FORM 4 PHYSICS

STUDY NOTES

Compiled by: chomakanda. O

UNIT 1: THERMAL EXPANSION
Heat & temperature

 Temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of a body or an environment(or is a measure of the

average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance or measure of heat energy of the molecules in a
body)
 The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin ,K (ie named after Lord Kelvin)
 But the commonly used unit of temperature is the degree Celsius, C (ie named after Celsius)
 Heat is the form of energy which passes from a body of high temperature to a body of low temperature
 For example, if hot water is poured into a bowl containing ice at 0 C, the temperature of ice and the bowl
increases
 This means heat has passed from hot water to ice and the bowl
 The SI unit of heat energy is the joule (J)

THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER (solid, liquid & gas)

 Expansion is the increase in size on heating of a substance
 Contraction is the reduction /decrease in size on cooling of a substance
THERMAL EXPASNION & CONTRACTION IN SOLIDS
 When solids are heated , they increase in
(i)length (ii)volume (iii)area
 The increase in length of a substance is called linear expansivity/expansion
 Expansion & contraction of solids can be demonstrated using
1. the ball & ring apparatus
 The apparatus is arranged as below

Metal ball
Ball
Chain Clamp
stand
Or

Ring
Metal ring

 At room temperature, the ball passes through the ring

 On heating, the ball does not pass through the ring because it expands
 On cooling, the ball passes through the ring again due to contraction

2, Using thin metal rod

 The apparatus is arranged as shown

Metal rod
Pointer

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 Roller

Clamp
stand Heat

Smooth area

 On heating, the metal (solid) increases in length hence moves the roller to the right observed by pointer
deflection in the clockwise direction (to the right)
 On cooling, the metal(solid) decreases in length hence moves the roller to the left indicated by deflection of
pointer in anticlockwise direction(to the left)

[Link] cast iron bar breaker

Thin cast iron rod Steel bar Nut

Bunsen
burner

 On heating, the steel bar expands hence pushing the cast iron rod against the outer frame of
the bar breaker hence the cast iron rod breaks with a loud sound
 On cooling, the steel bar contracts hence pulling the cast iron rod against the inner frame of
the bar breaker then the cast iron rod breaks

FACTORS AFFECTING EXPANSION RATE OF SOLIDS

1. Amount of temperature change

2. Size / length of the material

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 3. Material of which the solid is made
 Different metals have different expansion rate even when heated equally
 For example, if bimetallic strip (compound metal bar made of two different metals riveted together
eg brass & iron) is subjected to different conditions it behaves as below

Brass

Iron
Wooden handle

At room temperature

 When heated, the brass expands more than the iron hence the strip bends downwards with the brass
outside
 When cooled, the brass contracts more than the iron then the strip bends upwards with iron underneath

PARTICLE BEHAVIOUR IN SOLIDS DURING THERMAL EXPANSION

 Solid molecules are closely packed

 They continuously vibrate about their fixed positions
 When heated , solid molecules vibrate with larger amplitude about their fixed positions hence collide with
each other with larger forces, thus pushing them far apart
 This leads to increase in the intermolecular distances(distances between molecules) hence solid expands

THERMAL EXPANSION & CONTRACTION IN LIQUIDS

 Just like solids, liquids expand on heating and contract on cooling

 Due to weaker intermolecular forces in liquids, expansion is more than solids

FACTORS AFFECTING EXPANSION RATE OF LIQUIDS

(1)Temperature (2)Volume of the liquid (3)Type of liquid

 Different liquids have different expansion rates

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  For example, equal heating of water, paraffin & alcohol gives the following results

 This shows that alcohol has highest expansion rate followed by paraffin
PARTICLE BEHAVIOUR OF LIQUIDS DURING THERMAL EXPANSION
 Liquid molecules are loosely packed
 They move freely
 They have weaker intermolecular forces (force of attraction between their particles)
 On heating, molecular speed increases in liquids
 The collision between the molecules increases the intermolecular distance, hence liquids expand ie
increase in volume
THERMAL EXPANSION & CONTRACTION OF GASES
 Just like solids and liquids, gases expand on heating and contract on cooling
 Gases expand more than solids and liquids due to very weak (almost negligible) intermolecular forces
 Expansion in gases can be demonstrated using balloon as below

PARTICLE BEHAVIOUR OF GASES DURING THERMAL EXPANSION

 When warmed, gas molecules gain more kinetic energy , hence move far apart, thus increase in volume

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  Under equal temperature and pressure, gases expand by the same amount provided they are of the same
quantities
ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER
 Is defined as an unusual(abnormal) behaviour of expansion of water when heated from 0 C to 4 C
 For example, when heated at 0 C it contracts (volume decreases) as temperature rises from 0 C
to 4 C and above 4 C it expands (volume increases)

 Thus, a fixed mass of water has a minimum volume at 4 C

Graph of volume against temperature

temperature
Volume

0 4 5 10
 S0, at 4 C, the density of water is maximum (ie
Temperature ( C)Density this is due to minimum volume)

Graph of density against temperature

Density (g/cm3)

10
0 4 5

Temperature( C)

EFFECTS OF ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

(a)Bursting of water pipes

 When water flowing through the pipes cools from 4 C to 0 C and freezes to ice the pipes burst
 This is due to increase in water volume on freezing

(b)Weathering of rocks

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  When water freezes , its volume increases
 This occurs on cooling from 4 C to 0 C
 If this occurs in the rock cracks, the rock breaks into small pieces, resulting into weathering of
rocks

(c)Survival of aquatic organisms in freezer of lakes & ponds

 In cool weather, when the atmospheric temperature falls below 0 C, water in a lake or pond
freezes and form ice
 Since volume of a fixed mass of water is minimum at 4 C, hence density of water is
maximum
 Thus, as atmospheric temperature above the lake falls from 10 C to 4 C, the density of
water increases
 This denser water at the top then sinks to the bottom of the lake and remains there in liquid
form
 The water on the top freezes to ice at 0 C and floats
 So aquatic organisms(animals & plants) survive in the liquid water at 4 C below the ice
during the cold weather

APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION

 Thermal expansion is applied in

(a) Fitting of electric cables

 The electric wires transmitting electricity on the national grid are loosely held to give room for expansion and
contraction during weather changes
 Thus, the wires are seen to be sagging(expand) during hot days and taut/tight and straight(contract) on cold
days

(b) Separating stuck glass/tumblers

 Stuck tumblers can be separated by being placed upright in warm water and pour very cold water in the
inner tumbler
 This makes the outer tumbler expands more than the inner one hence separated

(c) Tooth filling

 Some people have teeth with holes

 These holes can be refilled by a minor surgery
 The material for filling the holes is put with a high temperature
 As the material cools it sets and hardens to fill the hole
 The materials used in refilling such holes as supposed to have the same thermal expansion coefficient(rate)
as the tooth itself
 This ensures there is uniform expansion and contraction of the material and the tooth

(d)Gaps & rollers in bridge construction

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  The ends of steel and concrete bridges are supported on rollers
 The end on the rollers provides the bridge with room for expansion during hot or cold weather without
damage

(e)Use of alloys

 The measuring tape for measuring land is made of an alloy (iron & nickel bar called invar)
 The invar(alloy) has almost negligible (very small) change in length when temperature changes

(f)Removing tightly screwed covers

 Very tight bottle tops or container lids are opened by placing the bottle or container in cold water and heat
or pour hot water on the cover or lid
 This makes the lid expands while the bottle contracts hence easier to open

(g)Gaps in railway tracks

 When railway tracks are laid, gaps are left between the rails to give room for expansion
 Again fish-plates bolts are used to join the rails together
 The oval shaped bolt holes allow expansion and contraction of the rails during temperature changes
 Modern methods use long welded lines rigidly fixed to the beds of the track hence no rail expansion
 In this case, rail expansion is given by overlapping the plane ends

(h)Expansion gaps in fences

 To allow room for expansion of the bricks or blocks, expansion joints/gaps are created in walls
 This is done by breaking the walls into segments to prevent cracking due to temperature changes, moisture
expansion, elastic deformation, settlement and creep
 Wall breaking is done by leaving continuous opening between the bricks
 Sometimes, the opening may be filled with highly compressible material to allow partial closure of the gap as
the brick layers expand

(i)Shrink fitting

 Is a method in making mechanical joints (fitting an axle inside hollow tubes)

 The hole is made slightly narrower for the axle to be fitted in
 This is done by heating the hole tube and while still hot, the axle is fitted, then left to cool (or by dipping the
axle into cold liquid nitrogen about -200 C . The axle contracts, when it cools and fitted into the wheel.
Upon regaining normal temperature it expands & produces a tight fit)

An axle
Wheel

Hole
(j)Riveting metal plates

 Joining metal plates together is done by placing a hot rivet in a rivet hole and hammer the end flat

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  Hot rivets are put in the rivet holes then hammer their ends while still hot
 On cooling, the rivet contracts and pulls the plates tightly together

Rivet

Rivet holes

Steel places Hot rivet

Rivet hammered flat
(k)Cutting glass bottles

 The bottle is filled with cold water to the level to be cut

 It is then dipped into hot sand or ash
 The part without water expands more than the other hence the bottle breaks along the water level

UNIT 2: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

 Having studied forces and motions of objects, Sir Isaac Newton an English Scientist formulated three laws
of motion
 Such laws are popularly known as The Newton’s laws of motion
 The three laws are
(i)Newton‟s first law of motion (ii)Newton‟s second law of motion (iii)Newton‟s third law of motion

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

 The law states that a body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external
force
 The tendency (ability) of a body to remain at rest or continue moving in its motion is called Inertia (Latin
word meaning laziness)
 Therefore, inertia is defined as reluctance/resistance of a body to change its state of motion (ie either to
remain at rest or to continue moving)
 Hence Newton‟s first law of motion is also called the law of inertia
SITUATIONS WHERE NEWTON’S FIRST LAW IS OBSERVED
 When a fast moving car suddenly stops, passengers jerk/lurch forward ie an attempt to continue
moving
 A pilot jumping from a spacecraft continues travelling at the speed & direction of the spacecraft
 When a stationary car or bus suddenly takes off, passengers fall backward ie the body tries to stay
at rest

MASS & INERTIA

 Mass is the quantity/amount of matter in a substance (or a measure of inertia of the body)
 Inertia can be demonstrated
 using a coin

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  When the card is pulled slowly, the coin moves together with the card (ie friction between the coin & the
card makes them move together)
 When the card is pulled quickly, the coin is left behind & drops vertically down into the box (ie the coin
resists motion & does not move with the card)
(b)using wooden blocks

Blocks of wood

Table

 When the lower block is pulled slowly, the whole pile moves
 When the lower block is pulled quickly/suddenly, the lower block moves, leaving the other blocks behind
(c)using hooked mass

 When pulled slowly, the upper string breaks

 When pulled suddenly, the lower string breaks (ie the upper string does not break because it is
shielded from the force by the mass which tends to resist the force in order to remain at rest)
MOMENTUM
 Momentum of a body is defined as the product of mass & velocity (or the inertia of a body in motion)
 Mathematically, momentum, mass velocity
 In symbols, p mv, where p is the momentum, m is the mass & v is the velocity
 The SI unit of momentum is the kgm/s
 Momentum is a vector quantity
 Its direction is the same as that of the velocity

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 Example 1

A car of mass 600kg moves with a velocity of 40m/s. Calculate the momentum of the car

Working
Momentum mass velocity 600kg 40m/s 24000kgm/s in the direction of velocity
Example 2

A body A of mass 4kg moves to the left with a velocity of 7m/s. Another body B of mass 7kg moves to the right with a
velocity of 6m/s. Calculate

(a)The momentum of A (b)the momentum of B (c)the total momentum of A & B

Working
Let right movement have a positive sign & left one have negative sign
(a)For body A, p mv 4kg 7m/s 28kgm/s
(b) For body B, p mv 7kg 6m/s 42kgm/s
(c)Total momentum momentum of A momentum of B
28kgm/s 42kgm/s 14kgm/s to the right
IMPULSE
 Is the product of force and time
 Mathematically, impulse force time ft
 The SI unit of impulse is the Newton-second (Ns)
 Is equal to the change in momentum ie final momentum –initial momentum
Example

A hammer strikes a metal rod with a force of 20N. If the impact lasts 0.4 seconds, calculate the impulse due to this
force

Working
Impulse force time 20N 0.4 s 8Ns

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

 The law states that the rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the resultant force and takes
place in the direction of the force (ie force is directly proportional to the momentum per unit time)
 The mathematical expression of this law is as
Force (F)
 A change in velocity of a body produces a change in momentum
 But change in momentum is given by :
Change in momentum Final momentum –initial momentum
Force (F)
 Taking m as the mass of the body, u as the initial velocity and v as the final velocity, then
Initial momentum mass velocity mu
Final momentum mass velocity mv
 Implying that change in momentum(impulse) Final momentum Initial momentum mv

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  Thus, rate of change of momentum F
 Factoring out m, F
 But a
 Therefore, F ma
Example 1

A body of mass 0.3kg moving with a uniform velocity of 3m/s is acted on by a force of 1.8N in the direction of its
motion for 2 seconds. What is its final velocity?

