Name: Zane Foster

School: Vessigny Secondary

Year: 2024
Subject: History
Candidate Number:
Question: Much attention has been focused on the brutality of slavery in the
West Indies. However this system of brutality was experienced by Africans
from the point of capture to the journey to the Caribbean.
Table of Contents Page
Introduction 1
Brutality in the West Indies 2
Brutality in Africa 4
Conclusion 6
Appendix 7
Bibliography 11
Slavery is defined as a “condition in which one human being is owned by
another. A slave was considered by law as property or chattel and was deprived
of most of the rights held by free persons”. The 15th-17th centuries marked a
new and traumatic era in the Americas and the Caribbean which came in the
form of colonialism and slavery. Prior to this slavery had existed in the known
world but this was on a smaller and less brutal scale. However with the various
European nations conquering and colonizing the New World there was
eventually the establishment of colonies, with slavery being an essential part of
economic prosperity. The enslaved population consisted of Africans, who were
chosen for a variety of reasons. These reasons include their acclimation to the
tropical climate, Africa’s close proximity to Europe and the vastness of their
population, along with several other reasons that made this grouping suitable.
As stated previously, slavery was a key aspect of the economic prosperity of the
various European colonies and this was due in large part to the brutalities met
out to the enslaved population which was a driving force behind their vast
production of goods. Though these brutalities were commonplace on plantations
they did not have their genesis there. Much attention has been focused on the
brutality of slavery in the West Indies. However this system of brutality was
experienced by Africans from the point of capture to the journey to the
Caribbean.
Brutality in the West Indies
1
Africans were sought after because of their acclimation to the West Indian
climate. African slaves were also cheaper than their European counterparts at 7
pounds for life compared to 10 pounds for a couple years, respectively. As such
the enslaved population eventually greatly outnumbered the white population,
causing safety concerns on the part of the whites. Resultantly, the planters
increased their brutality to maintain control. The planters also used many means
of control against the slaves such as physical, psychological, economic, legal,
and cultural control. The planters also separated the slaves into the First Gang or
the Main Gang/ Praedial Slaves, Second Gang, and Third Gang. An estimated
12% of all Africans transported between 1701 and 1807 perished. Some causes
are rampant diseases, ill treatment or suicide.

Work in the fields was grueling, with long 14-18 hour workdays and
constant whipping. (See figure 1.) Tasks ranged from clearing land to planting
to harvesting to manuring to weeding. The death rates were high due to
mistreatment, poor nutrition, diseases, overwork and bad work conditions. From
the 17th century slaves got the Sunday off, many slaves used that time to plant
near their homes and on ‘provision grounds’. These grounds were usually
infertile, mountainous and a great distance away from slave villages. Some
items grown there were sweet potatoes, yams, plantains and livestock such as
poultry and pigs. These items were then sold in markets as well as
supplementing their diet. Though the soil was fertile, planters preferred to
purchase and import food items than to use precious cane land. Items like salted
meat, herring or mackerel, sweet potatoes (See figure 2.), corn and sometimes
West Indian turtle were parts of the average slave’s diet. Although slaves were
permitted to plant their own crops on provision these were not enough in times
of famine.

1
Handler and Tuite Jr., “Slavery in the Caribbean”,
 2
After being sold and taken to the estate, slaves would use Christianity as a
means of resistance. It also was used as a means of camaraderie. Before
Christianity, slaves had their own religions and belief Obeah and Myalism.
African religions however, were more of spirit than doctrine. Something the two
religions shared is the belief in one true higher power. This made it easier for
Africans to understand Christianity and by extension convert to it. Another
contributing factor is the idea of Heaven as a reward for their suffering. While
West Indian slaves initially resisted European Christianity, certain groups
adopted aspects, while still keeping their African roots, forming the Baptist,
Moravian and Methodist churches. Many planters were resistant to slaves
adopting Christianity, fearing they may start rebelling for their human rights.
They also hated the idea of sharing their religion with “heathens”. Planters also
resisted because of their hatred for missionaries. Slaves often went to white
missionaries for defense against planters. Women slaves often going to
missionaries against their planter’s sexual advances. 3Slaves also used means of
resistance against the planters, these are categorized as active and passive
resistance. Active Resistance was more risky usually resulting in someone being
maimed or killed for example, poisoning the planter, attacking the planter and
rebellion. Passive Resistance was a lot safer and was used to inconvenience the
planter but only inconvenience him. Some examples are damaging crops,
feigning ignorance, women delaying weaning to avoid working, and
exaggerating injuries which made them unfit for work.
4
Most slave plantations lost more slaves than they bought, due to the harsh
environments the slaves were subjected to. Infant mortality rates were high
among slaves, being at around 40% of slaves’ deaths, them often receiving
diagnoses like ‘diarrhea’ and ‘fever’. Unsanitary conditions were not

2
Padgett, “The Christianization of Slaves in the West Indies, 3Claypole, Robottom, Caribbean Story,
Book 1,’Resistance and Revolt, pg 127, 4Danish National Archives, (2017), “Illness and Death Among
the Enslaved”
uncommon as the enslaved often sourced drinking water from polluted
watercourses and wells as latrines and dung heaps were often nearby (See figure
3.). Another cause of death was measles and smallpox. Among the adults
however, diseases like tuberculosis and lung disease were more common. The
main types of ailments were injuries, such as muscle pain, sprains, fractures and
hernias. (See figure 4.) These all culminated into a traumatic and horrifying
experience for slaves that will forever be a stain upon history.

