UNIT V

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. Introduction
Solid waste management problem appears to be the most prominent in urban cities and large
towns across the world due to the huge quantity of solid waste generated from domestic and
commercial activities. In most cities and large towns of the world, solid waste is not only
heaped in huge quantities on refuse dumps but also thrown and made to lie around in piles in
the street and in small illegal dump on any piece of unused land. Most third world countries
have worst cases than industrialized countries which have the money, technical knowhow and
public attitudes to control and manage their waste to some degree.
1.1. SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISATION
Waste characterization is a waste stream analysis which involves a logical and systematic
approach to obtaining and analyzing data on one or more waste streams or sub-streams.
Waste characterization provides an estimate of solid waste quantity and composition. Two
commonly use method of waste characterization are – material flow approach and site-
specific study. However there is currently no agreed international standard for waste stream
analysis or waste characterization although many countries have national procedures for
analyzing their waste. Waste characterization has been developed and discussed in this
chapter.
1.2. ASSESSMENT OF THE SOLID WASTE CHAIN
Waste management in all ramifications, is simply a planned system aimed at effectively
controlling the production, storage, collection, transportation, processing and disposal of
waste. Waste management is an important element of environmental protection. Its purpose is
to provide hygienic, efficient and economic solid waste storage, collection, transportation and
treatment or disposal of waste without polluting the atmosphere, soil or water system. The
various steps involved in the management of solid waste from generation to the point of
sanitary disposal are referred to as solid waste chain. It therefore means that the solid waste
chain is the path trace by solid waste from generation to the final disposal point. The solid
waste chain has been extensively discussed in this work.
2. Definitions of waste
Waste is a term generally used to describe the materials we throw away. In the United state of
America it includes objects the lay audience commonly calls garbage, refuse and trash.
The oxford advance dictionary defined waste as unused materials or substance produced
while making something. Another dictionary – the word net dictionary defined waste as any
material unused and rejected as worthless or unwanted.
Waste may also be defined simply as left-over, or already used items waiting for reuse or
disposal). In addition another definition state thus, waste is any unwanted material
intentionally thrown away for disposal.
The problem with these definitions is that for any material to be a waste it must be thrown
away for disposal. Not all wastes are thrown away for disposal. A lot of wastes are kept by
the owner for sale which becomes useful raw materials to other persons. The dictionary
meaning and other definitions stated above when carefully examined, rely too much on other
terms (such as garbage, trash, refuse etc), which do not provide a means to determine whether
a given particle, material or item is not a waste based on its composition and its instantaneous
relationship to an owner, a generator, a recycler or a legal designation.
2.1. PROPOSED DEFINITION
Having examined the definition given by various authors as shown above it became clear that
they are not all encompassing hence there is need to propose a definition that can define
waste more broadly as follows: “Any object that may or may not have served its intended use
and the owner is not ready to continue to take responsibility for ownership and or continuing
to keep it and he or she is ready to discard it if possible is a waste”.
Waste may be asset or a liability depending on the management system applied on it. To the
developed countries wastes are asset because they have the technology and public attitude
that help the nations to reverse the state of their waste which make it become assets instead of
liability. Take for example, the recycling of waste paper save trees use for making fresh
pulps.
3. Municipal solid waste
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is defined Cointreau (1982) as non-air and sewage emissions
created within and disposed of by a municipality, including household garbage, commercial
refuse, construction and demolition debris, dead animals, and abandoned vehicles. Municipal
solid waste is generally made up of paper, vegetable matter, plastics, metals, textiles, rubber,
and glass (USEPA 2000).
Municipal solid waste disposal is a major concern in developing countries across the world,
as high poverty, population growth, and high urbanization rates combine with ineffectual and
under-funded governments hampers efficient management of wastes (Doan 1998, Cointreau
1982). In most cities and large towns of developing countries, solid waste is not only heaped
in huge quantities on refuse dumps but also thrown and made to lie around in piles in the
street and in small illegal dump on any piece of unused land. Most third world countries have
worst cases than industrialized countries which have the money and technical know now and
public attitudes to control and manage their waste to some degree.
3.1. CHARACTERISATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW)
Municipal solid waste characterization is a waste stream analysis which involves a logical
and systematic approach to obtaining and analyzing data on one or more waste streams or
sub-streams. The analysis usually provides - the composition of the waste stream and an
estimate of the quantity of the waste stream (EPA Ireland, 1996). There is currently no agreed
international standard for waste stream analysis or waste characterization although many
countries have national procedures (EPA, Ireland, 1996). However there are two basic
approaches to estimating quantities of municipal solid waste - Site-Specific Study and
material flow approach (USEPA, 2000).
3.2. SITE-SPECIFIC STUDY
This method involves sampling, sorting, and weighing the individual components of the
waste stream. The method is useful in defining a local waste stream. The site-specific study
requires a large numbers of samples to be taken over several seasons. Large sample ensure
that the results are not skewed and misleading.
This method is best applied in the characterization of a solid waste stream that has
components such as food and yard trimmings. A study that involves the use of site-specific
study is usually preceded by survey.
Solid waste survey is a statistical study of a sample population which involves asking
questions about age, income, opinions, size of family, and other aspects of people's lives with
respect to solid waste. Usually survey research method is employed when research is to be
carried out in a large population. Random sampling method is commonly used to observe and
collect data from the population.
The sample size required for a survey partly depends on the statistical quality needed for the
survey findings; this, in turn, relates to how the results will be used (Haruna, 2004, Scheuren,
2004). Two methods commonly applied in Surveys research are the questionnaire and
interview methods. Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments that the
respondent completes. Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on what the
respondent says. Sometimes, it's hard to tell the difference between a questionnaire and an
interview. The procedure for MSW Characterization using site-specific study is discussed in
the following sections.
3.2.1. SELECTION OF A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE

Selecting a representative Sample is one of the most difficult tasks associated with waste
stream analysis (EPA, Ireland, 1996). It is of critical importance that a sample be collected
that is representative of the waste management unit under study. The first step in good sample
design is to ensure that the specification of the target population is as clear and complete as
possible to ensure that all elements within the population are represented. Several sampling
techniques exist - Cluster sampling, Multi-stage sampling, Quota sampling, Simple random
sampling, Stratified sampling, Systematic sampling etc. As you can see listed above there are
many methods available for use with varying degrees of complexity. Certain methods suit
circumstances better than others.
3.2.2. SAMPLING

The most convenient way to select a representative sample is to use the social class grouping.
The population is group into three major social classes – Upper social class, Middle social
class and Lower social class. The forth is the Underclass.

The upper social class consists less than 5 percent of the population and is group into two
sub-classes: upper-upper and lower-upper social classes. The middle social class is also
broken into three sub-classes - upper-middle, average or middle-middle and lower middle
class. The membership of the sub-class is determined by educational background and earning.
In India it is assumed that over 50% belong to the lower social class. This class is made up of
those who barely half manage to complete secondary school and less than about 25% are able
to get university education. They own their houses in least desirable neighborhood. Society
segregates the lower social class especially when no education at all.