Working

Initial momentum of the body 0.3 3 0.9Ns, Final momentum of the body 0.3V

But impulse, Ft mv mu Ft force time

1.8N 2s 0.3V 0.9 3.6 0.3V 0.9 0.3V 4.5, so v 15m/s
Example 2

An object of mass 4kg accelerates to 5m/ . Calculate the resultant force

Working
F ma 4kg 5m/s2 20N
Example 3

A lorry of mass 15000kg is travelling at 20m/s. The driver puts on the brakes and the lorry stops in 10 seconds. What
is the average force acting on the brakes?

Working
m 15000kg, u 20m/s, v 0m/s, t 10s
F F 30000N ie negative sign means the force is acting in
opposite direction of motion
Example 4

A car of mass 900kg is towed by a breakdown truck along a level road. They accelerate at 0.6m/s2. Calculate the
tension in the string

Working

Tension resultant force causing acceleration F ma 900kg 0.6m/s2 540N

Example 5

Find the change in momentum of a ball of mass 100g which strikes a wall with a horizontal velocity of 12m/s and
rebounces horizontally at 8m/s. If the ball is in contact with the wall for 0.004 seconds, determine its impulsive force

Working
M 100g 0.1kg, so initial momentum of ball 0.1kg 12m/s 1.2Ns
Final momentum of ball 0.1kg 8m/s 0.8Ns

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 But change in momentum of a ball 0.8 ( 1.2) 2Ns
Since impulse, Ft change in momentum of a ball
Hence, Ft 500N
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
 The law states that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction (or states that
whenever a body exerts a force on another body, the other body exerts an equal but
opposite force on the first body)

EXAMPLES OF ACTION & REACTION

 The weight of a book placed on a table provides the action, while the table supports the by
providing a reaction force
 When you kick a ball with your toes, you feel some pain
 When you push a rigid wall(exert action), the wall pushes back at you ie the wall then does not fall
or move
 When walking or running, a person exerts a backward force on the ground, while the ground exerts
a forward push on the person. This makes walking possible
 When a gun is fired, the bullet travels in one direction while the gun recoils backwards. The
backward velocity of the gun after firing is called recoil velocity
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
 Consider two objects A & B with masses and moving in the same direction but with different
velocities
A B

UA UB

 On collision
 A pushes B with force FA
 B reacts by pushing A with an equal and opposite force FB

FA FB

 But time spent in colliding is the same, hence

 A experiences an impulse –FBt from B
 B experiences an impulse t from A too
FBt FAt ------------------------------ (i)
 But impulse mv mu
 Let the final velocities of A and B be VA and VB respectively
FBt -------------------------------ii
t ------------------------------------iii
 Equating ii & iii gives
( )

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  Hence
 But is the total momentum before collision and is the total momentum
after collision

Total momentum before collision

 Hence momentum has been conserved

 This leads to law of conservation of momentum
 The law of conservation of momentum states that when two or more bodies collide, their total momentum
remains constant provided no external forces are acting
Example 1

Cannon of mass 8ookg fired a cannon ball of mass 3kg at a velocity of 120m/s. Find the recoil velocity

Working
3kg, 0m/s, 120m/s, 800kg, 0m/s, ?

By conservation of momentum:

Total momentum before collision

3 0 800 0 3 120 800

0 360 800 360 0.45m/s

The cannon recoil backward at a velocity of 0.45m/s

Example 2

A mass of 3kg moving with a velocity of 4m/s collides with another mass of 2kg which is stationary. After collision the
two masses stick together. Calculate the common velocity for the two masses

Working

Before collision 0m/s, 2kg , 4m/s, 3kg

Momentum before collision 2 0 3 4 12kgm/s

Momentum after collision (3 2)V 5V

By conservation of momentum, momentum before collision Momentum after collision

12kgm/s 5V

Common velocity, V 2.4m/s

Example 3

A truck of mass 60kg moving with velocity 3m/s collides and couples with a stationary truck of mass 30kg. The two
move off together with the same velocity, . Find

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 Working
60kg, 3m/s, 0m/s, 30kg 60kg 90kg, 0m/s, ?

By conservation of momentum:

Total momentum before collision

( ) 60 (60 30) , 180 0 90

90 360 2m/s

Example 4

A 5kg mass moving with a velocity of 10m/s collides with a 10kg mass moving with a velocity of 7.0m/s along the
same line. If the two masses join together on impact, find their common velocity if they were moving

(a)In opposite direction (b)In the same direction

Working

(a)Before collision 10m/s, 5kg , 7m/s, 10kg

In opposite direction 10m/s, 7m/s ie moves to opposite side

By conservation of momentum:

Total momentum before collision

( )V

5 (5 10)V, 50 70 15V 20 15V V 1.33m/s

(b)In the same direction, before collision 10m/s, 5kg , 7m/s, 10kg

By conservation of momentum:

Total momentum before collision

( )V 5 (5 10)V, 50 70 15V 15V

V m/s

Example 5

A taxi of total mass 1500kg travelling at 20m/s collides with a stationary acr of mass 500kg. Assuming the collision is
inelastic, calculate

(a)The common velocity after collision (b)The kinetic energy before collision

(c) The kinetic energy after collision

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 Working

0m/s, 500kg , 20m/s, 1500kg

By conservation of momentum:

Total momentum before collision

( )V

1500 (1500 500)V, 30000 0 2000V 2000V V m/s

(b)Initial KE 1500 3 J (c)Final KE ( ) 2000 2.25

J

UNIT 3: FRICTIONAL FORCE (Fr)

 Is the force that opposes motion

FACTORS AFFECTING FRICTIONAL FORCE

A. Load (weight of the body)

 Frictional force increases with the increase in the load and vice versa

B Nature of the surface in contact

 Frictional force increases with the roughness of the surface and reduces with the smoothness of the
surface in contact
TYPES OF FRICTION
 Depending on the medium there are two types of forces
 These are
(a)Solid friction
(b)Fluid(liquid & gas) friction
SOLIDFRICTION
 Consider a solid block being pushed along a smooth table. No matter how smooth a surface is, the block
still experiences some frictional force
 A solid block being pushed over a horizontal surface by an applied force, F is acted upon by the frictional
force ,Fr due to its weight and normal reaction,

Applied force, F

Frictional force ,Fr

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STATIC / LIMITING FRICTIONAL FORCE (FS) &KINETIC / DYNAMIC FRICTIONAL FORCE (FK)

 static / limiting frictional force (FS)is the force that opposes motion between surfaces when the body
is just about to move

 kinetic / dynamic/sliding frictional force ( )is the force that opposes motion when the body is in
motion

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION

 Is the ratio of frictional (F) force to the normal reaction,(R)

 The graph of F against R is a straight line through the origin

Frictional force, F

Normal reaction(R)
NOTE :From Newton‟s third law of motion , weight(W) of an object placed on the bench is equal & opposite
to the normal reaction(R) between the surfaces of the bench & the block F W becomes F R
 Let F = R where is a constant called coefficient of static friction and F = R where is the
coefficient of kinetic friction while R is the normal reaction force
 Implying that frictional force normal reaction force coefficient of friction
 Coefficient of static friction , is the ratio of static frictional force to the normal reaction force R
(i.e , making it subject )
 has no units since it is a ratio of forces

A book of mass 200g is resting on the surface of a table .If the coefficient of friction between the book and table is
0.1. Calculate the frictional force between the two

Working
Frictional force, (F) = Normal force, (R) coefficient of friction,( )

R=mg=200/1000 10N/kg=2N F=2N 0.1 =0.2N

Example 2

A force of 25N limits the motion of a block of mass 50kg which is being dragged on the horizontal ground. Calculate
the coefficient of static frictional force

Working

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F R,W 500N 25N 500N

the coefficient of static friction is 0.05

Example 3

A block below has a mass of 200kg and is being dragged at constant velocity with a force of 40N at an angle of 600
to the horizontal
F
Block

200kg 600

F
Determine the coefficient of kinetic friction,

Working

F is acting at an angle , so horizontal component is used in dragging the block ie FH

FH Fcos 40cos60 0 20N

W R 2000N F becomes 20N 2000N

0.01 kinetic friction is 0.01

FLUID FRICTION

 Fluids refer to liquids & gases

 Fluid friction is caused by random motion of molecules in fluids eg air resistance /pressure experienced by
moving cars ,running objects
 Frictional force in fluids is due to viscosity
 Viscosity is the measure of how easily a fluid flows(or is a resistance to the flow of fluids)
 Viscosity affects frictional force in fluids
 Frictional force / resistance in fluids is called viscous drag
FACTORS AFFECTING FLUID FRICTION
A. Speed of an object
 The higher the speed ,the more the air resistance/friction
 The lower the speed, the less the air resistance

B. Shape and size of an object

 Flat and rough surfaces experience more air resistance than smooth,curved streamlined
objects
 Bigger objects have large frictional force than small objects when the bodies are in motion

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 C. Viscosity of fluid
 Different liquids offer different resistances (ie due to their viscosity)
 More viscous fluids have higher frictional force than less viscous fluids

Air,
h

Water Glycerin
 For example, the ball in air moves through height , h first followed by the ball in water and lastly the ball in
glycerin
TERMINAL VELOCITY
 Is the maximum downwards velocity attained by a body falling freely through a fluid
FORCES ACTING ON A BODY FALLING IN A FLUID
 There are three forces
(i)Weight of the body(W)
(ii)Upthrust (U)
(iii)Viscous drag /frictional force (F)

U F

Ball bearing falling

in liquid

A body falling in a fluid

 At first, W > (U+F) , hence the body accelerates downwards

 As the speed of the falling body increases , the fluid friction also increases
 As the fluid friction increases , a point is reached where W=(U+F) ,hence zero resultant force ie W-
(U+F)=0

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  Thus , the body moves with constant velocity so-called terminal velocity (Vt)
 If the velocity of the body is plotted against time, the graph is as below

Velocity Terminal velocity

Time(s)

 If graphs of motion of balls falling in different liquids are plotted ,they look as

below

Velocity
P
Q
R

Time(s)

Where P,Q&R are graphs of liquids with least viscosity eg ethanol, less viscosity eg water and high viscosity eg
glycerin respectively

FACTORS AFFECTING TERMINAL VELOCITY

(a)Shape of falling object

 A smooth cylindrical and streamlined object falls faster because of minimum resistance to its motion

(b)Medium in which the object is falling

 An object falls easy and faster in air than in liquid

 This is so because air molecules are spaced out hence offer less resistance while liquid molecules(eg
water)are closer together hence offer greater resistance

(c)Mass of an object

 The heavier the object, the greater the pull of gravity on it

 Therefore heavy objects fall faster than light objects

(d)Gravity

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  In vacuum objects (whether a stone or feather) fall at the same speed

AIR RESISTANCE

 Is a friction that opposes a moving body in air

 Is also referred to as air friction
 Is a form of dynamic friction (ie friction opposing motion when a body is moving)
 For example, when running, people experience air resistance ie backward pushing by air and the same is
experienced by moving vehicles
 Thus, moving objects waste a lot of energy in overcoming air resistance
 Air resistance can be reduced by making bodies of the cars and planes
(i)streamlined (ii)smooth (iii)rounded (iv)pointed
 An object falling in air is acted upon by two forces
 These forces are:
(i)Weight, W (ii) Air friction/resistance,
Example
A car of mass 1000kg is travelling under the action of forces as shown