2
Padgett, “The Christianization of Slaves in the West Indies, 3Claypole, Robottom, Caribbean Story,
Book 1,’Resistance and Revolt, pg 127, 4Danish National Archives, (2017), “Illness and Death Among
the Enslaved”
Brutality in Africa

Although European nations were the masters of the slave trade and colonization
of the New World from the 15th century onwards, slavery existed in Africa long
before this occurrence. 5Slave routes and slave systems were established, due to
kinship arrangements, chattel slavery, hungry parents selling their children,
violence and war, and kidnapping. Slaves could then be sold to other
communities in need of labour. The introduction of the Europeans, however,
changed slaving indelibly. 6Europeans would pay off corrupt chiefs with
trinkets, mirrors, textiles, guns, horses, and gunpowder. Slave raids would take
place at night, starting off by burning the roofs of the village they were raiding.
(See figure 5.) Then they would yoke any disoriented captives, then coffle them
at the hands, feet and neck, then force them to walk towards the coast. (See
figure 6.) 7When Portuguese, and later their European competitors, found that
peaceful commercial relations alone did not generate enough enslaved Africans
to fill the growing demands of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, they formed
military alliances with certain African groups against their enemies. This
encouraged more extensive warfare to produce captives for trading. While
European-backed Africans had their own political or economic reasons for
fighting with other African enemies, the end result for Europeans traders in
these military alliances was greater access to enslaved war captives.

When they arrived at the coast, they would then stop at the barracoons,
where they were inspected by a doctor to see those who were fit for travel and
those that were not. European traders then held the enslaved Africans who
survived in fortified slave castles such as Elmina in the central region (now
Ghana), Goree Island (now in present day Senegal), and Bunce Island (now in
present day Sierra Leone), before forcing them into ships for the Middle

5
UNESCO, Slavery and Remembrance, “Capture and Captives”, 6Claypole, Robottom, Caribbean
Story, Book 1, pg 91, 7UNESCO, Slavery and Remembrance, “Capture and Captives”
Passage across the Atlantic Ocean. The fit were branded with a hot iron on
their backs and set to board. (See figure 7.) After the slaves boarded they were
separated by gender then chained and packed tightly in the ships holds, each
slave being packed into a 150 by 50cm space. Captives then had to endure
extreme temperatures, harsh weather conditions, rampant diseases and filthy
living conditions. Mortality rates were high because of rapid spread of diseases,
starvation, poor sanitation, suffocation, heat strokes, suicide, whippings,
breaking of jaw and force feeding, infanticide and deliberate drowning for
insurance. 8Roughly 26% of Africans on the Middle passage were children. Men
were chained up for the longest periods to avoid rebellions. Women were often
sexually assaulted by the crew members. The conditions were so harsh that
around 13-19% of Africans on the Middle Passage died. While the passage
should have only lasted a few weeks, the captains’ constant stops for more
slaves and to sell slaves to American ports at the best prices, lengthened the
journey greatly.

Different points of disembarkation and arrival also contributed to the

arduous ship conditions for enslaved Africans. The average duration from most
regions in Africa to the Americas was around just over two months. 9The trans-
Atlantic slave trade was the largest long-distance forced movement of people in
recorded history. From the sixteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, over twelve
million (some estimates run as high as fifteen million) African men, women,
and children were enslaved, transported to the Americas, and bought and sold
primarily by European and Euro-American slaveholders as chattel property used
for their labour and skills. Many captives died just during the long overland
journeys from the interior to the coast.

8
Battle,(2013), “African Passages, Lowcountry Adaptations”,pg 16,9UNESCO,Colonial Williamsburg,
“Capture and Captives”,
Conclusion

In retrospect, much attention has been focused on the brutality of slavery in the
West Indies. However this system of brutality was experienced by Africans
from the point of capture to the journey to the Caribbean. The effects of this
brutality manifested in several ways on the African population, which were
depopulation, development of a generation gap between the very old and very
young, an increase in detribalization and a loss of culture, traditions, religion,
dialect, crafts and training.
Figure 1. showing Slaves working in the fields

Figure 2. showing a Slave Cooking

Figure 3. Showing an Illustration of Slaves Washing in a River

Figure 4. Showing a Slave showing Back Injuries

Figure 5. Illustrating a slave raid

Figure 6. Illustrating Yoked Slaves

Figure 7. showing a Slave being branded.

Figure 8. showing a Woman being punished

Works Cited:

Handler, Jerome and Michael, Tuite Jr., “Slavery in the Caribbean”.

Padgett, Jeffrey “The Christianization of Slaves in the West Indies”.

Claypole, William and John, Robottom, Caribbean Story, Book 1(Third Edition,
2001), The African Slave Trade page 91, Resistance and Revolt page 127.

Danish National Archives, (2017), “Illness and Death Among the Enslaved”.

UNESCO, Slavery and Remembrance, “Capture and Captives”.

Battle, Mary (2013) “African Passages, Lowcountry Adaptations”, pages 13, 16