The forth is the Underclass. Very little percentage of the population is locked up in this class.
The members of this group lack employable skill and have little or no experience in the job
market. Unless given extensive training, they are virtually unemployable. Sociologists
disagree about what to call this class. Some use the term “Underclass”. In America some
argue that this word is stigmatizing, a real concern given the negative classist attitude of most
Americans.
3.2.3. SAMPLE SIZE

The size of sample to be taken is dependent on the number of solid waste generation units in
the sampling area. The following procedure may be employed in selecting the sample size.
A breakdown of social class groups in the sampling area is obtained from the census figures.
The number of sampling units (households for domestic waste) to be surveyed is determined.
The minimum number of sampling units is 50 per 500 households. For domestic waste this
will result in a sample of approximately 1,000 kg, assuming a waste generation rate of 20 kg
/household/ week (EPA, 1996). For practical purposes, the weight of the sample for a single
survey should be kept below about 5,000 kg, which is roughly equivalent to the waste
collected from about 250 households. The recommended range for a survey therefore, is,
roughly, 50 – 250 households. However in larger areas, where the sample size will be greater
than 250 households, it is recommended that a survey be split into several sub-surveys.
3.2.4. SAMPLE COLLECTION

In India and in most other industrialized countries such as United States, solid waste
collection is by trucks fig 1. The trucks are usually parkers, tippers and trucks that carry
hydraulic rams to compact the waste to reduce its volume and thus can carry larger quantity.
The sample should be collected from the selected sampling units on the same day as normal
collection.
The vehicle are weighed prior to and after sample collection so that the total weight of the
collected sample can be obtained by determining the deference between the weight of the
collection vehicle before and after collection of the waste. Occupants of households and
operators of firms chosen for the survey should not be informed about the survey so that any
bias that may be created by a temporary change in habits can be eliminated. However in
developing countries the people show indifference to solid waste issues and as such the
approach above is often not easily applicable. The weight of the total sample should be
obtained before sorting and the number of sampling units (households or firms) included in
the survey recorded so that the average weight of waste per household per week can be
determined.
3.2.5. SAMPLE ANALYSIS
The samples are then sorted into the types and classes of solid waste and the weight of each
type and class determined and recorded. The moisture content and the bulk density of the
sample should be measured. This information will help comparison of results of different
surveys as large fluctuations in either moisture content or bulk density will normally reflect a
significant difference in waste composition.
 Figure 1. Solid waste collection vehicles with hydraulic ram

3.2.6. SAFE DISPOSAL OF SAMPLED WASTE

After the analysis arrangements should be made for appropriate and safe disposal of the waste
to an authorized site having completed a waste composition survey.
3.3. MATERIALS FLOW APPROACH
In the material flow methodology production data (by weight) are collected for the materials
and products in the waste stream. Waste generation data is obtained from the data collected
by making specific adjustments to the production data for each material and product category.
Adjustments are made for imports and exports and materials diverted from the municipal
solid waste (MSW) stream (e.g., for building materials made of plastic and paperboard).
Adjustments are also considered for the life spans of various products. One major
disadvantage is that the materials flows methodology requires additional sampling study to
determine food wastes, yard trimmings and a small amount of miscellaneous inorganic
wastes. This method is widely used in the United States of America (USEPA).
4. The solid waste chain
Waste management in all ramifications is simply a planned system aimed at effectively
controlling the production, storage, collection, transportation, processing and disposal of
waste. Waste management is an important element of environmental protection. Its purpose is
to provide hygienic, efficient and economic solid waste storage, collection, transportation and
treatment or disposal of waste without polluting the atmosphere, soil or water system. The
path trace by solid waste in the management of solid waste from generation to the point of
disposal is referred to as solid waste chain. The solid waste management is a complex
process, involving multiple steps (solid waste chain) shown in fig. 2.
Figure 2. The solid waste management Chain
As indicated in fig.1, the first step in the solid waste chain is the generation of solid waste. Once
a material no longer has value to the owner, and owner does not want to take responsibility for it,
it is considered to be a waste (Palmer, 1992). The generation of waste varies by country,
socioeconomic status and as a result of many other practices (Davis, eta al 2004). Once solid
waste is generated, it must be handled properly and stored at source for collection by solid waste
disposal agents. The processing and handling may include sorting or segregation, washing and
storage so as to ensure recycling of some portion of the waste. Other steps included in the solid
waste chain are collection, transfer to central storage facility, final processing facility, product
utilization and disposal.
5. Solid waste source segregation
There are four common methods of solid waste Disposal – Landfill, incineration, composting
and anaerobic digestion and Recycling (Rao, 2006, Audu, 2007). Incineration, composting
and anaerobic digestion are volume reducing technologies; however, residues from these
methods must be land filled (Seo et.al 2004). Recycling is one of the waste management
techniques that can ensure sustainability of any solid waste management strategy. Recycling
is a waste minimization strategy which can be used to divert or prevent discarded material
from the waste stream. It consists of a series of activities that are preceded by waste
segregation/sorting, processing and manufacturing into new products. Recycling is one of the
solid waste management that can ensure sustainability of solid waste management as it
converts the waste from liability to asset.
In most large towns and cities in India solid wastes including medical waste are commingled
and disposed at the solid waste dump site. Thereafter open air incineration without pollution
control is carried out on the waste. This is not sustainable as it does not bring financial return
at the end point of the waste. If a sustainable solid waste management must be realized
recycling which ensure financial returns at the end point of the waste must be included in the
waste management designed. The first step in solid waste management which will include
recycling is segregation/sorting. If solid waste is sorted about 30% of the work is done
(Chidubem, 2008). Several methods of sorting solid waste exist.

Solid Waste Management:

Types, Sources, Effects and Methods of Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management is a polite term for garbage management. As long as liumans have
been living in settled communities, solid waste, or garbage, has been an issue, and modern
societies generate far more solid waste than early humans ever did.

Daily life in industrialized nations can generate several pounds of solid waste per consumer,
not only directly in the home, but indirectly in factories that manufacture goods purchased by
consumers.

Garbage: many broad categories of garbage are:

i. Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.

ii. Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide
containers, batteries, shoe polish.

iii. Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics.

iv. Hospital waste such as cloth with blood

1. Types & Source of Solid Wastes:

Basically solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source:
2. Effects of Solid Waste Pollution:
Municipal solid wastes heap up on the roads due to improper disposal system. People clean
their own houses and litter their immediate surroundings which affects the community
including themselves.

This type of dumping allows biodegradable materials to decompose under uncontrolled and
unhygienic conditions. This produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects and
infectious organisms besides spoiling the aesthetics of the site.

Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which may spread
on land and can cause changes in physic-chemical and biological characteristics thereby
affecting productivity of soils.

Toxic substances may leach or percolate to contaminate the ground water. In refuse mixing,
the hazardous wastes are mixed with garbage and other combustible wastes. This makes
segregation and disposal all the more difficult and risky.

Various types of wastes like cans, pesticides, cleaning solvents, batteries (zinc, lead or
mercury), radioactive materials, plastics and e-waste are mixed up with paper, scraps and
other non-toxic materials which could be recycled. Burning of some of these materials
produces dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls, which have the potential to cause
various types of ailments including cancer.

3. Methods of Solid Wastes Disposal:

i. Sanitary Landfill
ii. Incineration
iii. Composting
iv. Pyrolysis

i. Sanitary Land Filling:

In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or
plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually
several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner protects the ground water from being
contaminated due to percolation of leachate.
Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. When landfill is full it is covered
with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled near
the landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced
by anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat.