Driving force
Dragging force 20,000N

motion

(a)State the size of the drag force when the car is travelling at a constant speed

(b)If the car accelerates at 5m/s2, work out the total dragging force

(c)The car continues accelerating at 5m/s2 but eventually reaches the highest constant speed. Explain

Working

(a)At constant speed, resultant force 0 N dragging force Driving force 20,000N

(b)From Newton‟s second law

Resultant force mass acceleration Driving force – total dragging force ma

20,000N – F 1000kg 5m/s2 F 20000 5000N 15000N

(c)Air resistance increases with increase in speed of the car. At another point the total drag force equals the highest
driving force; hence the car can not accelerate any further

RESISTIVE MEDIA

 Are media that offer resistance to a moving body

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  Examples of resistive media are : solid, liquid & gas
FREE FALL MOTION
 Is when a body moves with acceleration due to gravity
 The ideal downwards free fall motion can only take place in a vacuum ie where there is no air
resistance
 The acceleration due gravity is represented by the symbol, g
 The value of g is approximately 10m/s2
 The only force acting on an object in free fall is its weight,(W)
 All objects (heavy or light), falling freely in a vacuum do so with an acceleration of 10m/s2
 Consider the diagram below which shows a feather and a ball bearing (small metal ball)

 Both the feather and the ball bearing are falling with the same acceleration of 10m/s2
 Thus both will reach the bottom at the same time because they are moving with the same
acceleration provided released from the same height

APPLICATIONS OF FRICTIONAL FORCE

 Is applied/used in
 Writing on a paper ,chalkboard etc
 Providing a grip between the shoes or tyres of the cars and the ground
 Holding pieces of wood by the nails
 Avoiding slip of the conveyor belts in factories
 Brake pads of the cars
 Effective working of nults, bolts, vices and screw jacks

UNIT 4: HOOKE’S LAW

 Force is a pull or a push

EFFECTS OF FORCE ON OBJECTS

(a)Changes the size and shape of a body

(b)Changes the state of the body (i.e. can start, stop, increase or reduce motion)

(c)Causes a turning effect

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(d)Causes heating effect (i.e. frictional forces cause heating e.g. lighting a matchstick)

HOOKE’S LAW

 States that the extension of an elastic material is directly proportional to the force applied provided that the
limit is not exceeded (extension of an elastic material is directly proportional to the force applied within the
elastic limit)
 Mathematically, F e
 Let F Ke, where K is the constant of proportionality called spring constant , F is the force applied and e is
the extension
 The spring constant is the slope/gradient in extension-load graph (graph of extension against load)
 The SI unit of the spring constant is Newton per metre (N/m)
 The graph of force against extension is a straight line through the origin

Force
(N)

Extension (cm)

FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF A SPIRAL SPRING

(a)Thickness of the wire (b)Diameter of the coil of the spring (c)Number of turns per unit length

(d)Nature of the material of the wire

LIMIT OF PROPORTIONALITY OF A SPRING & THE ELASTIC LIMIT

 Limit of proportionality is the point beyond which Hooke‟s law is not obeyed when stretching a
material
 Thus, at such a point, applied force is not directly proportional to the extension produced
 Elastic limit is the point beyond which a stretched spring or wire can not attain its original length
when the stretching force is withdrawn (a point at which a stretched material can not recover its
original size or shape once the force is withdrawn)
 If further force is applied, the spring is permanently deformed
 Elastic deformation is a condition at which a material can recover its original size & shape when the
force is withdrawn
 Plastic deformation is when a material reached elastic limit (a condition at which a material can not
recover its original size or shape)

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  Yield point is a point beyond which the material loses its elasticity

Example 1

A spring has a length of 2cm when it is unloaded. Its length is 6cm when a load of 2N is hang on it. Calculate

(a)The spring constant(b)The load which gives an extension of 9.5cm(c)The extensionwhen a load of 4.5N is hang on
it

Working

(a) From Hooke‟s law F Ke K , F 2N, e 6 2 4cm K 0.5N/cm

(b) F Ke K 4.75N

(c) e 9.0cm
Example 2
A spring has a spring constant of 200N/m. If it is compressed by 0.06m, calculate the compressing force
Working
K 200N/m, e 0.06m, but F Ke 200N/m 0.06m 12N
Example 3
A force of 12N extends a spring by 8mm. Calculate the extension that is produced by the same spring if a
force of 25N is hanged on it. (Assume the elastic limit is not exceeded)
Working
F Ke K 1.5N/mm, &e 16.67mm
Example 4

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 Figure below is a graph of force against extension drawn from an experiment to verify Hooke‟s law

(a)Use the graph to determine the spring constant

(b)Use the graph to find the length of the spring when a mass of 0.05kg is hung from it
(c)State with a reason whether or not Hooke‟s law is obeyed
Working
(a)From Hooke‟s law K ie gradient of the graph K 25N/m
(b)For 0.05kg F 0.05kg 10N/kg 0.5N, but K 25N/m
e 0.02m 2mm extension, e for 0.05kg is 2mm
(c)Hooke‟s law is obeyed up to the force of 12N because the graph is a straight line from the origin. Hooke‟s
law is not obeyed beyond 12N
COMBINATION/ARRANGEMENT OF SPRINGS
 Springs can be arranged either in series or parallel
THE SPRING CONSTANT IN SERIES
 The springs can be arranged in series as shown

 The spring constant, for n-identical springs in series is given by , where is the total
spring constant for springs in series, n is the number of springs & K is the spring constant for one
spring

THE SPRING CONSTANT IN PARALLEL

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  The springs can also be arranged in parallel as below

 If n identical springs are arranged in parallel, the spring constant, is given by nK,
where is the spring constant in parallel, n is the number of springs& K is the spring constant
for one spring
Example 1
Figure below shows two systems of identical springs. If each spring has a spring constant of
50N/cm. Calculate the total extension produced by the load attached to each system. (Assume the
springs are weightless)

Working

(a)In parallel, nK, where n 2, K 50N/cm 2 50 100N/cm

From Hooke‟s law F K e e

But F mg 500kg 10N/kg 5000N e 50cm

(b)In series, , n 2, K 50N/cm 25N/cm

From Hooke‟s law, e 200cm

Example 2

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 Figure below shows three identical springs with a spring constant of 5N/cm each. A weight of 30N is hung
on the lower springs set up. Find the total extension of the set up

Working

For spring S, 30N, K 5N/cm, e ? but Ke 30 5e , so e 6cm

For springs Q & R, load is equally shared F 15N, butF K 3cm

Total extension of the set up is 6cm 3cm 9cm

Example 3

Calculate the extension produced in two springs of spring constant 8N/m if they are arranged in series and a
weight of 2.4N is hung from them

Working

In series, , where n 2, K 8N/m 4N/m

From Hooke‟s law, e 0.6m

Example 4

A student applies a force of 6N to a helical spring and it extends by 12cm. He then hangs the spring in
parallel with an identical spring & attaches a load of 10N. What is the new extension in each of the spring?

Working

From Hooke‟s law F K e K 50N/m

One spring with a load of 10N, e 0.2m

For two springs in parallel, the extension in each 0.1m or 10cm

APPLICATIONS OF HOOKE’S LAW

 Is applied in
1. Making of spring balances

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 2. Making of spring beds, diving boards
3. Designing spring shock absorbers or shock breakers in car suspensions
4. Making rubber bands, rubber shoes etc
5. Making catapult
6. Making equipment used in trampoline games

UNIT 5: UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

 Circular motion refers to movement of a body in a circular path
 This motion is at a fixed point (centre of circle)
EXAMPLES OF CIRCULAR MOTIONS

1. Motion of electrons around the nucleus

2. Children playing on a merry-go-round (rotating machine)

3. Motion of planets about the sun
4. Motion of satellites about the planets
5. A car moving around a roundabout
6. Motion of mud on a rotating bicycle wheel
7. Motion of a rotating ball attached to a string
8. Motion of a second hand of a clock
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT
 Is the angle swept through by the radius joining the particle to the centre of the circle
 Is measured in radians
 The angle is denoted by ie angular displacement

ILLUSTRATING ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT

 Consider a particle moving along a circular path as shown

 As the particle moves along the arc (A to B), the radius OA joining the particle to the centre sweeps through
an angle

 The arc length AB is equal to the radius r of the circle

 The arc AB subtends an angle at the centre equal to one radian

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  For a whole circle, the length of the arc (circumference) is 2 r

 Thus angular displacement is 2 radians

 Since there is 360 in a circle, then 2 radians 360

 Hence, 1 radian 57.30

 If the angle at the centre is radians, the length of the arc AB is, S ,

Then radians
 Thus, angular displacement, is given by
 Therefore arc length, S r
Example 1
A toy is moving in a circular track of radius 10cm, calculate its angular displacement if the distance of the
track is 100cm
Working
Angular displacement, 10 rad
Example 2
The radius of a particle moving along a circular path sweeps through an angle of 600 at the centre of the
circle. Calculate the angular displacement of the particle in radians
Working
This is just changing 600 to radians, so 3600 2 rad 600 600 rad or 1.05 rad
ANGULAR VELOCITY
 Is the rate of change of angular displacement
 Is denoted by , ie Greek letter Omega
 Mathematical expression of angular velocity is
 Is expressed in radians per second (rad/s)
Example 1

The angular displacement of a cyclist is 300 radians; calculate the angular velocity of the cyclist if the displacement is
covered in 6 seconds

Working
300rad, t 6s 50 rad/s
Example 2

A body is moving in a circular path with angular velocity of 20rad/s. Calculate its angular displacement after it moves
for 4 seconds

Working
t 20 4 80rad

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 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANGULAR VELOCITY & FREGUENCY
 Since 2 radians & , then
 For oscillating systems, period is denoted by T
 Thus,
 But frequency of revolution, f
 Implying that 2 f
Example

The wheel of a bicycle is rotating at a frequency of 10 Hz. Calculate its angular velocity

Working
2 f 2 10 20 rad/s

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANGULAR VELOCITY & LINEAR/TANGENTIAL VELOCITY

 When a body is whirled around, it moves with an angular velocity,

 When the string is released, the ball flies off along tangential/linear velocity, V
 From S r , dividing both sides by t, we get
 But V, (ie linear velocity )
 Therefore, V
 Again, , hence V r r , where V is the linear/tangential velocity, r is the radius and is the
angular velocity
Example 1

The wheel of a car of radius 20cm is rotating at a frequency of 20Hz. Calculate the linear speed of the car

Working

2 f 2 20 40 rad/s, but r 20cm 0.20m V r 40 25.14m/s

Example 2

A ball tied to a string is rotated at uniform speed in a circle of radius 10cm. It takes 1.5s to describe an arc of length
6cm. Calculate its

(a)Tangential velocity (b) angular velocity (c) periodic time

Working

(a)Tangential velocity, V [Link]/s (b) V r 0.4rad/s

(c) T 15.7 seconds

Example 3

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Calculate the angular velocity of the earth when it is rotating about its own axis. ( time period of the earth about its
axis 24hrs)

Working

7.3 rad/s

Example 4

A bicycle wheel makes 300 revolutions per minute (rpm). Calculate the angular velocity of the wheel

Working

300 revolutions 1 min 60 seconds

If 300 revolutions 60 seconds 1 second 5 revolutions

But 1 revolution 2 rad, so 5 revolutions 5

31.4 rad/s

CIRCULAR MOTION & CENTRIPETAL FORCE

 The body moves in a circular path when the force from a fixed point acts on it
FACTORS DETERMINING THE MAGNITUDE OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE
 These are
1. Speed of revolution, V of the body
 When the frequency is doubled (ie time period is halved) , the speed of revolution, v of mass
M is doubled and the force, F is four times more (The force F required to keep the body in a
circular path of constant radius is directly proportional to the square of the speed of revolution)
ie F

