MERRYLAND INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
INHERITANCE - NOTES

 INHERITANCE is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.

 GENETICS: branch of science dealing with how hereditary works and tries to forecast
what sort of offspring is likely to be produced when plants or animals reproduce sexually.
 Genetic informations from one generation to the next are carried through
gametes[sperm and ovum]
 During fertilization, gametes join to form the zygote that carries all the genetic informations
from both the parents.

CHROMOSOMES

 ‘chromo’ means coloured and ‘somes’ means bodies.

 A chromosome is a thread like structure of DNA carrying genetic informations
in the form of genes.
 Just before a cell divides, a number of threadlike structures
called chromosomes gradually become visible in the
nucleus.
 A chromosome is a thread of DNA, made up of a string of
genes.
 A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a protein.
 A chromatid is one of the two identical halves of a
chromosome.
 Centromere is the structure in a chromosome that holds
together the two chromatids.
 There are two chromatids, joined at one point called a
centromere.
 Each chromatid is a string of DNA, carrying genes that codes for the person’s
character.
 The other chromatid carries the same genes in the same order.
Humans have 46 chromosomes [23 pairs], half from mother and the other half from father.
Only the 23rd pair is dissimilar in males [Y chromosome is smaller, compared to the X
chromosome.] The number of chromosomes is characteristic of the species. For example, in
human cells there are 46 chromosomes, and in fruit fly cells there are only eight.
Chromosomes when unraveled, is an extremely long thread of DNA. DNA stands for
Deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is wound around a protein called histone. The DNA histone
complex is known as the nucleosome. At the time of cell division, the DNA and proteins are
tightly packed. This condensation results in the visible structure of chromosomes. Other times
they are uncoiled, so the cell can use the informations in DNA.

KARYOTYPE:

The number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in a cell is the karyotype. This
reveals change in chromosome numbers.

Change in chromosomes leads to diseases.

For example, an extra chromosome in
chromosome number 21 leads to a condition
called DOWN SYNDROME. Down
syndrome is caused by trisomy 21 — the
person has three copies of chromosome 21,
instead of the usual two copies, in all cells.
This is caused by abnormal cell division
during the development of the sperm cell or
the egg cell.

DNA [DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID]

• DNA is a biomolecule
that belongs to the
group of nucleic acids.
• DNA is made up of
nucleotides.
• Ribose sugar,
phosphate group and
one nitrogenous base
together makes one
nucleotide.
There are 4 nitrogenous bases in DNA that belongs to 2 different groups called PURINES and
PYRIMIDINES.
  PURINES: Adenine [A], Guanine [G]
 PYRIMIDINES: Thymine [T], Cytosine [C]
Rule of base pairing:
 Adenine always bind with Thymine [ A- T]
 Guanine always bind with Cytosine [G - C]
• In RNA [ribonucleic acid], thymine gets replaced by Uracil [U].
• Therefore, in RNA Adenine binds with Uracil [A - U]
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

• DNA carries the informations to build proteins from amino acids.

• These informations are carried from DNA to the site of protein synthesis [Ribosomes] by a
kind of messenger molecule. This molecule is RNA and is given the name messenger
RNA [mRNA]. mRNA carries a copy of the base sequence in DNA from the nucleus to the
ribosome, where protein synthesis takes place.
• Amino acids together make proteins. There are 20 different amino acids, each coded by a
triplet code in [Link] example TAC in DNA is AUG in mRNA. AUG is a triplet code that
codes for an amino acid
named methionine. Finally,
these amino acids together
make a protein in the
ribosome.
• Amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins.
• There are 20 different amino acids and 64 possible combinations, or codons. Aminoacids
join together using peptide bonds.
 OUTLINE OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

There are 2 steps in the

process of protein
synthesis:

STEP 1
TRANSCRIPTION

DNA unwinds inside the

nucleus with the help of
an enzyme. A new
mRNA molecule is
formed using bases
corresponding to one of
the unwinded DNA
strand. This process is
called transcription.