Sanitary Landfills Site Selection:

i. Should be above the water table, to minimize interaction with groundwater.
ii. Preferably located in clay or silt.
iii. Do not want to place in a rock quarry, as water can leech through the cracks inherent in
rocks into a water fracture system.
iv. Do not want to locate in sand or gravel pits, as these have high leeching. Unfortunately,
most of Long Island is sand or gravel, and many landfills are located in gravel pits, after
they were no longer being used.
v. Do not want to locate in a flood plain. Most garbage tends to be less dense than water, so if
the area of the landfill floods, the garbage will float to the top and wash away
downstream.
A large number of adverse impacts may occur from landfill operations. Theseimpacts can
vary:
i. Fatal accidents (e.g., scavengers buried under waste piles).
ii. Infrastructure damage (e.g., damage to access roads by heavy vehicles).
iii. Pollution of the local environment (such as contamination of groundwater and/or aquifers
by leakage and residual soil contamination during landfill usage, as well as after landfill
closure).
iv. Off gassing of methane generated by decaying organic wastes (methane is a greenhouse
gas many times more potent than carbon dioxide, and can itself be a danger to inhabitants
of an area).
v. Harbouring of disease vectors such as rats and flies, particularly from improperly operated
landfills.

ii. Incineration:

The term incinerates means to burn something until nothing is left but ashes. An incinerator is
a unit or facility {Figure(s)} used to burn trash and other types of waste until it is reduced to
ash. An incinerator is constructed of heavy, well-insulated materials, so that it does not give
off extreme amounts of external heat.
The high levels of heat are kept inside the furnace or unit so that the waste is burned quickly
and efficiently. If the heat were allowed to escape, the waste would not burn as completely or
as rapidly. Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to
combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful
for disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water
management. This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 per cent of the
original volume.
Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as
“thermal treatment”. Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by
industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical
method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials. Incineration is a controversial
method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
FIGURE: Schematics of Incinerators

iii. Composting:

Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the biodegradable yard waste (kept
separate from the municipal waste) is allowed to degrade or decompose in a medium. A good
quality nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed which improves the soil
conditions and fertility.
Organic matter constitutes 35%-40% of the municipal solid waste generated in India. This
waste can be recycled by the method of composting, one of the oldest forms of disposal. It is
the natural process of decomposition of organic waste that yields manure or compost, which
is very rich in nutrients.
Composting is a biological process in which micro-organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria,
convert degradable organic waste into humus like substance. This finished product, which
looks like soil, is high in carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for growing plants.
The process of composting ensures the waste that is produced in the kitchens is not carelessly
thrown and left to rot. It recycles the nutrients and returns them to the soil as nutrients. Apart
from being clean, cheap, and safe, composting can significantly reduce the amount of
disposable garbage.
The organic fertilizer can be used instead of chemical fertilizers and is better specially when
used for vegetables. It increases the soil’s ability to hold water and makes the soil easier to
cultivate. It helped the soil retain more of the plant nutrients.
Vermi-composting has become very popular in the last few years. In this method, worms are
added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta of the worms
makes the compost very rich in nutrients. In the activity section of this web site you can learn
how to make a compost pit or a vermi-compost pit in your school or in the garden at home.
To make a compost pit, you have to select a cool, shaded corner of the garden or the school
compound and dig a pit, which ideally should be 3 feet deep. This depth is convenient for
aerobic composting as the compost has to be turned at regular intervals in this process.
Preferably the pit should be lined with granite or brick to prevent nitrite pollution of the
subsoil water, which is known to be highly toxic. Each time organic matter is added to the pit
it should be covered with a layer of dried leaves or a thin layer of soil which allows air to
enter the pit thereby preventing bad odour. At the end of 45 days, the rich pure organic matter
is ready to be used.
Composting: some benefits
i. Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a longer period.
ii. It supplies part of the 16 essential elements needed by the plants.
iii. It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the excessive use of
chemical fertilizer.
iv. It makes soil easier to cultivate.
v. It helps keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.
vi. It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil covered.
vii. It helps in controlling the growth of weeds in the garden.

PROCESS OF COMPOSTING:
 Compost results in a physical breakdown of organic matter layered with small amounts of
soil by a process known as aerobic disintegration.
 Structure of the matter is broken down by bacteria and fungi of decay until it is part of the
soil mass.
For example, a piece of newspaper would, under ideal conditions, become a part of the
humus in the soil within two to four weeks. A tin can biodegrades in about 100 years and an
aluminum can in about 500 years.
 During composting, heat is generated because of interaction of organic material interaction
with moisture, air, bacteria and fungi.

Phases of Composting
The composting process can be divided into three phases determined by temperature and heat
output.
a) During the first phase, the initial 24-48 hours, temperatures gradually rise to 40-50o C.
During this time, sugars and other easily biodegradable substances are metabolized mostly by
bacteria and fungi.

b) During the second phase, which may occur over extended periods of time, temperatures
between 40 and 65o C prevails. Cellulose and other more difficult substances to biodegrade
are destroyed at that time. Lignins, the darker, woody components in plant tissues, break
down even more slowly. During this high temperature phase, plant pathogens, weed seeds
and biocontrol agents (excepting Bacillus spp.) are killed by the heat. Turning compost piles
ensures uniformly high temperatures and helps produce a homogeneous product.
c) The third stage is the curing phase when the concentrations of materials that readily
decompose decrease. The rates of decomposition, heat output and temperature decline during
this phase. A micro-flora, similar to that found in soil, now colonizes the compost. Mature
compost has a dark color, consists largely of lignins, humus and biomass and has a distinctive
soil or "earthy" odor. This odor is attributed to the soil microflora present in the compost.
Optimum Conditions for Composting Food:- organic waste containing water (moisture
content between 30-80%) & added nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Sulfur) present organic
matter content in waste serves as a source of carbon, nutrients & energy for the metabolic
reactions during bioremediation process.
Micronutrients in addition to N, P & S many other micronutrients are needed to a lower
concentration such as K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Ni & others.
Oxygen if required (aerobic types): 2-5 kg of oxygen per kg of organic compound to be
converted.
Moderate pH: between 6-9, neither too acidic nor too alkaline.
Moderate Temperatures: 50o to 100o F.

The production of compost helps mitigate GHG emissions in following ways:

1. Decreasing the need of chemical fertilizers and pesticides; thereby reducing GHG
emissions from the use of fossil fuel associated with their production and application

2. Allowing for more rapid growth in plants, thereby increasing carbon uptake and storage
within the plant. This is a form of carbon sequestration which removes CO2 from the
atmosphere.

Types of Composting and Understanding the Process

Composting Basics
Onsite Composting
Vermicomposting
Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting
Aerated Static Pile Composting
In-Vessel Composting

Composting Basics
You may also consider contacting a compostable waste hauler about designing your compost
plan. There are five main areas that must be “controlled” during composting.

1. Feedstock and Nutrient Balance

Composting, or controlled decomposition, requires a proper balance of “green” organic
materials and “brown” organic materials. “Green” organic material includes grass clippings,
food scraps, and manure, which contain large amounts of nitrogen. “Brown” organic
materials includes dry leaves, wood chips, and branches, which contain large amounts of
carbon but little nitrogen. Obtaining the right nutrient mix requires experimentation and
patience. It is part of the art and science of composting.
2. Particle Size
Grinding, chipping, and shredding materials increases the surface area on which
microorganisms can feed. Smaller particles also produce a more homogeneous compost
mixture and improve pile insulation to help maintain optimum temperatures (see below). If
the particles are too small, however, they might prevent air from flowing freely through the
pile.
3. Moisture Content
Microorganisms living in a compost pile need enough moisture to survive. Water is the key
element that helps transports substances within the compost pile and makes the nutrients in
organic material accessible to the microbes. Organic material contains some moisture in
varying amounts, but moisture also might come in the form of rainfall or intentional watering.
4. Oxygen Flow
Turning the pile, placing the pile on a series of pipes, or including bulking agents such as
wood chips and shredded newspaper all help aerate the pile. Aerating the pile allows
decomposition to occur at a faster rate than anaerobic conditions. Care must be taken,
however, not to provide too much oxygen, which can dry out the pile and impede the
composting process.
5. Temperature
Microorganisms require a certain temperature range for optimal activity. Certain
temperatures promote rapid composting and destroy pathogens and weed seeds. Microbial
activity can raise the temperature of the pile’s core to at least 140° F. If the temperature does
not increase, anaerobic conditions (i.e., rotting) occur. Controlling the previous four factors
can bring about the proper temperature.