2. Radius of the circular path

 The force F is inversely proportional to the radius of the circular path when the speed of
revolution of the body is constant ie F
3. Mass of the body in a circular motion
 The force F is directly proportional to the mass of the body in circular motion ie F m

CENTRIPETAL FORCE ( )
 Is the force acting towards the centre of a circle
 It keeps a body in a circular path
 Centripetal is a Greek word meaning “seeking centre”
 Thus, centripetal force is also called “ the centre seeking force”
 Since centripetal force is given by F ,F &F m

 Hence F which can be written as F , where k is the constant of proportionality

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  But experimentally k =1
 Then centripetal force, is given by , where m is the mass of the body, V is the
linear/tangential speed in m/s and r is the radius of the circular path
Example 1

A 5kg mass moves at uniform speed of 18m/s in a circular path of radius 0.5m. Calculate the centripetal force acting
on the mass

Working
3240N
Example 2

A car of mass 1200kg has to make a circular turn of radius 30m. If it is moving with a uniform speed of 10m/s,
calculate the centripetal force acting on the car

Working

4000N

CENTRIPETAL FORCE IN TERMS OF ANGULAR VELOCITY


 tangential speed, v is given by V r , where is the angular velocity
 , mr
EFFECTS OF ABSENCE OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE
 Flying off of molecules can result as the centripetal force

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION ( )

 For a body in uniform circular motion, the linear velocity changes continuously because
only direction changes continuously
 For example, the direction of motion of the body at point M is along the tangent at M and
when the body is at N, it is along the tangent drawn at N as below

O
F
r
F N
r

M
 Therefore in the above circular motion, the body is accelerating due to continuous change in
direction with speed remains uniform

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  But acceleration
 From Newton‟s second law F ma
 But centripetal force,

 Equating ma a
 Therefore, centripetal acceleration, of the body is given by

 The centripetal acceleration acts towards the centre of the circle

 It is at right angle (90 ) to the tangent at each point of motion
APPLICATIONS OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
 Is applied in
(a)Cornering/a car negotiating a circular path (a corner) on a horizontal road
 When a car is going round a circular path on a horizontal road, it requires the
centripetal force for its circular motion
 In such a case, the centripetal force is provided by the frictional force between the tyres
& the road
 In doing so, a car has to move with uniform speed as F

(b)Banking of circular tracks /banked tracks

 A motorist does not fully depend on the frictional force to negotiate circular paths
 Thus, circular paths are given small banking angle (ie raising a little above the
inner side of the outer edge of the road)
 The banking angle slopes tracks towards the centre of the curve
 The normal reaction force, R acts towards the centre of the circle
 The normal reaction force provides the needed centripetal force

(c)Leaning inward of a cyclist

 A cyclist going round a curve leans inwards

 This provides the necessary centripetal force, hence able to go along the curved track

(d)An aircraft taking a circular turn

 An aircraft makes a correct banking angle in mid air to take a turn in a horizontal plane
 This is to successfully negotiate the curved path

(e)Drying machine / spin drier

 Wet clothes are rotated in a cylindrical drum containing a lot of perforations

 At first, the wet clothes move in a circular motion along with the drum
 Increase in the speed of the drum result into the adhesive force of the water in the
clothes giving up
 Thus water breaks off from the clothes and flies off through the perforations

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 (f)Centrifuge

 Is a device that separates liquids of different densities or solids suspended in liquids

 The mixture is poured into a tube in the centrifuge then rotated at high speed in a
horizontal circle
 The rotation of the centrifuge is made either mechanically or with the help of a motor
 The tube is at first in the vertical position
 When the centrifuge starts working, the tube takes up the horizontal position
 The angular velocity of each part of the tube is the same
 The linear speeds are different due to different radii for matters of different densities
 For example, when blood is rotated at a high speed in a centrifuge, red blood cells and
the blood fluid are separated
 In similar manner
 Viruses and germs in the blood fluid can be separated
 Milk can be rapidly churned & cream being lighter comes towards
the top of the tube then removed
 Centrifuges with very high speed have been developed
 These centrifuges are called Ultra-centrifuges & are useful in medical researches

(g)Planets in orbit

 Planets & satellites keep moving in circular motion by the centripetal force between
them and the body around which they are orbiting

(h)Conical pendulum

 Considering a simple pendulum with the bob of the pendulum hanging freely
 If the hand is swung in a circular pattern, the bob starts revolving in a horizontal
circle of radius r
 Gradually increasing the speed of the bob will lead to increase in radius of the
circle in which the bob revolves
 The tension T developed in the string provides the needed centripetal force for the
bob to execute circular motion
 Gradual increase in the speed of the bob to a certain maximum value will break the
string
 If the string breaks, tension T in the string won‟t be able to provide required
 This is a critical stage when the string becomes horizontal & maximum tension is
given by T

UNIT 6: MOMENTS OF FORCES

 Moment of a force is the turning effect of a force about a point
 Is the product of the force & the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force
 Mathematically, moments of a force force(N) perpendicular distance(m)
 The SI unit of moment of a force is Newton metre (Nm)

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  It is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude & direction
Example 1
A student applies a force of 10N to the handle of a door, which is 0.8m from the hinges of the door.
Calculate the moment of the force
Working
Moment of a force force perp. distance 10N 0.8m 8Nm
Example 2
Calculate the moment of the force about the fulcrum when a pet dog of mass 10kg is at a distance of 1.2m
from the fulcrum
Working

F weight of a dog mg 10kg 10N/kg 100N, Moment of the force 100N 1.2m 120Nm

Example 3
A person applies a force of 500N & produces a moment of force of 300Nm about the wheels of a wheel cart.
Calculate the perpendicular distance, d from the line of action of the force to the wheel
Working

Moment of force force perp. Distance(d) 300Nm 500N d d 0.6m

THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

 The principle of moments states that when a body is in equilibrium under the action of forces, the sum of
clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point
 It gives the relationship between two moments that are at the same fulcrum (turning point)
 Mathematically, sum of clockwise moments sum of anticlockwise moments
Example 1
A uniform metre rule is pivoted at its centre P & three masses are placed at A, B and C as shown below.
Find the value for the weight W of the mass M placed at C so that the metre rule is balanced horizontally

Working
Moments about P, when the metre rule is in equilibrium
Sum of clockwise moments= sum of anticlockwise moments
W 0.4 2.0 0.3 1.0 0.1
W 1.75N

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 Example2
John, Joyce & Janet sat on a seesaw as shown below. Where is John, whose mass is 60kg seated so that
the seesaw is balanced horizontally if the masses of Joyce & Janet are 50kg & 20kg respectively?

Working
John‟s weight 600N, Joyce‟s weight=500N& Janet‟s weight=200N
Taking moment about the pivot
Sum of clockwise moments= sum of anticlockwise moments
600×d=500×2+200×1
600d=1000+200
d= 2m John should sit at a distance of 2m from the pivot

The uniform plank of wood in figure below is balanced at its center by the forces shown. Determine the
value of W in kg

Working
Note that 2.6N produces an anticlockwise moment
Sum of clockwise moments= sum of anticlockwise moments
600×(2 W)=2.6×0.30
0.48+0.24W=0.78 W 1.25N in kg, W 0.125kg
COUPLE: LIKE & UNLIKE PARALLEL FORCES
 Like parallel forces are forces which act in the same direction
 Unlike parallel forces are forces which act in the opposite direction

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  When two equal & unlike parallel forces act on a body at different points, they form a couple as below

 A couple produces a turning effect on a body

EXAMPLES OF COUPLE
1. Turning of a steering wheel of a motor car
2. Opening or closing of a water tap
3. Removal of a cork from the mouth of a bottle using a cork-screw
MOMENT OF A COUPLE (torque)

 Torque is the total rotating effect of a couple

 Is the product of one of the forces & the perpendicular distance between forces
 From the figure above, the pivot is at C
 Thus, the moment of the force, F at point A F AC in the clockwise direction
 Similarly, the moment of the force, F at point B F BC in the clockwise direction
 The moment of the couple (torque) (F AC) (F BC)
F (AC BC)
 But AB AC BC
 So, moment of the couple becomes: F AB
 AB is the arm of the couple, hence moment of the couple/torque F arm of the couple
 That is torque F perpendicular distance
 Its SI unit is the Newton-metre (Nm)
Example

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In the figure below, each force is 4N & the arm of the couple is 20cm. Calculate the torque (moment of the couple)

Working

Torque F perp. distance 4N 0.20m 0.80Nm

CENTRE OF MASS OF A BODY

 Centre of mass of a body is a point where the total mass of a body is considered to act/concentrate (a point
where the whole mass of a body appears to be concentrated)
 Centre of gravity of a body is a point where the weight of the body is considered to act
 Weight of a body is the force of gravity the earth exerts on a body
CENTRE OF MASS OF A LAMINA
 A lamina is a body with very small thickness compared with the other dimensions of the body
 Examples of lamina are: thin cardboard, set square, protractor, the book cover etc
 The centre of mass of a lamina can be determined using the following: plumb line (thin thread with a small
weight at one end), a straight edge
Example 1
A uniform metre rule pivoted at the 60cm mark is kept horizontal by placing a 50g mass on the 80cm mark.
Calculate the mass of the metre rule

Working
Let m be the mass of the metre rule
Force due to m mg m 10N/kg 10mN
Force due to 50g mass(ie 0.05kg) 0.05kg 0.50N
But PA 10cm 0.1m, AB 20cm 0.2m
By the principle of moments, taking moments about point A, then
10m 0.1 0.50 0.2
m 0.50 0.2 0.1kg 100g
Example 2

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A coffee table of mass 22kg &length 1.16m long is to be lifted off the floor on one of its shorter sides to slip a carpet
underneath. Calculate the minimum force needed to lift the table

Working

Taking the moments about a point,

Sum of clockwise moments sum of anticlockwise moments

220N 0.8m F 1.16m, F 110N
The minimum force required is 110N
FACTORS DETERMINING/AFFECTING THE AMOUNT OF EFFORT TO BE USED IN MACHINE/TOOLS
 Length of the handle
 The longer the handle, the lesser the effort & the shorter the handle, the more the effort

APPLICATIONS OF MOMENT OF A FORCE (the turning effect of a force)

 Is applied in
1. Opening or closing of a door
2. Opening or closing a bottle using a bottle opener
3. A pair of scissors or garden shears action
4. Children playing on a seesaw
5. A wheelbarrow being used in lifting some load
6. A screw driver being used to tighten or loosen a screw
7. A crowbar being used to move large object

UNIT 8: MAGNETISM & ELECTROMAGNETISM

Magnetism:

 Is the process of making a magnet from a magnetic material

 A material that can be magnetized is called ferromagnetic

METHODS OF MAKING MAGNETS

(a)Stroking/touching method

 This involves stroking/touching a steel bar eg needle with a magnet

 Is done in two ways

(i)Single touch

 Involves stroking/touching the steel bar from end to end several times in the same direction and with the
same pole of a magnet

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  Between successive strokes, the magnet is lifted high above the bar

 At the end of the steel bar, lastly touched by the magnet, the pole produced is opposite to that of the
stroking pole

(ii)Divided/double touch

 Involves stroking the steel bar from the centre outwards with unlike poles of the two magnets at the
same time
 Like in a single stroking, the pole produced at the end of the steel bar where the stroke ends is
opposite to that of the stroking pole

 If like poles such as S-poles are used to magnetize the steel bar, the bar obtains N-poles at both ends and
S-poles at the centre

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  A magnet made in this way is said to possess consequent poles

(b)Electrical method

 This involves placing a steel bar inside a solenoid (a wire wound a number of turns around a hollow
tube) and pass ad direct current through the turns of solenoid
 After switching off the current and removing the steel bar, the steel bar stays magnetized

 The poles of the magnet made depends on the direction of current

 These poles are given by the right hand grip rule
 The right hand grip rule states that if the fingers of the right hand grip the solenoid in the direction
of current (ie from positive terminal of the battery), the thumb points in the N-pole

 A magnet made using this method is called electromagnet(soft-iron core temporary magnetized
by passing current through a solenoid ie coil of wire wound on the core)