STEP 2 TRANSLATION

mRNA with the codons leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores. The mRNA then passes
through the ribosomes. Ribosome assembles amino acids from the cell cytoplasm using transfer
RNA [tRNA]. Amino acids bind each other using peptide bonds to make protein molecules. The
specific order of amino acids is determined by the sequence of bases in the mRNA.

NUCLEAR DIVISION

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

When plants and animals grow, their cells increase in number by dividing. New cells are formed by
the division of existing cells.

Before the cell divides, the nucleus must divide. As the nucleus finishes its division the
cytoplasm starts dividing.

There are 2 ways by which the nucleus divides:

1. MITOSIS: nuclear division which produces genetically identical cells.
2. MEIOSIS: nuclear division which produces genetically non-identical cells.
 MITOSIS

The process of mitosis is important in growth. The processes of growth, repair and replacement of
cells, all rely on mitosis. Organisms that reproduce asexually also use mitosis to create more cells.
Before the nucleus divides the genetic material [DNA] make their exact copies [this process is
called DNA replication]

THE PROCESS OF MITOSIS

 Before the nucleus divides, new copies

of the DNA must be made: DNA uncoils
and becomes loosely arranged inside the
nucleus and a new copy of the DNA is
made, which will be attached to the
original DNA.
 As mitosis begins, each DNA strand
coils up so that each chromosome
becomes thicker [46 chromosomes,
each with 2 chromatids]
 As mitosis continues, each chromatid
gets separated and moves to the
opposite poles of a cell.
 The cytoplasm divides after mitosis
and thus 2 new cells with same number
of chromosomes are made.

NOTE: The detailed process of MITOSIS

can be used for further understanding but
not required for the exam.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS

• Mitosis is a way of making more cells that are genetically the same as the parent cell.
• Exact copies of the parent cells are produced by mitosis.
• The daughter cells formed have the exact number of chromosomes like parent cells.
• It plays an important part in the development of embryos, and it is important for the growth and
development of our body as well.
• Mitosis produces new cells, and replaces cells that are old, lost or damaged.

Mitosis plays an important role in the following:

1. Growth: as the multicellular organisms grow, the number of cells making up their tissues increases.
 In animals: mitosis occurs all over the body
 In plants: it happens in special growing areas such as the tips of stems and roots, and in meristems.

2. Repair: Skin cells divide by mitosis to repair the body parts.

3. Replacement: The cells that wear out and die needs to get replaced. This occurs through the
process of mitosis.
For example, red blood cells live only for 120 days.
4. Asexual reproduction: This type of reproduction results in offsprings which are identical to the
parent. This occurs in fungi and plants, but is rare in animal kingdom.

STEM CELLS
• Stem cells are unspecialised embryonic cells produced by
mitosis. They produce daughter cells that become
specialised for specific functions.
• Stem cells in bone marrow produce red blood cells and
phagocytes when they get worn out.
• Stem cells are also present under the outer layer of skin
cells. This helps to make new skin cells when they get
damaged.
• In plants, cells in the meristem have the same role as
stem cells in animals.
• Each time a stem cell divides one daughter cell starts
to become specialised for some specific function, but
other stem cells remain unspecialised to undergo
mitosis again.

MEIOSIS

• Meiosis is a type of nuclear division essential for reproduction.

• Meiosis occurs in the reproductive organs [testes and ovary] and results in the
formation of haploid gametes [sperm and ovum].
• Meiosis is a type of reduction division in which the daughter cells have half the number
of chromosomes in parent cells.
• Meiosis halves the number of chromosomes in the parent cell, so the daughter cells [sperm
cells and egg cells] have only 23 chromosomes each. Zygote has 46 chromosomes, 23 from
the mother and 23 from the father.
• In sexual reproduction the chromosomes number remains the same, generation after
generation.
• Before fertilisation, sperm cells and egg cells are made in the reproductive organs through a
process called meiosis.
• During fertilisation, the germ cells [sperm and ovum] fuse together to form a zygote.
• Zygote divides by mitosis to form an organism.