I. Onsite Composting
Organizations that are going to compost small amounts of wasted food can compost onsite.
Composting can significantly reduce the amount of wasted food that is thrown away. Yard
trimmings and small quantities of food scraps can be composted onsite. Animal products and
large quantities of food scraps are not appropriate for onsite composting.
Learn how to create your own compost pile

II. Vermi-composting
Red worms in bins feed on food scraps, yard trimmings, and other organic matter to create
compost. The worms break down this material into high quality compost called castings.
Worm bins are easy to construct and are also available for purchase. One pound of mature
worms (approximately 800-1,000 worms) can eat up to half a pound of organic material per
day. The bins can be sized to match the volume of food scraps that will be turned into
castings.
It typically takes three to four months to produce usable castings. The castings can be used as
potting soil. The other byproduct of vermicomposting known as “worm tea” is used as a high-
quality liquid fertilizer for houseplants or gardens.

Night-crawlers and field worms found in gardens are not appropriate for vermiculture.

What Can Be Composted - Vermiculture?

Food scraps
Paper
Yard trimmings such as grass and plants
III. Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting
Aerated or turned windrow composting is suited for large volumes such as that generated by
entire communities and collected by local governments, and high volume food-processing
businesses (e.g., restaurants, cafeterias, packing plants). It will yield significant amounts of
compost, which might require assistance to market the end-product. Local governments may
want to make the compost available to residents for a low or no cost.
This type of composting involves forming organic waste into rows of long piles called
“windrows” and aerating them periodically by either manually or mechanically turning the
piles. The ideal pile height is between four and eight feet with a width of 14 to 16 feet. This
size pile is large enough to generate enough heat and maintain temperatures. It is small
enough to allow oxygen flow to the windrow's core.
Large volumes of diverse wastes such as yard trimmings, grease, liquids, and animal
byproducts (such as fish and poultry wastes) can be composted through this method.
IV. Aerated Static Pile Composting
Aerated static pile composting produces compost relatively quickly (within three to six
months). It is suitable for a relatively homogenous mix of organic waste and work well for
larger quantity generators of yard trimmings and compostable municipal solid waste (e.g.,
food scraps, paper products), such as local governments, landscapers, or farms. This method,
however, does not work well for composting animal byproducts or grease from food
processing industries.
In aerated static pile composting, organic waste mixed in a large pile. To aerate the pile,
layers of loosely piled bulking agents (e.g., wood chips, shredded newspaper) are added so
that air can pass from the bottom to the top of the pile. The piles also can be placed over a
network of pipes that deliver air into or draw air out of the pile. Air blowers might be
activated by a timer or a temperature sensors.
V. In-Vessel Composting
In-vessel composting can process large amounts of waste without taking up as much space as
the windrow method and it can accommodate virtually any type of organic waste (e.g., meat,
animal manure, biosolids, food scraps). This method involves feeding organic materials into a
drum, silo, concrete-lined trench, or similar equipment. This allows good control of the
environmental conditions such as temperature, moisture, and airflow. The material is
mechanically turned or mixed to make sure the material is aerated. The size of the vessel can
vary in size and capacity.
This method produces compost in just a few weeks. It takes a few more weeks or months
until it is ready to use because the microbial activity needs to balance and the pile needs to
cool.
NOTE: For specific methods of composting processes developed by Indians at different
places, please refer to the attached PDF file.
iv. Pyrolysis:

Pyrolysis is a form of incineration that chemically decomposes organic materials by heat in

the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating
temperatures above 430 °C (800 °F).
In practice, it is not possible to achieve a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some
oxygen is present in any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs. If volatile or
semi-volatile materials are present in the waste, thermal desorption will also occur.

Organic materials are transformed into gases, small quantities of liquid, and a solid residue
containing carbon and ash. The off-gases may also be treated in a secondary thermal
oxidation unit. Particulate removal equipment is also required. Several types of pyrolysis
units are available, including the rotary kiln, rotary hearth furnace, and fluidized bed furnace.
These units are similar to incinerators except that they operate at lower temperatures and with
less air supply.
FIGURE(s): Pyrolysis process
Limitations and Concerns:

i. The technology requires drying of soil prior to treatment.

ii. Limited performance data are available for systems treating hazardous wastes
containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and other organics. There is
concern that systems that destroy chlorinated organic molecules by heat have the
potential to create products of incomplete combustion, including dioxins and furans.
These compounds are extremely toxic in the parts per trillion ranges. The MSO
process reportedly does not produce dioxins and furans.
iii. The molten salt is usually recycled in the reactor chamber. However, depending on
the waste treated (especially inorganics) and the amount of ash, spent molten salt
may be hazardous and require special care in disposal.
iv. Pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically separating in organics
from the contaminated medium. Volatile metals may be removed as a result of the
higher temperatures associated with the process, but they are not destroyed. By-
products containing heavy metals may require stabilization before final disposal.
v. When the off-gases are cooled, liquids condense, producing an oil/tar residue and
contaminated water. These oils and tars may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper
treatment, storage, and disposal.

Solid Waste Collection

Objective(s): To describe the tasks and logistics of MSW collection, to analyze
collection systems, and to become familiar with the principals and theory behind the
use of transfer stations
Goals:
 Understand problems and concerns associated with MSW collection.
 Compare and contrast privately and publicly operated systems.
 Understand the types of collection systems
 To identify the benefits associated with the use of transfer stations
 To prepare an economic analysis of transfer stations
 To understand the design issues associated with transfer stations
General Information
Collection accounts for 50-70% of a SW
budget! Types of Collection System
 Refuse Collection Systems - Household waste removed from the home
 Commercial Waste Collection - Commercial waste removed primarily using
dumpsters
 Recyclable Material Collection - Collection of recyclable materials separated
at thesource of generation.
Equipment
 Both Vehicles and Containers are required
 Average life of vehicles: 5-7 yrs
 Residential collection vehicles
o most have internal compactors
o Rear loaders - larger hopper not as necessary with the elimination of
 larger, bulky items
o Side loaders - 2 person crew (driver and loader)
o Mechanically loaded
o Front Loader, residential waste place in bin then cycled
 Commercial waste collection vehicles
o Front Loader
o Hoist truck; small operation, few pickup locations, bulky items
o Tilt frame - large containers, widely used
o Trash trailers - heavy rubbish (C/D)
 Recycling - compartmentalized truck

Automated Collection
Usually only one driver required works best:
o without on-street parking, low hanging wires, narrow
streetsWhere commitment to preventative
maintenance
Where commitment to educating
public60-90 gal containers

Collection

Options City-

Run

Collection
 More control over collection
 City owns and operates all equipment
 City manages personnel
 Funded from property tax, user fees, or utility bill
 Disadvantages
1. Municipalities tend to be less efficient than private companies
2. Capital expenditures can be difficult
3. May require passage of bond
4. Tendency to minimize short-term spending without considering long-
termimplications
 Advantages
1. Non-profit
2. Centralized operation
3. City maintains complete control over waste
Private Collection
City gives contract to firm(s) as a set fee based on bidding process, users are
billeddirectly
Non-Exclusive Franchises
  Multiple contractors competing for service in
communityExclusive Franchises
 One contractor is responsible for a given area
Advantages
 No capital expenditure for city
 Long-term lower costs
 Impose order on collection (exclusive franchise)
 Regular pickup schedules (exclusive franchise)
 Trash cans/trucks on street one or two days per week (exclusive franchise)
 Lower costs due to improved routing and technology (exclusive franchise)
Disadvantages
 Difficult to compete with large haulers
 Leads to domination by a few haulers (exclusive franchise)
 Citizens provide a profit to waste hauler
 City can become overly dependent
 Requires oversight by city