(c)Hammering

 This involves the earth‟s magnetic field influencing the hammered steel bar

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  Is done by hammering one end of the steel bar several times while fixed in north-south direction

 This magnet is weak

(d)Induction

 This involves placing a material (eg needle) near the magnet

DEMAGNETISATION

 Is the process through which magnets lose their magnetism

METHODS OF DEMAGNETIZING A MAGNET

(a)Hammering

 This involves hammering a magnetized material while placed in the East-West direction
 May also involve violent dropping of magnetized material several times on a hard floor
 The dropping disorganizes the alignment of dipoles (smallest particle of a magnetic material equal
to an atom in an electric conductor )

(b)Heating

 Involves heating a magnetized material until red hot and cool it suddenly while resting in East-West direction

(c)Electrical method

 Involves placing a magnet in a coil /solenoid in East-West direction and pass an alternating current (a.c)

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CARING FOR MAGNETS

(a) Store the magnets using soft iron keeper across their ends

DOMAIN THEORY

 States that inside a magnet there are small domains(regions) in which the magnetic direction of all
dipoles(molecular magnet) are aligned in the same directions
 Is used to explain the process of magnetization and demagnetization

DOMAIN THEORY OF MAGNETISM

 In un magnetized material, the domains are aligned in all possible directions

 Hence, the net magnetism in the material in zero
 In partially magnetized material, the domains align themselves

 In a fully magnetized material, the domain walls and the molecular magnet align themselves in one
particular direction

 A resultant north pole is produced at one end and a south pole at the other end

DOMAIN THEORY OF DEMAGNETISATION

 The walls of the domain slowly return to their original state with time

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  This occurs if a magnet is stored on its own i.e. without keepers
 Such demagnetization is called self-demagnetization
 Self-demagnetization starts at the ends of magnet where free poles repel each other
 This results from the poles at the end tend to reverse the direction of the dipole
 Demagnetization can also be influenced by giving the dipole enough energy
 The energy given overcomes the forces that hold the dipoles in a particular direction
 The energy may be done by heating, hammering or dropping on hard surface.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

 Refers to the ability of an iron or steel bar placed inside a solenoid to attract magnetic materials
 The magnet made by placing a steel bar inside a solenoid is called electromagnet
 Therefore, an electromagnet is a ferrous material (e.g. iron) temporarily magnetized by passing
direct current their a solenoid

FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF AN ELECTROMAGNET

(1)Number of turns/ windings in a solenoid

 The higher the number of turns, the stronger the electromagnet

(2)Distance between the poles

 The closes the poles, the stronger the electromagnet

(3)Magnitude/ size of the current through the turns (windings)

 The larger the magnitude of current, the stronger the electromagnet

(4)Material the nail is made of

 soft magnetic alloys makes stronger electromagnet

MAGNETIC FIELD/ FLUX

 Is a region around a magnet where a magnetic force is experienced

 On a paper, magnetic flux is represented by a set of lines
 The lines are referred to as field lines
 Magnetic fields can be mapped around current carrying conductor using
 Iron filling
 Small plotting compass

IMPORTANT FACTS A BOUT MAGNETIC FIELD

1. The magnetic field lines are circular (2)The field is strongest close to the wire/ conductor

3. Its strength increases with the increase in electric current

RULES FOR DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD

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1. Right hand grip rule (Thumb rule)

 The rule states that if the fingers of the right hand grip the wire / conductor with the thumb pointing in the
direction of current, the other fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field

2. Right handed cork screw rule (Maxwell‟s right handed screw rule)
 The rule states that if a right handed screw moves forward in the direction of current, the direction of
clockwise rotation of the screw gives the magnetic field direction

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS

 Are applied in

(a)Electric bell (b)Telephone receiver / earpiece

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THE ELECTRIC BELL

HOW THE ELECTRIC BELL WORKS

 Current flows through the coil when the switch is closed

 The flowing current causes an electromagnet to attract the hammer which hits the gong
 As the hammer moves towards the gong, electromagnet is switched off at the contact and the springy metal
pulls the hammer back hence reconnecting the circuit
 So long as the switch is on, the cycle is repeated, thus, continuous ringing occurs

USES OF ELECTRIC BELL

 Can be used in

(i)Fire alarms (ii) Flood alarms

FIRE ALARM

 Heat from the fire makes the bimetallic strip to bend

 The bending of the strip completes the circuit hence making the bell ring

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(ii) ALARM SYSTEMS FOR FLOODS

 The contact with salt crystal is placed in a shade where flooding water passes through
 Water from the floods dissolves the salt hence completing the circuit leading to bell ringing thereby warning
people that flooding water is coming

THE TELEPHONE RECEIVER

 When a person speaks into the microphone, an electric current is set up in the earpiece receiver
 As the current in the earpiece varies, the diaphragm made of magnetic alloy vibrates accordingly
 A sound similar to that in the microphone is then reproduced in the receiver /earpiece

MOTOR EFFECT

 Refers to the force experienced by a current carrying conductor (wire) in a magnetic field

FACTORS A FFECTING THE FORCE ON THE WIRE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD (MOTOR EFFECT)

(1)Size of the current

 Increases with the increase in current

(2)Number of windings (turns) of the wire (ie length of the wire)

 Increases with the increase in the number of turns

(3)Strength of magnets / size of the field

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  increases when the magnet used is stronger

RULE FOR DETEMINING THE DIRECTION OF FORCE ON A WIRE / CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
(MOTOR EFFECT)

(a)Flemings left hand rule (motor rule)

 It states that if the thumb and the first two fingers of the left hand are held perpendicular (at right angles )to
each other , the First finger points in the direction of the Field, the seCond finger points in the direction of the
Current and the Thumb points in the direction of the Thrust (force) on the conductor.

ELECTRIC MOTOR EFFECT

 Is the principle that describes the force experienced by a wire in a magnetic field

A PPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC MOTOR EFFECT

 Is applied in

(a)Simple d.c electric motor

 An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy

 It consists of a rectangular coil of wire placed between the poles of a strong magnet
 Examples of devices which use electric motors are electric bell, vacuum cleaner, electric shaving machine,
electric drill, electric fan
 The end of each wire is connected to a commutator which rotates with the coil
 Current enters through the brashes
 According to Fleming‟s left hand rule, wire AB experiences a downward force while CD experiences upward
force
 The speed of rotation of can be increased by
1. Increasing the current (2)Using a coil with more turns (3)Using a stronger magnet
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 When a conductor (wire) is moved through a magnetic field, current is produced
 The process of producing electric current from magnetism is called electromagnetic induction
 Electric current is produced due to potential difference created at the ends of the conductor
 The potential difference created is called induced electromotive force (e.m.f)

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  The current produced in this way is called induced current
FACTORS AFFECTING THE MAGNITUDE OF INDUCED EMF
1 Number of turns in the coil
 Induced emf increases with the increase in the number of turns
2 Strength of magnetic field
 The stronger the magnet , the higher the induced emf
3 rate of change of magnet flux (speed of the wire coil)
 The faster the coil moves, the greater emf

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 There are laws used to summarize the factors that affect the size (magnitude) of induced emf
 One of the laws is known as Faraday‟s law
 Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction states that induced emf in a conductor is directly proportional to
the rate of change of the magnetic flux (field) linked to the conductor

DETERMANING THE DIRECTION OF INDUCED EMF

 The direction of induced emf can be determined using :

1. Fleming’s right hand (Dynamo)rule
 Fleming‟s right hand rule states that if the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand are perpendicular
to each other, the First finger points in the direction of the Field and the thuMb in the direction of Motion of
the conductor, then the seCond finger points in the direction of the induced Current

2. Lenz’s law

 States that the direction of the induced current is always in such that it opposes the change producing it

MUTUAL INDUCTION

 By switching on and off the current in one coil, an emf is induced in another coil
 The circuit inducing the emf in another is called the primary circuit

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  The circuit where emf is induced is called the secondary circuit
 Hence, changes in current in the primary circuit induces an emf in the secondary circuit
 Such an effect is called mutual induction
 Therefore, mutual induction is when changes in current in one (the primary) circuit induces an emf in
another (the secondary) circuit
 The switching on and off of current can be done by replacing a battery and a switch with an a.c power
supply
 Mutual induction is noticed when two coils are wound round soft iron core
 When an electric current flows through a conductor, it creates a magnetic flux around it
 The strength of the flux keeps changing (from zero to maximum and back to zero) when the current is
switched on &off
 When a.c source is used, the change in magnetic field strength is automatically done
 The change in magnetic flux induces a current in the secondary coil
 Hence, an a.c input in the primary coil induces an ac output in the secondary coil

USES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 Is used in

1. Production of electricity

 This is done using

(a) Transformer (b)Electrical power transmission (c)Hydroelectric power (d)Nuclear energy (power) (e)Fossil
fuels (f)biomass

(2)Induction coil (3) Moving coil microphone (4)Generators (ie simple d.c and simple a.c generators)

TRANSFORMER

 Is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
 The symbol of a transformer is

 It may raise or reduce the voltage of the generated electricity at a power plant
 A transformer consist of two coils known as the primary coil and the secondary coil
 The two coils are wound on the same soft iron core

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
 There are two types:

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 1. Step-up transformer
 Has more turns in secondary coil than in primary coil

 Has higher secondary voltage than primary voltage

2. Step-down transformer
 Has more turns in primary coil than in the secondary coil(ie less turns in secondary coil than in
primary coil)

 Is used to step down voltage

HOW A TRANSFORMER WORKS
 To & fro magnetic flux movement is produced when an a.c passes through a primary coil
 This is cut by a conductor(secondary coil), hence inducing current
Transformer equations
1. Relating number of turns & voltages in secondary & primary coils
o , where is thevoltage in secondary coil, is the voltage in primary coil, is
the number of turns in secondary coil & is the number of turns in primary coil
2. Relating currents & voltages in secondary & primary coil
o , where is the current in secondary coil & is the current in primary coil
3. Relating power input & power output
o Power VI
o Thus, for a transformer, power output & power input
o For an ideal transformer, power input power output

EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
 Efficiency is the ratio of the power output( )& power input ( )
 Is expressed as a percentage
 Mathematically, efficiency of a transformer is given by: Efficiency 100%
Example

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A transformer with a primary coil of 1200 turns & a secondary coil of 120 turns has 240V connected to its primary
coil. What is the output voltage?

Working

24V

Example

An alternating electromotive force of 240 V is applied to a step-up transformer having 200 turns on its primary coil &
4000 turns on its secondary coil. The secondary current is 0.2 A. Calculate the

(a)Secondary electromotive force (b)Primary current (c) Power input (d)Efficiency

Working

(a) 4800V (b) 4.0A

(C)Power input 960W
(d)Efficiency 100% 100% 100%

Example

A transformer has an input coil of 60 turns. When this coil connected to a 240V source, the output voltage is found to
be 4800V. The output power is 3600W.

(a)Calculate the number of turns in the output coil (b)If the efficiency of the transformer is 80%, calculate the (i)Output
current (ii)input current

Working

(a) 60, 240V, 4800V, ?