PROCESS OF MEIOSIS
• Meiosis 1: results in the formation of 2 haploid cells.
• Meiosis 2: same like mitosis; results in the formation of 4 haploid cells
• In meiosis, there are 2 divisions [meiosis 1 and meiosis 2] in the cell resulting in 4 haploid
cells.
 • In each 23 pairs, one
chromosome is paternal (from
father) and the other is maternal
(from the mother).
• During meiosis 1, the pairing of
homologous chromosomes
occurs. Then the chromosomes of
each pair get separated.
• When the 23 chromosomal pairs
separate in the first meiotic
division, the daughter cells receive
different combinations of paternal
and maternal chromosomes
through a process called
“crossing over‖
• This is why each haploid cell is genetically different.
• The haploid cells[with 23 chromosome] will now undergo meiosis 2, where the chromatids of
the 23 chromosomes get separated [just like what happens in mitosis]
• Finally, 4 haploid cells with 23 chromosomes each are formed. These cells are called gametes
[sperm in male and ovum in female]

NOTE: The detailed process of MEIOSIS can be used for further understanding but not
required for the exam.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS

• Gene: a segment of DNA that codes for a particular protein. Alternative forms of genes are called
alleles. An allele is one of two or more versions of a gene. An individual inherits two alleles for each
gene, one from each parent.

• Alleles: different versions of the same genes. For example, for every gene that codes for a particular
character, there will be two versions, one derived from father and the other from mother.

•The chromosomes of each pair are called homologous chromosomes.

•The genes that occupy corresponding positions on homologous chromosomes and control the same
characteristic are called alleles.

•The word allele comes from allelomorph, which means alternative form.

Homozygous Alleles and Heterozygous Alleles: Alleles in a homologous pair can be of the same
type or of different types.
*If they are of the same types it is said to be homozygous [tt; TT]
*If the alleles are different it is said to be heterozygous [Tt]
Dominant Allele and Recessive Allele:
• An allele that is expressed as a trait is a dominant allele [normally expressed in upper case]
[Examples: allele for red flower ‘R’; allele for brown eye ‘B’; allele for freckles ‘F’]
• An allele that is expressed as a trait only when there is no dominant allele is said to be
recessive [normally expressed in lower case]
[Examples: allele for white flower ‘r’; allele for blue eye ‘b’; allele for freckles ‘f’]

Phenotype and genotype:

• Genotype is the combination of alleles in a homologous pair that is responsible for a particular
trait.

• The character we express because of the genotype is called the phenotype.

EXTRA
To understand allele in detail
In this example, every single cell in the child has
23 pairs of chromosomes [23 she got from her
father and 23 she got from her mother at the time
of fertilization]

Let’s say that she has the gene that determines

her height in the 16th chromosomal pair [in both
the copies]

Among the homologous pair, she will have an

allele that she got from her father for ―being tall‖
and she will also have an allele she got from her
mother for ―being short‖.

Often one allele is dominant over the other, she

will express the trait of the dominant allele.
INHERITANCE OF SEX IN HUMANS

Based on their functions chromosomes are

divided into 2 types: Autosomes and sex
chromosomes

Chromosomal pair 1 to 22 is called autosomes;

chromosomal pair ’23’ is called the sex
chromosome. This chromosome determines the
sex of an individual. There are 2 sex
chromosomes - X and Y chromosome.

X and Y chromosomes determines the sex of an

individual. The sex chromosomes in female
are XX and in male it is XY. The gametes
receive only one: either an X or Y.

Using punnett square method:

MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE

Monohybrid inheritance involves the study of

inheritance of a single characteristic/trait,
such as plant height, flower colour, etc.

Gregor Johann Mendel, through his work on

pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws of
inheritance. He recognized the mathematical
patterns of inheritance from one generation to
the next.

Scientists called geneticists study the

inheritance of characteristics by carrying out
breeding experiments.

Mendel studied the inheritance of seven different

features in pea plant.