Problems and Concerns

Labor
 Labor intensive
 Labor unskilled
 High turn-over rates
 Few prospects for mechanical replacement of manual labor
 Injuries and poor working conditions
 Limited career opportunities
Customer Service
 Frequency of service
 Container and storage issues particularly for commercial and industrial
 Location of pickup
 Special wastes
Management and Financing Issues
 Low priority
 Resistance to change and new technologies
 Lack of quality management
 Inflation
 Changing with new regulations
Technological Issues
 Collection of multiple streams (recyclables, yard waste, special wastes)
 Single stream vs. commingled recyclables.\
curbside collection costs are $15/ton less for single
streamsorting costs at MRFs are $10/ton more for
single-stream paper quality lower for single stream
 Yard waste containers - bagged material must be debagged prior to composting
 Automated collection (still requires an operator)
  Development of efficient routes
 Vehicle weight restrictions
 Vehicle turning radius and clearance

Frequency of Collection
Collection frequency has been declining since the 1950s. By the 1970s, once per week
(1/wk) collection was common in half of the U.S. This trend continued into the 1980s
but at a reduced rate. The south still uses twice a week collection (2/wk) almost
exclusively.
Reasons for declining collection frequency include;
 Proportion of putrescible waste declined (food grinders)
 Better design of collection vehicles controls odors and flies
 Service costs increased
 Time between collection and disposal decreased
 Better management

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Collection Frequencies

Favoring
Alternative Potential Advantages Potential Disadvantages
Conditions
Improperly stored waste can Cold to
Once per week Less expensive,
create odor and vector moderate
or less Requires less fuel
problems climate
Reduces litter, Reduces More expensive, Requires more
Twice per week Warm climate
storage requirements fuel
More than twice Reduces litter, Reduces More expensive, Requires more Dense
per week storage requirements fuel population

Factors Affecting Decisions and Calculations

Fixed Factors
 Climate
 Topography
 Layout - container access (alley, curbside, rear of house)
 Available transportation systems, traffic, roads (Venice uses boats)
 Types of wastes collected
 Population density
Variable Factors
 Storage techniques employed
 Recycling
 Collection frequency
 Crew size
 Equipment
Analysis
1. Analysis of collection time

Y = a + b + c(d) + e + f + g
Where:
Y = total
collection timea
= garage to
route time
b = actual time collecting waste
c = number of trips to disposal site
d = time to drive fully loaded truck to disposal facility, unload and return to
collectionarea
e = time to drive to garage at the end of
the trip f = official breaks, including
bathroom visits
g = other lost time such as traffic jams,
breakdowns f + g = off route time,
usually a fraction of Y

 a, d, and e are a function of distance and speed

 b is a function of the number of customers, time per customer, number of
loads (fullor partial)
 c is a function of the capacity of the vehicle and its compaction ratio
2. Analysis of number of vehicles required
N = SF/XW
Where:
N = number of vehicles required
S = total number of customers served per week
F = collection frequency
X = number of customers truck can serve per day
W = number of work days per week

Transfer Stations - Introduction

Alternative to direct haul, justified when transport cost (route to disposal site) is
greater thantransport from route to transfer station plus haul to disposal site by larger
vehicle
Benefits
 Large transfer trailers replace several collection vehicles for the hauling of
waste tothe disposal site
 Collection vehicles are rapidly routed back to work, at-site or turn-around
time isreduced compared to the normal time associated with disposal.
 Paved roads/tipping surfaces at transfer station reduce maintenance costs
 Disposal facilities can be located far from populated areas which may
 diffuse localsiting opposition
 Waste stream inspection opportunity when unloading onto tipping floor or into
compactors - spotters remove hazardous wastes
 Provides another opportunity for recycling, compaction, and/or baling
 Easy use of multiple disposal sites
Need for a transfer station is indicated by the following
 Presence of illegal dumps and litter
 Remote disposal sites (> 10 miles)
 Small capacity collection vehicles (< 20 yd3)
 Low density residential areas
 Widespread use of medium sized commercial containers
Economics
Compare direct haul and transfer costs
Considerations:
 Cost of disposal
 Fixed transfer station costs - cost to build, own, operate, and maintain
 Transport cost - cost/ton/min of transport time
 Plot cost/ton vs. difference between round trip to transfer station and disposal site
Transport Equipment:
Tractor Trailers
 Compaction vs. Open top
 Tractor trailers restriction of highway access due to wt limits (~40 ton)
Railcars
 Generally > 50 mi. haul distance
 Replaces truck hauling – as fuel costs increase rail becomes more cost effective
 Paper Train - hauls paper from New England Area (30 loc) to Chicago hub
from thereto West coast and/or Mexico, 2000 tons/day
 60’ box car 90 tons, Seattle and Vancouver, WA
o Seattle to Oregon LF, 325miles
 South Cal 16-20,000 tpd to 3 LF in Mojave Desert
 Montgomery County, Maryland, 20 mi one way
o Waste processed at a modified transfer station then hauled to WTE
o Processing includes separation of recyclables, scrap, and compost
o Residual waste compacted into 30 ton, 37 foot logs and placed in
sealedcontainers
o Ash from WTE backhauled to transfer station and disposed at Oaks
Landfill.
o Hauling cost: $5/ton waste and $2.5/ton ash
Barges
 Common in Europe
 Fresh Kills Landfill, NY - 680 tons/barge (prior to closure)
 Spill concerns limit size

Design Considerations
 Types of Transfer Stations
 Direct discharge
 Storage pit (with or without compaction)

Station Equipment
 Fixed equipment
o Scales
o Hoppers
o Hydraulic push pits
o Bridge crane with clamshell bucket
o Stationary Compactors
 Mobile Equipment -
o Front end loaders
o Clamshell dozers (push and break up waste, load transport vehicles)

Site Layout
 Size unloading area, access, storage for peak volumes, surges occur at 10 am, 4 pm
 Provide for expansion - economies of scale exist for capital and operational costs

Location
 Near center of collection area
 Convenient to good haul routes
 An area zoned industrial or commercial
 Min. public objections
 Costs of land and construction
 Avoid flood plains, historical/archeological sites, wildlife habitats
 Closed landfills or incinerators are good sites

AIR POLLUTION
Meaning of Air Pollution:
Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are
present in such concentrations that they can produce undesirable effect on man and his
environments. These substances include gases (Sulphur oxides, Nitrogen oxides, Carbon
monoxides, hydrocarbons, etc.) particulates matter (smoke, dust, fumes, aerosols), radioactive
materials and many others.
Most of these substances are naturally present in the atmosphere in low (background)
concentrations and are usually considered to be harmless. Industries are not only the source
of air pollution, other sources such as domestic fuel consumption, refuse burning, automobiles
etc. also contribute heavily to contamination of our environment.

Effects of Air Pollution:

Some of the major effects of air pollution are discussed below:
i. Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health:
Air is fundamental element of human life as it makes breathing possible.
 Pollutants such as:
(i) NOx causes eye irritation, pulmonary congestion and heart diseases.
(ii) SOx and sulphuric acid fumes irritate the upper respiratory track causing cough.
(iii) The production of incomplete combustion of automobile fuel are often found toxic or
contain carcinogenic material.
(iv) Smoke affects lung.

Dust and cotton fiber causes pulmonary trouble and asthma. Air pollution is one of the greatest
environment evils. The air we breathe has not only life support properties but also life
damaging properties. Under ideal conditions the air inhale has qualitative. But if it is polluted,
it may affect human health.
 The primary factors affecting human health are:
1. Nature of the pollutants
2. Concentration of the pollutants
3. Duration of exposure
4. State of health of the receptor
5. Age group of the receptor.