1200 turns

(b) (i) 3600 4800 0.75A

(ii)Efficiency 100% 80 100% 18.75A

CAUSES OF ENERGY LOSSES & THEIR SOLUTIONS IN TRANSFORMER

(a)Resistance in the coils/windings (Copper losses/winding resistance)

 The coils of copper wire have some resistance hence produces heat when current flows through
 This method of energy loss is called joule-heating
 This energy loss is minimized by using thick copper wire of low resistance

b)Eddy currents

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  When the magnetic field changes, small amount of currents called eddy current are induced in the
core of the transformer
 This heads up the core hence energy is lost in form of heat
 Is minimized by using a core made of insulated lamination

(c)Flux/magnetic leakage (stray losses)

 Not all the magnetic field lines produced by the primary coil cut the secondary coil mainly when the
core has an air gap or poorly designed
 This is reduced by using good transformer design
 This is achieved by winding the primary coil on top of the secondary coil and having a closed iron
core

(d)Hysteresis losses

 The magnetization & demagnetization of the core by alternating magnetic field needs energy
 This energy heats up the core & is lost as heat energy
 The losing of energy this way is called hysteresis
 Hysteresis is minimized by using the core made of soft magnetic material eg soft iron

(e)Dielectric loss

 This is when the insulation material of a transformer gets damaged or the oil gets deteriorated
hence decreases in its quality over time

(f) Magnetostriction losses

 Magnetostriction is the physical expansion & contraction of a ferromagnetic material eg core due to
magnetic flux
 Magnetostriction produces buzzing sound associated with transformer
 This lead to energy loss due to frictional heating
INDUCTION COIL
 An induction coil consists of two coils (secondary coil with large number of turns & primary coil)
with one wound over the other around a soft iron core

Primary coil

 It works like a transformer but with a d.c power supply

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  The direct current is switched on & off in the primary coil producing a change in magnetic field
hence inducing an emf in the secondary coil
 A large potential difference is induced between the metal electrodes due to large number of turns
in the secondary coil & the rapid change in primary current
 The large p.d causes a spark (used in igniting the petrol-air mixture inside car‟s engine)between
the metal electrodes
ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION
 At a power station, cables are used to deliver generated electrical energy to consumers
 In transmission cables, some electrical energy is lost due to cable resistance, R
 The power loss in cables can be reduced by

(1)Use of very thick transmission cables (2)Use of metal with low electrical resistance eg copper

DANGERS OF TRANSMITTING HIGH VOLTAGE

 People or animals in the vicinity may get electrocuted
Solution: Supporting high transmission cables high above the ground by pylons

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF POWER GENERATION & TRANSMISSION

 Environmental pollution/impact is caused by: use of fossil fuels, nuclear power/energy

 Sources of power generation are like: hydroelectric, nuclear reaction, fossil fuels, solar, geothermal energy
& biomass
HYDROELECTRIC POWER
 Power generated from gravitational potential energy of water stored in a reservoir
 The negative impact of electric power generation are
1. Dislocation of people living around the dam construction place
2. Carbon dioxide release during dam construction & reservoir flooding
3. The aquatic ecosystem disruption
4. Dam can be a bleeding site of mosquitoes
NUCLEAR POWER/ENERGY
 Nuclear power plant produces very high energy
 The negative impacts of nuclear power generation are
1. Emission of radioactivity
2. Accidental nuclear explosions in power plants
3. Heat rejection to water bodies
FOSSIL FUELS
 Is used to generate electricity by burning the fossil fuels to produce steam for steam turbines driving hence
producing power in electric generator
 The negative impacts of fossil fuels are
1. Emission of gases eg: carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide leading to global warming
BIOMASS
 Is the generation of power by burning anything that combusts
 The negative impact is the production of emissions

MOVING COIL MICROPHONE

 Is a device that changes sound energy into electrical energy

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  Consists of a diaphragm connected to a light coil placed between two poles of strong cylindrical pot magnet

 In front of microphone, sound energy sets the diaphragm into vibration hence moves the coil back & forth
between the magnet poles inducing a small a.c in the coil
 The induced a.c operates the loudspeaker once amplified

A SIMPLE dc GENERATOR
 Has a rectangular coil of a conductor wire whose ends are connected to the two halves of the commutator
(single split-ring)
 The commutator is in contact with the carbon brushes
 The brushes connect the commutator to an external circuit
 The carbon brushes press on the commutator using the two light springs
 The coil is placed between two poles of a permanent magnet
 The coil cuts across the magnetic field of permanent magnet during its rotation by energy from burning fuel
inducing current that causes galvanometer deflection
 The current flow is maintained when one brush changes into another by the two halves of the commutator
when the coil passes through the vertical position
A SIMPLE ac GENERATOR
 Is a modified dc generator with two slip rings instead of commutators
 In the coil, current direction changes after every half rotation because during coil rotation, each brushes
remain on the same ring

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UNIT 9: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
 Electronics is a branch of electricity which deals with components that use small currents eg
semiconductors, capacitors, diodes, transistors & thermostats
GROUPS OF MATERIALS BASED ON ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITIES
 These are
(i)Conductors/metals
 These are very good conductors of electricity eg copper

(ii)Insulators

 These do not conduct electricity eg wood, glasses, plastics, paper

(iii)Semiconductors

 These are materials which conduct electricity under certain conditions eg silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge), boron (B), antimony (Sb), indium (In) & arsenic (As)
 Their conductivities lie between that of insulators & metals
BAND THEORY
 Band theory of solids states that isolated energy levels (bands) of atoms in conductors, semiconductors &
insulators are broadened into energy bands that belong to crystal as a whole
 An electron jumps from one energy level to another
 When an electron jumps from a lower to a higher energy level, it absorbs energy but when it jumps from
higher to lower energy level, it emits energy
 Using band theory, materials are considered to contain two bands where electrons may be found
 These bands are (i)Valence band (ii)Conduction band
 The two bands are separated by a gap called forbidden gap

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  Electrons are not allowed to occupy this gap between the two bands ie forbidden gap
 For a material to conduct electricity, the electrons should be in conduction band
 Electrons need energy to jump to the conduction band ie crossing the forbidden gap
 Such energy can be provided by increasing temperature of the material

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF CONDUCTORS/METALS

 The valence & conduction bands overlap ie there is very narrow gap
 No energy is needed to overcome the forbidden gap
 Their conduction bands are filled with electrons
 All electrons are free & mobile to move
 If heated, internal energy increases hence the electrons move in all directions resulting into collision with
each other thus become poor conductor due to high resistance

A conductor

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATORS

 Insulators have very wide forbidden gap
 The conduction band has no electrons
 No any energy can move the electrons to the conduction band hence insulators can not conduct electricity

An insulator
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTORS
 Have bigger forbidden gap than conductors
 They are mostly group IV elements
 At low temperature, all electrons occupy the valence band
 At room temperature, some electrons gain thermal energy hence cross the forbidden gap to the conduction
band
 The material therefore becomes a fair conductor

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  As the temperature increases, more electrons move to the conduction band hence the material electrical
conductivity increases
 Thus, increasing temperature of a semiconductor decreases its resistance

A semiconductor
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
 There are two:
1. Intrinsic /pure semiconductors
2. Extrinsic/impure semiconductors
INTRINSIC/PURE SEMICONDUCTOR
 Are semiconductors whose electrical conductivities increase internally (from within themselves) eg silicon,
germanium
 Their conductivities increase with the increase in temperature
 That is , the higher the temperature, the more electrons can cross the forbidden gap
 The free & mobile electrons that jump into conduction band are called thermal electrons
 These free & mobile electrons leave a positive vacancy/gap from the valence band
 The vacancy is called a hole
 Most of these electrons are those from the outmost shell called bonding or valence electrons
 An atom whose electron jumped into conduction band becomes positive ion hence attract an electron from
the neighboring atom
 When the process is repeated, ie from one atom to another, a positive hole drfts in the lattice
 This is observed if a semiconductor is connected in a circuit

 So, electrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductors is due to electron-hole pair movement

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  In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes created

Bonding in silicon crystal

EXTRINSIC/IMPURE SEMICONDUCTOR
 Are semiconductors whose electrical conductivities are increased by adding/introducing a small amount of
impurity
 The process of adding a small amount of impurity is called doping (refers to addition of impurities to a
semiconductor)
 In doping, the impurities used are elements whose atoms have either three valence electrons (trivalent eg
boron, aluminum, gallium & indium) or five valence electrons (pentavalenteg phosphorous, arsenic,
antimony & bismuth)
TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
 These are: (i) n-type semiconductor (ii)p-type semiconductor
N-type semiconductor
 Is an extrinsic semiconductor whose conductivity is due to presence of an extra electron
 An extra electron is due to doping with pentavalent atom (an atom with five valence electrons eg antimony)
Pure semiconductor Pentavalent → n-type semiconductor

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  For example, if silicon is doped with antimony, four of its five valence electrons form covalent bond with a
silicon atom, hence one electron remain

Antimony added as
impurity

 The remaining electron is free to move within the crystal

 Thus, pentavalent impurity donates electron to silicon hence is called a donor impurity
 The resulting semiconductor therefore has more electrons & is referred to as n-type semiconductor (n-for
negative)
 In n-type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are the electrons
P-type semiconductor
 Is formed by adding a trivalent (an atom with three valence electrons eg boron) impurity in a pure
semiconductor crystal
 For example, if silicon is doped with boron, three of its (boron)valence electrons form bond with three of the
four valence electrons of silicon

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  This leaves a vacancy/empty space in the fourth bond called a hole

 Then an electron from another covalent bond jumps to fill this hole, leaving a hole behind (in its original
position), hence conduction takes place
 Thus, the hole moves in the direction opposite to the motion of the electron
 The atoms that introduce the holes in the pure semiconductors are called acceptor atoms
 Hence p-type semiconductor has more holes than electrons
 Therefore, in p-type semiconductors, holes are majority charge carriers

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

 A diode is an electrical device that allows the flow of current only in one direction
 A p-n junction diode is formed by joining a p-type semiconductor to an n-type semiconductor of the same
material eg silicon

 The symbol of p-n junction diode is

 Once the junction is formed, charge(electrons & holes) movement by diffusion starts until an equilibrium is
reached
 Charge movement results in holes combining with electrons, thereby depleting the junction

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  The region so formed is called depletion layer

 Movement of charges across the junction develops a potential difference called barrier potential
difference(barrier potential) ie barrier potential because it acts as a barrier & opposes the flow of charges
across the junction
HOW P-N JUNCTION DIODE WORKS
 A p-n junction diode used by applying a voltage to its terminals
 The process of applying a voltage to the p-n junction diode is called biasing
 Biasing can either be forward or reserve
Forward biasing of a diode
 A diode is said to be forward biased if the p-side (anode) is connected to the positive terminal of the power
supply & the n-side (cathode) to the negative terminal of the power supply

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  When a diode is forward biased, the negative terminal of the power supply pushes electrons
from the n-side towards the p-region & the positive terminal of the supply connected to p-side
of the diode pushes the holes towards the n-side
 This reduces the depletion layer hence electric current flows through a junction

Reverse biasing of a diode

 Is when the p-side is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply& the n-side
to the positive terminal of the power supply

Voltage supply

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  When a diode is reverse biased, the holes from the p-side are attracted to the negative
terminal of the power supply & the electrons from the n-side are attracted to the positive
terminal of the power supply
 This widens the depletion layer hence no current flows through the junction
 If large voltage is applied to a reverse biased diode, large electrical current suddenly flows
through it leading to the permanent damage of a diode

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  The graph of current against voltage on biasing a diode is called characteristics
curve/graph

 On a characteristic curve (current-voltage graph), voltage V is positive when the diode is

forward biased & is negative when the diode is reverse biased

USES OF P-N JUNCTION

1. To protect electrical devices in a circuit: A diode offers high resistance to the flow of current in the
reverse direction
2. For rectification:
 Some electrical devices need direct current (dc) to operate
 For this purpose, a p-n junction diode is used to convert alternating current (ac) to direct current
(dc)
 The process of converting ac to dc is called rectification
 Rectification can either be half-wave if a single diode is used or full-wave if two diodes are used
 Half-wave rectification involves allowing half of the ac signal into a dc signal
 In a half wave rectification, half of the input energy is wasted
 Full-wave rectification is when the whole ac signal is rectified into a dc signal
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

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  The basic electronic components are: diode, transistor, photo resistor/light dependent resistor(LDR),
capacitor, inductors, thermistor & photovoltaic cell
DIODE
 Is an electrical device that allows the flow of current only in one direction
 Diodes are of different types as: p-n junction diode, Zener diode, photo diode, PIN diode, laser diode,
avalanche diode & light emitting diode (LED)
Light emitting diode (LED)
 Is a two-lead semiconductor
 It emits light when current passes through it hence the effect is called electroluminescence
 In LED, electrical energy is converted to optical energy
 The symbol for LED is

APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

 Is applied/used in
1. traffic signs, & camera flashes
2. automotive headlamps
3. computer & TV displays
TRANSISTOR
 Is a three terminal semiconductor device consisting of p-n junctions
 The three terminals are: base (b), collector (c) & emitter (e)
 The emitter(e) emits electrons which pass through the base(b) to the collector(c)
 Is a current-controlled device
 Transistors are in two types namely:
1. n-p-n transistor
2. p-n-p transistor
 The diagrams & symbols of these types of transistors are

