the particles that make up water. The
Fig 11.17 Changes in the volume of water with rearranged particles take up more volume and this cancels out any contrac-
temperature tion due to a decrease in temperature.
24 A bimetallic strip is made up of aluminium and copper riveted
together. Which metal will expand the most when the strip is
heated? Draw a sketch to show the way the strip will bend.

25 Explain (a) why the metal lid of a glass jar can be unscrewed
easily if the jar is placed in very hot water and (b) railway tracks
were once laid with gaps between adjacent lengths.

26 Rods of platinum, copper and steel are the same length at O°C.
Which of them will be the longest at 200°C?
27 Using the values of linear expansivities given in this chapter,
calculate the expansion of 50 cm of steel pipe heated through
80°C.
28 What allowance must be made for the changes in length of a
copper pipe 20 m long carrying a liquid whose temperature may
range from lOoC to 50°C.

• Temperature is often regarded as a measure of the degree of hotness or

coldness of an object. Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles
of a substance.
• A temperature scale is determined from two fixed points - the ice point
and the steam point at normal atmospheric pressure.
• The most commonly used temperature scale is the Celsius scale. An-
other scale commonly used in scientific work is the Kelvin scale.
Kelvin units = Celsius degrees + 273
• The coldest possible temperature (called absolute zero) occurs at
-273°C or a K.
• Heat is not a form of energy but a process of energy transfer as a result
of temperature difference.
• The internal energy of a body is the total kinetic and potential energies
of its particles. An increase in temperature indicates an increase in
internal energy.
• Internal energy can be increased by doing work or by heating.
• The heat capacity, C, of an object is the quantity of heat which must be
transferred to it to give it one degree rise in temperature.
• The term specific heat capacity, c, is used to describe the heat capacity
per unit mass. It has the SI unit J kg-1°C-lor J kg-I K-I.
The quantity of energy (Q) transferred to a body by heating can be found
from
Q = mcf:..T
where m is the mass in kg, c is the specific heat capacity and f:..T is the
change in temperature.
• In an insulated system, the energy lost by an object initially at a higher
temperature is equal to the energy gained by the object initially at a lower
temperature (conservation of energy).
• The linear expansivity of a substance is the increase in length of unit
length per degree rise in temperature.
• Expansion =linear expansivity x original length x temperature rise.