Mechanism of Action of Air Pollutants:

The effects of air pollution on human health generally occur as a result of contact between the
pollutants and the body. Normally, bodily contact occurs at the surface of the skin and exposed
membranes.
Contact with exposed membranes surfaces is of most important because of their high
absorptive capacity compared to that of the skin. Air-born gases, vapours, fumes, mist, and
dust may cause irritation of the membrane of the eyes, nose, throat larynx, tracheo-bronchial
trees and lungs.

Health Effect:
1. Eye irritation
2. Nose and throat irritation
3. Irritation of the respiratory tract
4. Gases like hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and mercaptans cause odour nuisance even at low
concentrations.
5. A variety of particulates particularly pollens initiate asthmatic attacks.
6. Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthma, are aggravated by a high
concentration of SO2, NO2, particulates matter and photochemical smog.
 7. Carbon-monoxide combines with the haemoglobin in the blood and consequently increases
stress on those suffering from cardio-vascular and pulmonary diseases.
8. Hydrogen fluoride causes diseases of the bone, and molting of teeth.
9. Carcinogenic agents cause cancer.
10. Dust particles cause respiratory disease. Diseases like silicosis, asbestosis, etc. result from
specific dusts.
11. Certain heavy metals like lead may enter the body through the lungs and cause poisoning.

ii. Effect Air Pollution on Animals:

Interest in the effects on air pollution on animals has generally developed as a corollary to the
concern about its influence on human health. Recently considerable information has been
reported from medical research laboratories which describes the results of experimental
exposure of small animals to various air pollutants. Animals used for laboratory research
work were fish, rabbits, rats, guinea pigs and monkeys.

In case of farm animals it is a two-step process:

1. Accumulation of the air-borne contaminant in the vegetation and forage.
2. Subsequent poisoning of the animals when they eat the contaminated vegetation.

The three pollutants responsible for most livestock damage are:

(i) Fluorine,
(ii) Arsenic and
(iii) Lead.
These pollutants originate from industrial sources or from dusting and spraying.

(i) Fluorine:
Of all farm animals, cattle and sheep are the most susceptible to fluorine toxicity. Horses
appear to be quite resistant to fluorine poisoning. Poultry are probably the most resistant to
fluorine of all farm animals.

(ii) Arsenic:
Arsenic occurs as an impurity in many ores and in coal. It has been reported to cause
poisoning of livestock near various industrial processes and smelters, just like most industrial
air contaminants. Arsenic may spread over a considerable area from a stock source. Arsenic
in dusts or spray on plants can lead to poisoning of cattle.

(iii) Lead:
Lead contamination of the atmosphere takes place on account of various industrial sources
such as smelters, Cooke ovens and other coal combustion processes. Lead is also used in dust
and sprays containing lead arsenate.
It is reported that pollution is now beginning to effect pets and domestic animals in Tokyo
and other smog affected cities. Many dogs also suffer from coughs, nose, and throat diseases
due to increasing air pollution. It is interesting to note that the average life of pets in Japan is 7
to 8 years, whereas in developing countries they enjoy a life span of 12 to 13 years.
 iii. Effect of Air Pollution on Plants:
Air pollution has adverse effect on plants. At first, it was only sulphur dioxide that was
considered a dangerous pollutant.

Industrial pollution particularly from smelters, has cause complete destruction of vegetation
in some cases e.g. at duck town, Tennessee. In India there are many reports of the effect of
pollutants like cement dust on plant.

Air pollutants effecting plants:

1. Sulphur dioxide
2. Fluoride compounds (like hydrogen fluoride)
3. Ozone
4. Chlorine
5. Hydrogen chloride
6. Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, etc.)
7. Ammonia
8. Hydrogen sulphide
9. Hydrogen cyanide
10. Mercury
11. Ethylene
12. PAN (peroxy acyl nitrate)
13. Herbicides (sprays of weed killers)
14. Smog.
The above pollutants interface with plant growth and the phenomenon of photosynthesis.
Smog, dust, etc. reduce the amount of light reaching the leaf.

Kinds of injury to plants:

I. Acute Injury:
It results from short time exposure to relatively high concentrations, such as might occur
under fumigation conditions.
The effects are noted within a few hour to a few days and may result in visible marking on
the leaves due to a collapse and death of cells.
II. Chronic or yield retardation:
It results from long-term low level exposure and usually causes chlorosis or leaf abscission.
III. Growth or yield retardation:
Here the injury is in the form of an effect on growth without visible marking (invisible
injury). Usually a suppression of growth or yield occurs.

D. Effects of Air Pollutants on Plants:

The effects of various pollutants like sulphur dioxide, ozone, fluorides, etc., on plants is
shown in table 6.2.

Economic Effects of Air Pollution:

Air pollution damage to property is a very important economic aspect of pollution. In the
many countries, this problem has been investigated in detail and successful attempts have been
made to translate observable air pollution damage in terms of economic impact.
Air pollution damage to property covers a wide range corrosion of metals, soiling and eroding
of building surfaces, fading of dyed materials, rubber cracking, spoiling or destruction of
vegetation, effect on animals, as well as interference with production and services.
Another important economic effect of air pollution is deterioration of work of art. In India, today,
there is an urgent need to investigate and study this problem in detail and express the damage to
property in economic terms, as very little work has been done in this direction so far.

Mechanism of Deterioration in Polluted Atmospheres:

Air pollution cause damage to materials by five mechanisms:

(i) Abrasion:
Solid particles of sufficient size and travelling at high velocities can causes abrasion action.

(ii) Deposition and removal:

Solid and liquid particles deposited on a surface may not damage the material itself but it may
spoil its appearance. However the removal of these particles may cause some deterioration.

(iii) Direct chemical attack:

Some air pollutants react directly and irreversibly with materials to cause deterioration. For
example, the bleaching of marble by sulphur dioxide.

(iv) Indirect chemical attack:

Certain materials absorb some pollutants and get damage when the pollutants undergo chemical
changes. For example, sulphur dioxide absorbed by leather.

(v) Corrosion:
The atmospheric deterioration of ferrous metals is by an electrochemical process, i.e. corrosion.
This is due to the action of air pollutants facilitated by the presence of moisture.

Factors Influencing Atmospheric Deterioration:

There are four prime factors which influence the rate of attack of damaging pollutants.

They are:
(i) Moisture,
(ii) Temperature,
(iii) Sunlight and
(iv) Air movement.
(i) Moisture:
The presence of moisture in the atmosphere greatly helps the process of corrosion. Without
moisture in the atmosphere, there would be little atmospheric corrosion, if any even in the most
severely polluted environments. In case of sulphur dioxide and various combinations of
particulates, investigations have revealed that the rate of corrosion of metals will increase as
relative humidity in the air increases.
(ii) Temperature:
Temperature affects the rate of chemical reaction and consequently it effects the rate of
deterioration.
(iii) Sunlight:
Sunlight can cause direct deterioration of certain materials. But in cases of fading of certain dyes
or rubber cracking damage due to direct sunlight cannot always be distinguished from that caused
by ozone.
(iv) Air Movement:
Wind direction is an important factor to be considered in places where deterioration is caused by
pollutants released from nearby factories. Pollutants present in wind blowing at high speeds will
have more abrasive effects and they may also be carried over long distances, where leather bound
books are stored, air movement is critical factor when the air is contaminated by sulphur dioxide.
(v) Economic factor of air pollution:
Air pollution damage to various materials.

Particulate Emission Control By Mechanical Separation

The basic mechanism of removing particulate matter from gas stream is classified as: 1)
gravitational settling 2) centrifugal impaction 3) inertial impaction 4) direct interception 5)
diffusion and 6) electrostatic precipitation.
Equipment presently available, which make use of one or more of the above mechanisms,
fall into the following five broad categories: 1) gravitational settling chambers 2) cyclone
separators 3) fabric filters 4) electrostatic precipitator
[A] Gravitational Settling Chambers
Gravitational settling chambers are generally used to remove large, abrasive particles
(usually >50 µm) from gas stream. It provides enlarged areas to minimize horizontal velocities
and allow time for the vertical velocity to carry the particle to the floor. The usual velocity
through settling chambers is between 0.5 to 2.5 m/s.
 Figure : Gravitation settling chamber
Advantage: Low pressure loss, simplicity of design and maintenance.
Disadvantage: Requires larger space and efficiency is low. Only larger sized particles are
separated out.