 In the above symbols, the arrows indicate direction of conventional current flow during normal operation of a
transistor
Note:The symbols may be remembered by direction of an arrow using these statements:

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  For p-n-p transistor-------- pointing in
 For n-p-n transistor--------Not pointing in
USES OF A TRANSISTOR
1. As a current amplifier
2. As a switch
CAPACITORS
 A capacitor is a device that stores charges
 It consists of two parallel metal plates held together
 The plates are separated by an insulator medium called dielectric
 The symbol for a capacitor is

 If two plates are connected to a battery, each plate gains equal & opposite charge
 The capacitor is used
1. To stores charges
2. In rectifier circuits to smoothen direct current
3. To absorb electrical signals that cause noise in sound systems
4. To maintain power in device memory eg calculator, mobile phone when changing or charging batteries
to avoid data loss
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)
 Is a light sensitive device
 Is made of semiconductor of high resistance
 Is also called photo conductor/photo conductive cell/photocell
 The symbol for LDR is

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  The arrows indicate light falling on it
USES OF LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)
1. As a light sensor
2. In alarm clocks
3. In burglar alarm circuits
4. As light intensity meters
5. For counting packages moving on a conveyor belt
6. In making light operated switch
Light operated switch
 Keeps the bulb on in darkness & off in the presence of light

 In darkness, the LDR resistance is very large compared to which gives LDR a greater share of available
voltage
 This leads to rising of current in the input (base), switching the transistor on & the bulb then lights

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  The presence of light drops/reduces the LDR resistance compared to , hence only a small share of
available voltage is dropped across the LDR leading to base current being small to switch the transistor on (
then the bulb is switched off)
INDUCTORS
 An inductor is a device that stores energy in form of a magnetic field
 It consists of a wire loop or coil
 Measure inductance
 The symbol for an inductor is

 An inductor opposes/resists the rate of change of current flowing through it due to the build up of self-
induced energy within its magnetic field
USES OF INDUCTORS
1. Energy storage
2. As motors
3. As magnetic field sensors
4. As filters in analoque circuits
5. As transformers
6. In making traffic light sensors that use loop/coil
7. In red light cameras used to curb traffic violations
THERMISTOR
 Is a resistor whose resistance varies with temperature (temperature sensitive resistor)
 Its symbol is

USES OF THERMISTOR
 Is used
1. As a current limiting device for circuit protection
2. In making resistance thermometer
3. As timers in the degaussing coil circuit
4. To monitor the temperature of an incubator

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 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
 Is a device that converts light energy directly to electrical energy by photovoltaic effect
 Is also called solar cell
 The symbol for photovoltaic cell is

 When sunlight fall on the solar cells, a potential is created across the cells & when the circuit is complete,
current flows through the component connected in that circuit
USES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
 Is used
1. In making of solar panels
2. To power solar powered cars, boats & airplanes
ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT & SIGNALS
 A signal is a set of information of data
 Examples of signals are: sound (radio, computer, TV, mobiles), video (computer, TV, mobiles) & data signal
(computer, mobiles)
CLASSES/TYPES OF SIGNALS
 These are
1. Analoque signals
2. Digital signals
ANALOQUE CIRCUIT & SIGNALS
 Analoque signal is a signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a continuous range
 Is found in analoque circuits/electronics
 Analoque circuit is an electric circuit that operate with currents & voltage continuously varying with time (a
circuit with continuous variable signal)

CHARACTERISTICS OF ANALOQUE SIGNALS

1. Amplitude (A)
 Is the maximum displacement of wave property from the position of highest amount of current
or voltage

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 2. Frequency (f)
 Is the number of complete oscillation per second
 Is measured in hertz (Hz)
3. Phase
 Are two points on a wave front that appears to be the same
4. Wavelength ( )
 Is the distance between two successive points in phase
DIGITAL CIRCUIT & SIGNALS
 A signal whose amplitude takes on only a finite number of values
 Is produced by digital circuit
 Digital circuit is a circuit with signal one of two discrete(individual) levels(a circuit operating using digital,
discrete signals)
 The signal has a binary format (1 or 0)
 Digital circuit use high (1) & low (0)

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL SIGNALS

1. Are discrete
2. Have limited number of defined values (1 & 0 only)
3. Bit intervals
 Is time required to send one single bit
4. Bit rate
 Is the number of bit intervals per second
ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL SIGNAL
1. Is secure
 There is minimal loss of data
2. Digital data can be easily compressed hence efficiently transmitted
 This helps to transmit large volumes of voice, data & image information
3. Data transmission is cheaper
Note:
o Analoque signal can be converted into digital signal & vice versa
o The process of converting analoque signal into digital signal is called modulation
o The process of converting digital signal into analoque signal is called demodulation
LOGIC GATES & TRUTH TABLES
 A logic gate is an electronic circuit that operates on one or more input signal to produce an output signal
 In logic gates, transistors act as high speed switches
 In electronic circuits, inputs & outputs are denoted by letters of the alphabet such as A,B & L
 A & B represent input circuits while L represents the output circuit
 The input & output state take binary values (1 & 0)

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  The state one (1) represents on/high while the state zero (0) represents off/low
 The states of the input circuits (A & B) determine the state of the output circuit L
 The possible states may be summarized in a table called truth table
 A truth table is a table showing all the possible inputs & the resulting output
 The truth table shows relation between input & output signals of a logic gate
TYPES OF LOGIC GATES
 These are
(1) NOT gate (2) AND gate (3) NAND gate (4) OR gate (5) NOR gate
NOT gate or an Invertor
 Is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output, hence it is also called an
invertor
 For example, if the input variable is A, the inverted output is NOT A (in short or )
 Thus, output is on (1) if input is off
 The symbol for a NOT gate & its truth table is

AND gate
 Consider the circuit below

 For the output circuit to be on (1), input circuits A & B must be on (1)
 The symbol for an AND gate & its truth table is

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 NAND gate
 The word NAND is a verbal contraction of the words NOT & AND, hence is a NOT-AND gate
 Thus, is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate
 Therefore a NAND gate behaves the same as an AND gate with a NOT (invertor) gate connected to the
output terminal
 In a NAND gate, the output is high(1) if any of the input (A or B)is high(1)
 The symbol of a NAND gate is that of an AND gate with a small circle on the output (a small circle
represents inversion)
 The symbol for a NAND gate & its truth table is

OR gate
 An OR gate circuit is represented as below

 The input circuits (A & B) are in parallel

 Their combined circuit is in series with output L
 Thus, the output will be high/on(1) if one or both of its inputs is high(1)
 The symbol for an OR gate & its truth table is

NOR gate
 The word NOR Is a verbal contraction of the words NOT & OR (ie is a NOT-OR gate)
 It behaves the same as an OR gate with a NOT gate connected to its output terminal
 Consider the NOR gate circuit below

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  The output of the NOR gate is low(0) if any of the inputs (A 0r B) is high(1)
 The symbol is that of an OR gate with a small circle on the output(a small circle represents inversion)

 The symbol for NOR gate & its truth table is

COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS

 A number of logic gates can be used together

 For example

 In the circuit, A & B are as usual input circuits while the two middle circuits(X &Y) are outputs of A
& B respectively as well as inputs of L

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  Another example of combinational logic circuit is as below

 From this circuit, X is the output of A & the input of an OR gate

 The X &B are the inputs of an OR gate with output Y

 The Y is the input of L

UNIT 10: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 Spectrum is a range of quantities with a similar characteristics
 Examples of spectrum are: rainbow(spectrum of sunlight),voice print(spectrum of sound energy)
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 Are waves that are capable of travelling through a vacuum
 Electromagnetic waves are produced by a vibrating electric charge hence consists of: (i) electric
field (ii)magnetic field
 The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and travel in the same direction

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
cal
 Is the arrangement of electromagnetic waves/radiations in order of their frequencies

COMPONENTS/TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

 The spectrum consists of

(a)Gamma rays ) (b)X-rays (c)Ultra-violet (UV) (d)Visible light (e)Infr-red(IR)

(f)Microwaves (g)Radiowaves

(m) 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 100

V
Gamma Ultra- I
X-rays Microwaves Radiowaves
rays violet B Infra-red
G
Y
O
R

Visible
Decreasing wavelength
Increasing wavelength
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(increasing frequency)
(decreasing frequency)
  The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous spectrum (ie there is no sharp boundary between radiations)

GAMMA RAYS

 Have the least wavelengths, hence located on one end of spectrum

X-RAYS

 Have wavelength ranging from 1 m to 1 m

 Are produced when fast moving electrons strike

ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION

 Is produced by

(i)Arcs(eg carbon arc lamp ,electric spark)(ii)Gas discharge tube(iii)Mercury vapour lamp

(iv)Hot bodies (v)The sun

VISIBLE LIGHT

 Consists of seven radiations (ie Violet , Indigo , Blue, Green, Yellow , Orange & Red abbreviated as
VIBGYOR)
 Forms visible spectrum
INFRA-RED RADIATION
 Is produced by hot bodies (eg sun , electric fires & furnaces )

RADIOWAVES

 Are produced by electrons moving in conductors

 Have greatest wavelengths, hence located/found on the other end of spectrum

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

(1)Carry no charge (2)Are transverse in nature (3)they undergo reflection , refraction ,diffraction & show interference
effect (4)Obey wave equation( iec=f ) (5)they travel at a speed of light (3.0 m/s) (6)Obey the inverse square
law (7)they Possess energy

METHODS OF DETECTING ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

GAMMA RAYS

 Are detected by

(i)photographic plates (films) (ii)Geiger-Müller tube

X-RAYS

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  Are detected by

(a)Fluorescent screens(coated with zinc sulphide) (b)photographic films

(c)producing photoelectric effect on metals (d)ionization of gas

ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION

 Is detected by

(a)photographic films (b)Fluorescence (c)photocells(d)Light-dependent resistor

VISIBLE LIGHT

 Is detected by

(a)human eye (b)photographic films (c)photocells (d)Light-dependent resistor

INFRA-RED RADIATION

 Can be detected by

(a)thermopile(b)thermocromic paper (heat sensitive paper) (c)phototransistor

RADIOWAVES

 Are detected in electric circuits by

(a)Aerials (b) diodes (c) Earphones
NOTE Some waves cause heating effect(eg microwaves of shorter wavelengths ,infra-red, visible light
,ultra-violet & X-rays of longer wavelength) and these waves are called thermal radiations
Visible light

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. Gamma rays

 Are used
(a) As tracers
 Are used in medicine to locate internal body organs that are not properly functioning
 For example, a small amount of technetium-99 substance that produces
can be injected into the blood system of a person suspected to have non-functioning kidney.
After some minutes gamma ray is taken .If the kidneys are properly functioning ,technetium-

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 99 will be extracted then past together with the urine to the bladder .The detector placed
outside the body then records a reduced amount of technetium in the blood system

(b)in Sterilisation

 Can kill bacteria, mould and insects or worms in food hence prevent food from going bad quickly
 is used to sterilize equipments (eg plastic syringes) in hospitals
 Is used to kill cancerous growths

(c)in controlling thickness of sheets

 During manufacturing of sheets , their thickness can be controlled by monitoring if the gamma rays pass
through the sheets
 When the thickness changes, current from the detectors automatically adjusts the rollers

(d)in detecting flaws & cracks

 Gamma rays are used to check weak points (eg in welded joints in materials)
 This is done by placing a gamma source on one side of the welded material and a photographic film on the
other side
 When there is any crack, air bubbles which is then shown on the film

2. X-rays

 Are used in

(a) checking teeth and bones by doctors(b)checking the welded metal joint by engineers

(c)the arrangement and treatment of skin disorders in hospitals(d)the study of crystal structures

(e)Crime detection work (eg forgery ) (f)checking presence of foreign objects (eg metals & stones) in manufactured
food

3. Ultra-violet radiation

 Is used in
(a)production of vitamin D in our skin

(b)Detective work (egforgery ,)

(c)identifying stolen items (in case security pen is used in marking the items)