EXAMPLE FOR MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE

Trait Studied: Plant Height

Cross breeding of 2 true-breeding plants [tall and

dwarf] for the first filial generation.

Genotype for pure tall plants are considered to be TT

and for pure dwarf plants are tt.

During gamete formation each allele gets separated to

each gametes.

During fertilisation, any male gamete can fuse with any

female gamete.

F1: first filial generation. Filial is an italic word meaning

son or daughter. 100% tall plants were received in F1,
but unlike parents, these plants are heterozygous tall
[Tt].

Self pollination of F1 generation.

F2: second filial generation using Punnett square

PHENOTYPIC RATIO – 3:1 [3 tall and 1 dwarf]
75% tall plants and 25%dwarf plants were received in F2.
GENOTYPIC RATIO- [Link] [ 1 TT, 2 Tt, 1 tt ]
25% TT, 50% Tt and 25% tt
Punnett square
A Punnett square is a graphical representation of the possible
genotypes of an offspring arising from a particular cross or
breeding event.

TEST CROSS

The test cross is an experiment first employed by Gregor Mendel, in his studies of the genetics of
traits in pea plants.

A test cross is a way to explore and find out the unknown genotype of an organism. It is used to
determine the genotype of a dominant phenotype, to find out whether it is homozygous or
heterozygous.

To find out the genotype of an organism, always cross the unknown genotype with a
homozygous recessive genotype.

A person bought a red rose plant from the market. He needs to know if his plant is homozygous red
[RR] or heterozygous red [Rr]. How can he find it out? Prepare a genetic diagram to prove your
findings.

If the offspring gives all red flowering plants [100% red ], it means that the plant he bought is
homozygous[RR]
If the offspring gives half red and half white flowering plants [in 1: 1 ratio], it means that the
plant he bought is heterozygous[Rr]

CODOMINANCE
Codominance is a non-mendelian inheritance. This type of inheritance does not follow the Mendelian
rules or laws. In codominance both alleles in a heterozygous form will get expressed in the
phenotype. Codominant alleles are neither dominant nor recessive.

To illustrate codominance, let us consider flower colour in snapdragons (Antirrhinum). Gene for flower
colour has two alleles, namely CR, which gives red flowers, and CW, which gives white colour to the
flower.
SELF – POLLINATION OF PINK SNAPDRAGONS

MULTIPLE ALLELES

Some genes have more than two alleles. For example, the gene controlling the human ABO blood
groups has three alleles, given the symbols IA, IB and IO.

Neither of the IA and IB alleles is

dominant to the other, but they
both are dominant to IO. This is
another example for codominance.

It results in an extra phenotype when

both alleles are present together. The
genotypes and phenotypes for blood
groups are shown below.

For example in the following question

Draw a genetic diagram to explain the inheritance of blood group in the Wilson family.
 Mr. Wilson has the genotype IAI B, and
 Mrs. Wilson has the genotype IOIO.
SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE

The sex chromosomes carry genes related to sexual development, such as development of the sex
organs and position of fat stores.

The sex chromosomes also carry a few genes that code for characteristics that are not concerned
with sex. Since these genes are carried on the sex chromosomes, they may show their
characteristics only in one sex.

For example the gene for colour blindness is carried on the X chromosome. We say that colour
blindness is sex linked. Hemophilia is another such disease [More details will be given in the ppt]

.Colour-blindness

One well-known sex-linked characteristic is red-green colour blindness. This is a disease in which the
person cannot tell the difference between red and green. It is an X-linked condition.
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

Pedigrees are used to analyze the pattern of inheritance of a particular trait throughout a family.
Pedigrees show the presence or absence of a trait as it relates to the relationship among parents,
offspring, and siblings. Pedigrees represent family members and relationships using standardized
symbols. By analyzing a pedigree, we can determine genotypes, identify phenotypes, and predict
how a trait will be passed on in the future. The information from a pedigree makes it possible to
determine how certain alleles are inherited whether they are dominant, recessive, autosomal, or sex-
linked. [More details and examples will be given in the ppt]