Design of a gravitational settling chamber

If we assume that Stokes law applies we can derive a formula for calculating the
minimum diameter of a particle collected at 100% theoretical efficiency in a chamber of length
L.

Where vt=terminal settling velocity, m/s

 p

(
2
.
2
.
2
)
Where, g=gravitational constant, m/s2 ; ρp=density of particle, kg/m3; ρa=density air,
kg/m3; dp=diameter of particle, m; µa=viscosity of air, kg/m s; H=height of settling chamber, m;
vh=horizontal flow-through velocity, m/s; and L=length of settling chamber, m.
Solving for dp gives an equation that predicts the largest-size particle that can be removed
with 100% efficiency from a settling chamber of given dimension.

All particles larger than dp will also be removed with 100% efficiency, while the
efficiency for smaller particles is the ratio of their settling velocities to the settling velocity of the
dp particle.

[B] Cyclone Separators

A cyclone separator consists of a cylindrical shell, conical base, dust hopper and an inlet
where the dust-laden gas enters tangentially. Under the influence of the centrifugal force
generated by the spinning gas, the solid particles are thrown to the wall of the cyclone as the gas
spirals upward at the inside of the cone. The particles slide down the walls of the cone and into
the hopper. The operating efficiency of a cyclone depends on the magnitude of the centrifugal
force exerted on the particles. The greater the centrifugal force, the greater the spreading
efficiency. The magnitude of the centrifugal force generated depends on particle mass, gas
velocity within the cyclone, and cyclone diameter.

Where, Fc=centrifugal force, N; Mp=particulate mass, Kg; vi equals particle velocity and
R equals radius of the cyclone, m/s. From this equation, it can be seen that the centrifugal force
on the particles, and thus the collection efficiency of the cyclone collector can be increased by
decreasing R. Large-diameter cyclone have good collection efficiencies for particles 40 to 50 µm
in diameter.
Advantage: Relatively inexpensive, simple to design and maintain; requires less floor area; low
to moderate pressure loss.
Disadvantage: Requires much head room; collection efficiency is low for smaller particles,
quite sensitive to variable dust loading and flow rates.
[C] Fabric Filters
In a fabric filter system, the particulate-laden gas stream passes through a woven or felted
fabric that filters out the particulate matter and allows the gas to pass through. Small particles are
initially retained on the fabric by direct interception, inertial impaction, diffusion, electrostatic
attraction, and gravitational settling. After a dust mat has formed on the fabric, more efficient
collection of submicron particle is accomplished by sieving.
Filter bags usually tubular or envelope-shaped, are capable of removing most particles as
small as 0.5µm and will remove substantial quantity of particles as small as 0.1 µm. Filter bags
ranging from 1.8 to 9 m long, can be utilized in a bag house filter arrangement.
As particulates build up on the inside surface of the bags, the pressure drop increases.
Before the pressure drop becomes too severe, the bag must be relieved of some of the particulate
layer. Fabric filter can be cleaned intermittently, periodically, or continuously
Fabric and Fibre Characteristics: Fabric filter may be classified according to filtering media:
woven fabric or felt cloth. Woven fabrics have a definite long range repeating pattern and have
considerable porosity in the direction of gas flow. These open spaces must be bridged by
impaction of interception to form a true filtering surface. Felted cloth consists of randomly
oriented fibres, compressed into a mat and needled to some loosely woven backing material to
improve mechanical strength. The choice of fabric fibre is based primarily on operating
temperature and the corrosiveness or abrasiveness of the particle. Cotton is the least expensive
fibre, and is preferably used in low temperature dust collection service. Silicon coated glass fibre
cloth is commonly employed in high temperature applications. The glass fibre must be lubricated
to prevent abrasion. All fibre may be applied to the manufacture of woven and felt type fabrics.
Fabric Filter System: Fabric filter systems typically consist of a tubular bag or an envelope,
suspended or mounted in such manner that the collected particles fall into hopper when
dislodged from fabric. The structure in which the bags are hanged is known as a bag-house.
 Generally, particle laden gas enters the bag at the bottom and passes through the fabric
while the particles are deposited on the inside of the bag. The cleaning is accomplished by
shaking at fixed intervals of time.

Figure : Typical bag-house

Advantage: Fabric filters can give high efficiency, and can even remove very small particles in
dry state.
Disadvantage: High temperature gasses need to be cooled. The flue gasses must be dry to avoid
condensation and clogging. The fabric is liable to chemical attacks.

[D] Electrostatic Precipitator

The electrostatic precipitator is one of the most widely used device for controlling
particulate emission at industrial installations ranging from power plants, cement and paper mills
to oil refineries. Electrostatic precipitator is a physical process by which particles suspended in
gas stream are charged electrically and, under the influence of the electrical field, separated from
the gas stream.
 The precipitator system consists of a positively charged collecting surface and a high-
voltage discharge electrode wire suspended from an insulator at the top and held in passion by
weight t the bottom. At a very high DC voltage, of the order of 50kV, a corona discharge occurs
close to the negative electrode, setting up an electric field between the emitted and the grounded
surface.
The particle laden gas enters near the bottom and flows upward. The gas close to the
negative electrode is, thus, ionized upon passing through the corona. As the negative ions and
electrons migrate toward the grounded surface, they in turn charge the passing particles. The
electrostatic field then draws the particles to the collector surface where they are deposited.
Periodically, the collected particles must be removed from the collecting surface. This is done by
rapping or vibrating the collector to dislodge the particles. The dislodged particles drop below
the electrical treatment zone and are collected for ultimate disposal.
Advantage:
 Maintenance is nominal, useless corrosive and adhesive materials are present in flue
gases.
 They contain few moving parts.
 They can be operated at high temperature up to 300oC-450o C.
Disadvantage:
 Higher initial cost.
 Sensitive to variable dust loading and flow rates.
 They use high voltage, and hence may pose risk to personal safety of the staff.
 Collection efficiency reduces with time.

Particulate emission control by wet gas scrubbing

Wet scrubber removes particulate matter from gas streams by incorporating the particles
into liquid droplets directly on contact. The basic function of wet scrubber is to provide contact
between the scrubbing liquid, usually water and, the particulate to be collected. This contact can
be achieved in a variety of ways as the particles are confronted with so-called impaction target,
which can be wetted surface as in packed scrubbers or individual droplets as in spray scrubbers.
The basic collection mechanism is the same as in filters: inertial impaction, interception and
diffusion. Generally, impaction and interception are the predominant mechanism for particles of
diameter above 3 µm, and for particle of diameter below 0.3 µm diffusion begins to prevail.
There are many scrubber designs presently available where the contact between the scrubbing
liquid and the particles is achieved in a variety of ways. The major types are: plate scrubber,
packed-bed scrubber, spray scrubber, venturi scrubber, cyclone scrubber, baffle scrubber,
impingement-entrainment scrubber, fluidized-bed scrubber.
[A] Plate scrubber
It contains a vertical tower containing one or more horizontal plates (trays). Gas enters
the bottom of the tower and must pass through perforations in each plate as it flows
countercurrent to the descending water stream. Collection efficiency increases as the diameter of
the perforations decreases. A cut diameter, that collected with 50% efficiency, of about µm
aerodynamic diameter can be achieved with 3.2-mm-diameter holes in a sieve plate.
[B] Packed –bed scrubber
Operates similarly to packed-bed gas absorber. Collection efficiency increases as packing
size decreases. A cut diameter of 1.5 µm aerodynamic diameter can be attained in columns
packed with 2.5 cm elements.

Figure : Packed–bed scrubber

[C] Spray scrubber
Particles are collected by liquid drops that have been atomized by spray nozzles. Horizontal
and vertical gas flows are used, as well as spray introduced co-current, countercurrent, or cross-
flow to the gas.
Collection efficiency depends on droplet size, gas velocity, liquid/gas ratio, and droplet
trajectories. For droplets falling at their terminal velocity, the optimum droplet diameter for fine-
particle collection lies in the range 100 to 500 µm.
Gravitational settling scrubbers can achieve cut diameters of about 2.0 µm. The liquid/gas
ratio is in the range 0.001 to 0.01 m3/ m3 of gas treated.
[D] Venturi scrubber
A moving gas stream is used to atomize liquids into droplets. High gas velocities (60 to 120
m/s) lead to high relative velocities between gas and particles and promote collection.
[E] Cyclone scrubber
Drops can be introduced into the gas stream of a cyclone to collect particles. The spray can
be directed outward from a central manifold or inward from the collector wall.
[F] Impingement-Entrainment Scrubber:
The gas is forced to impinge on a liquid surface to reach a gas exit. Some of the liquid
atomizes into drops that are entrained by the gas. The gas exit is designed so as to minimize the
loss of entrained droplets.
[G] Fluidized-bed scrubber
A zone of fluidized packing is provided where gas and liquid can mix intimately. Gas
passes upward through the packing, while liquid is sprayed up from the bottom and/or flows down
over the top of the fluidized layer of packing.

NOISE POLLUTION

Noise pollution

Noise is perhaps one of the most undesirable by products of modern mechanized

lifestyle. It may not seem as insidious or harmful as the contamination of drinking water
supplies from hazardous chemicals, but it is a problem that affects human health and well-
being and that can also contribute to the general deterioration of environmental quality. It can
affect people at home, in their community, or at their place of work.

Sound waves cause eardrums to vibrate, activating middle and inner organs and
sending bioelectrical signals to the brain. The human ear can detect sounds in the frequency
range of about 20 to 20,000 Hz, but for most people hearing is best in the range of 200 to
10,000 Hz. A sound of 50 Hz frequency, for example, is perceived to be very low-pitched, and
a 15,000 - Hz sound is very high pitched.

Simply defined, noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. It takes energy to produce
sound, so, in a manner of speaking, noise is a form of waste energy. It is not a substance that
can accumulate in the environment, like most other pollutants, but it can be diluted with
distance from a source. All sounds come from a sound source, whether it be a radio, a
machine, a human voice, an airplane, or a musical instrument. Not all sound is noise. What
may be considered music to one person may be nothing but noise to another. To a extent,
noise pollution is a matter of opinion. Noise is measured in terms of Decibel units.

Sources of noise

Based on the type of noise include

a) Industrial Noise

b) Transport Noise

C) Neighborhood Noise

Industrial Noise

It is caused by machines used for the technological advancement. There exist a long
list of sources of noise pollution including different machines of numerous factories, industries
and mills.
Transport Noise:

Main source is transport. In addition

to
adversely impacting urban air quality, heavy
automobile traffic creates seemingly
unbearable noise pollution. Ever since
industrial revolution doubling of noise for
every 10 years

Pointed nose that angles downward during

takeoff, the Anglo-French Concorde flies at
more than twice the speed of sound.
Supersonic plane is very noisy, and some
believe its sonic booms
harm the environment.

Animals such as whales use water to

communicate with one another over great
distances. Human-generated noises in the
ocean, such as engine noises by boats, may
interfere with animal communication.

Measurement of noise

The noise is usually measured either by i) Sound Pressure or ii) Sound Intensity. The
Sound intensity is measured in Decibel (dB), which is tenth part of the longest unit “Bel”
named after Alexander Graham Bell. Decibel (dB) is a ratio expressed as the logarithmic scale
relative to a reference sound pressure level. The db is thus expressed as

Intensity Measured

(I) Sound Intensity Level = 10 log --------------------

-----

Reference intensity (I0)

or dB = 10 log I / I0
Intensity of Noise sources

Sources Intensity(dB)
Breathing 10
Trickling clock 20-30
Normal conversation 35-60
Office noise 60 - 80
Traffic 50-90
Motor cycle 105
Jet fly 100 - 110
Effects of noise pollution
Auditory effects

• Auditory fatigue -- Whistling & buzzing in ears( noise level - 90dB)

• Deafness -- Permanent hearing loss ( noise level- 100dB)
Tinnitus

 Persistent sound in one or both ears.

 Tinnitus is often experienced as a high-pitched hiss, ring, buzz, or roar.
 It is usually continuous, but it may pulsate, and the beats may coincide with the heartbeat.

Non auditory effects

• Interference with speech communication - 50dB

• Annoyance, ill temper, bickering
• loss in working efficiency - tiredness, deterioration or complete loss of ability to work
Physiological disorders

Neurosis, anxiety, hypertension, increased sweating, giddiness, nausea, fatigue, visual

disturbance, reduces depth and quality of sleep , peptic ulcers, Increases cholesterol level
resulting in constriction of blood vessel , Low weight children to mothers

Noise intensity Health hazards

80 Annoyance
90 Hearing damage
95 Very annoying
110 Stimulation of reception in skin
120 Pain threshold
130 Nausea,vomiting
140 Pain in ear
150 Burning of skin
160 Rupture of tymphonic membrane
180 Permanent damage
Even the nonliving things such as buildings undergo physical damage by cracks, breakage of
windows, doors, and glasses etc. by sudden and explosive sounds.
Control of Noise Pollution
Noise definitely affects the quality of life. It is therefore important to ensure the
mitigation or control of noise pollution. Noise pollution can be controlled

• At source level – Can be done by i) Designing and fabricating silencing devices in

air craft engines, automobiles industrial machines and home appliances, ii) By
segregating the noisy machines

• During Transmission – can be achieved by adding insulation and sound-proofing

to doors, around industrial machinery. Zoning urban areas to maintain a
separation between residential areas and zones of excessive noise. Sound
a) Acoustillite : made up of Compressed wood pulp, wood fibers and is
available in the form of tiles
b) Acoustical blanket : Prepared from mineral wool or glass fibres
c) Hair Felt: Consists of wool fibres, Coarse Cotton Fibres.
d) Fibre Glass
e) Cork Carpet: Prepared out of pieces of corks treated with linseed oil
and is used for covering floors.
f) Acoustic Plaster: Mainly consists of gypsum in the form of plaster.
• Protecting the exposed person
• By creating vegetation cover – Plants absorb and dissipate sound energy and
thus act as Buffer Zone. Trees should be planted along highways, schools and
other places.

Planting vegetation to absorb and screen out noise pollution – Trees can act as a noise barrier
• Through law
a) Silence Zones must be created near Schools, hospitals
b) Indiscriminate use of loudspeakers at public places should be
banned/restricted by laws
c) Restriction on unnecessary us e of horns and vehicles plying
without silencers.
d) Restrictions on aircraft flight at midnight

Permissible Ambient Noise Level in

Noise level (dB)
Area Code category
Different areas Day Time Night Time
(6 to 9 Am) (9 to 6 PM)
A Industrial Area 75 70
B Commercial Area 65 55
C Residential Area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40

a) The Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981

b) The Motor Vehicles Act,1988
c) Indian Penal Code – Sections 268 & 290
• Through education - We Indians are Noisy people. Every occasion, it may be
religious or family functions or elections; we used to celebrate with noise.
Educating the people that noise is a pollutant, not a part of our routine life.