4. Visible light

 Is used in: (a)sight /seeing (b)photosynthesis by plants (c)communication systems

(d)identifying elements by flame test method

5. Infra-red

 Is used in

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 (a)photograph taking ie thermographs (b)Burglar alarms

6. Radiowaves

 Are used in radio communication

7. Microwaves

 Are used for

(a)cooking in microwave oven (b)satellite communication (c)radar navigation

ultra high frequency (UHF) waves

 Are used in transmitting television programmes

Very high frequency (VHF) waves

 Are used to transmit local radio programmes and ambulances (police messages)
Medium waves
 Are used to transmit messages over long distances
 This is possible because these waves have long wavelengths and are diffracted around the
mountains,hills and curves of the earth

EFFECTS/PROBLEMS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

(a)Greenhouse effect (b)Global warming

(c) Ultra-violet radiation causes sunburn that occurs when skin cells are damaged by the absorption of energy &
problems to aquatic ecosystems

(d) Gamma rays kill body living cells & cause cell mutation

Example

Calculate the frequency of red light of wavelength 7 m given that the speed of electromagnetic wave in free
space is 3 m

Working

C f f 4.3 Hz

UNIT 11: LIGHT & LENSES

LIGHT
 Is a form of energy
 Is a transverse wave
 Travels at a speed of 3.0 m/s
 A light wave is called a ray
 On a paper, ray is represented using a straight line with an arrow

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 LENSES
 A lens is a piece of glass or clear plastic with curved surfaces
TYPES OF LENSES
 There are two
(1) Convex /converging lens (2) Concave /diverging lens
CONVEX (CONVERGING) LENS
 Is a lens which is thicker in the centre (middle) than at its edges
 It converges (brings together) light rays that passes through it
 Convex lenses are of different types eg bi-convex (double convex), plano-convex & concavo-convex
(converging meniscus)

CONCAVE (DIVERGING) LENS

 Is the lens which is thinner in the middle than at its edges
 It diverges (spread out) the parallel light rays passing through it
 Concave lenses are in several types as: bi-concave, plano-concave & convexo-concave

TERMS USED IN THIN LENSES

1. Principal axis (P.A)
 Is an imaginary line passing through the centre of the lens
 It is perpendicular to the plane of the lens
2. Principal focus /focal point (F) of a convex lens
 Is a point on the principal axis of the lens where light rays parallel to it converge after refraction
through the lens

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  In case of a concave lens, it is a point on the principal axis of the lens where light rays spread
out

3. The focal plane

 Is an imaginary plane through principal focus & perpendicular to the principal axis

4. Focal length (f)

 Is the distance between the lens & the principal focus
5. Image distance (V)
 Is the distance between the image & the lens
6. Real image
 Is an image through which light rays converge
 Is always inverted
7. Virtual image
 Is the image from which light rays appear to diverge
 Is always upright
8. Optical centre (P)
 Is the middle part of a lens

9. Object distance (U)

 Is the distance between the object & the lens

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 LOCATING IMAGES FORMED USING RAY DIAGRAM
 Ray diagrams are used to illustrate how & where the image may be formed
 Ray diagrams are drawn to scale using lines representing rays

CONSTRUCTING LIGHT RAY DIAGRAMS

 Any two of the following incident rays are enough to construct the ray diagrams
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis refracted through the focal point, F

2. Aray through the principal focus/ focal point is refracted parallel to the principal axis

3. A ray through the optical centre is un deviated (unbent or not refracted)

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  All the three rays when drawn can be illustrated as below

 All rays start from one point

 The image position is where the two refracted rays meet
Example
An object 4cm tall is placed 25cm from a convex lens of focal length 10cm. Draw a ray diagram to find the
position, size & nature of the image formed

Solution
Image distance is 16.6 cm. The image is real & inverted with a height of 2.65 cm
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGES OF OBJECTS AT DIFFERENT DISTANCES
 The following characteristics are shown by images produced depending on the object distance
1. Upright(erect) or upside down(inverted)
2. Real or virtual
3. Magnified (enlarged) or diminished or same size

(a)Object far away from the lens (at infinity)

 All the rays from the object, incident on the lens are almost parallel
 The refracted rays converge at on the focal plane

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  A diminished, real & inverted image at F

(b)Object OB just beyond C (2F)

 A diminished, real & inverted Image is formed between F & 2F

(c)Object OB at 2F (C)
 A real, inverted image of the same size as object is formed at 2F

(d)Object OB between 2F & F

 A real, inverted & magnified image is formed beyond 2F

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(e)Object OB at F

 The refracted rays converge at infinity, hence on image formed

(f)Object OB between F & the lens (very close to the lens)

 The refracted rays diverge

 A magnified, upright

& virtual image is formed on the same side as object

THE LENS FORMULA/EQUATION
 Is a formula relating the focal length, image & object distance
 Is given by , where U, V & f stand for object distance, image distance & focal length
respectively
 In a convex lens, focal length is positive whereas in a concave lens is negative
Example
Calculate the position of an image formed by a convex lens of focal length 15cm, for an object placed 20cm
from the lens. Describe the nature of the image
Working
(a) f &U 20cm
From the lens formula,

Hence V 60cm
(b)The image formed is real since the image distance is positive, it is inverted
Example

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 An object is placed 12 cm from the centre of a concave lens of focal length 20cm. Calculate the distance of
the image from the lens
Working
f (ie focal length of concave lens) & U 12cm
From V 7.5cm
MAGNIFICATION (m) FORMULA
 Linear magnification (m) is the number of times an image is larger or smaller than the object(is the ratio of
the image height to the object height )
 Mathematically, linear magnification (or just magnification) is given by
Magnification (m)

Example
An object of height 2cm is placed 20cm in front of a convex lens. A real image is formed 80cm from the lens.
Calculate the height of the image
Solution
m , 2cm, U 20cm & V 80cm 8cm
 Magnification can also be calculated using image distance(V) & focal length (f)as follows:
 From the lens formula, ,multiplying both sides by V gives
 But , then m 1

Example

An object placed 30cm from a convex lens produces an image of magnification 1. What is the focal length of the lens

Working

U 30cm, since m 1, then V U 1 1 2f 30 f 15cm

APPLICATIONS OF LENSES

 Are applied in

(1)Camera (2) Human eye (3) Projectors (4) Telescopes

THE CAMERA
 Is a device used to take photographs

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 Shutter: Controls amount of light that enters into the camera by opening & closing

Diaphragm: Controls the amount of light entering the camera by varying the size of the hole
Lens: Focuses light rays from an object onto the film
Film : where is image. Contains light sensitive chemicals that change when light exposed to light. It is
developed to get a negative from which a photograph may be printed
HOW A CAMERA WORKS
 To take a photograph, the photographing button is pressed
 This opens the shutter in front of the film for a brief moment thereby exposing the film to light
 Following this, an image is implanted on the film
THE HUMAN EYE

Cornea:
 Is a tough, transparent & protective outer cover of the eye

Retina:

 Is found on the black inner surface of the eye covered with light sensitive cells(rods & cones)
 Is where images can e formed
 Light falling on it produces a sensation in the cells hence sending electrical signals to the brain
through optic nerve

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 Ciliary muscles: It controls the shape of the lens

Suspensary ligaments:

 Support the lens inside the eye

Pupil: Regulates the amount of light reaching the retina

Iris:

 Changes the size of the pupil

 For example, in a bright light, the iris reduces the size of the pupil to allow less light while in dim
light, the iris dilates the pupil to allow as much as possible
IMAGE FORMATION IN THE HUMAN EYE
 Successive refraction at the cornea, aqueous humour, the lens & the vitreous humour form the image on the
retina
 The electrical signals are sent to the brain through optic nerve for interpretation
 The ciliary muscles alter the size & shape of the lens (focal length)to focus the objects at different distances
for sharp formation of images
 The process of altering the focal length of the eye lens to obtain sharp images for objects at different
distances is called accommodation
 For example, lenses fatten (thickens) to view near objects & get thin to view far off objects
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN AN EYE & A CAMERA

(a)Both use converging lens (b)Both have black inside surface (3)Both have light sensitive parts

(4)Both can control the amount of light entering (an eye use iris & camera use shutter or diaphragm) (5)Both produce
real, inverted, diminished images

DIIFFERENCES BETWEEN AN EYE & A CAMERA

AN EYE CAMERA
Focal length changes Focal length is fixed
Has fixed image distance Image distance changes
Opens normally Normally closed except when taking pictures
DEFECTS OF THE HUMAN EYE & THEIR CORRECTIONS
1. Short sight (Myopia)
 A person sees nearby objects clearly than distant objects
 Images are formed in front of the retina

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 Causes
 Inelastic ciliary muscles
 If focal length of the lens is too short
 If the lens is too thick
 If the eyeball is too long

Correction

 Use of a convex lens (spectacles)

2. Long sight (Hyperopia /hypermetropia)
 A person sees distant objects clearly than nearby objects
 Images are formed behind the retina

Causes

 If the eyeball si too short

 If the eye lens is to thin
 If the focal length is too long

Correcton

 Use of converging lens

SLIDE/FILM PROJECTOR (CINEMA)
 Is used to show slides on a screen

Lamp: For film illumination

Slide: Contains picture to be viewed on the screen

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Concave mirror/reflector
Reflects light from the bulb onto the film (slide).
Condenser Lens (Condensing Lens)

Projection Lens:

 Forms considerable, focused, magnified, real and inverted images on the screen
 Has a longer focal length than the condenser lens
 Produces upright images when the object is placed upside down
 Its magnification can be increased by
1. Increasing image distance, V and decrease the object distance, U. This can be achieved by
HOW ASLIDE PROJECTOR WORKS
 A condenser (consisting of two Plano-convex lenses)collects light from a point source & make it converge
through the slide on the projection lens
 The projection lens (mounted in a sliding tube) may be moved to & fro to focus a sharp image on the screen
TELESCOPE
 Is a device that magnifies distant objects eg stars

 Objective lens image becomes eyepiece lens object

 The final image is inverted as compared to the original object
 The sum of the objective lens & eyepiece lens focal length gives the telescope focal length
 In a telescope, magnification is given by: m
1. Objective lens:
 Has long focal length
 It focuses a real ,inverted & diminished image at infinity
2. Eyepiece lens
 Has short focal length
 It focuses virtual magnified upright image at infinity
 It acts as a magnifying glass

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UNIT 12: ISOTOPES
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
 An atom is the smallest electrically neutral particle of an element
 Carries all properties of the element
 Can take part in a chemical reaction
SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
 An atom has three sub-atomic particles namely:
(a)Protons (b)Neutrons (c)Electrons
 These particles are held together by nuclear forces
 The protons and the neutrons are found inside the central core of the atom called Nucleus
 The electrons are found in the space around the nucleus called shells/energy levels/orbits/electron
shells

Structure of an atom
__
Shell/energy level

Nucleus + - Electron

-
+ + Neutron
+ Proton

A PROTON
 Is a positively charged particle
 is located in the nucleus of an atom.
AN ELECTRON
 Is a negatively charged particle
 Orbits /moves in shells at very high speed.
 Has negligible mass.
A NEUTRON
 has equal number of positive charges and negative charges.
 hence considered to be neutral.
Nucleon/NUCLIDE

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  Collective constituent(component) of the nucleus1
ATOMIC NUMBER
 is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
 is indicated on the lower left side of the symbol of an element
 is denoted by Z
 is an identity of an atom
 In neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons
ATOMIC MASS (MASS NUMBER/NUCLEON NUMBER)
 is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom(or total number of nucleons in the
nucleus of an atom)
 is indicated on the upper left side of the symbol of an element
 is denoted by A
 Thus ,nucleon number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
A Z N, where N is the number of neutrons, Z is the atomic number & A is the mass number
NUCLEAR NOTATION (AZX notation)
 Elements that take part in nuclear reactions are represented in form of standard notations as below

Where X = Name of the radioactive element

A = Mass number
Z = Atomic number eg , Mg = Magnesium, 24 = Mass number, 12 = Atomic number
Example
A certain element is represented as . Calculate
(a)The number of neutrons (b)The number of protons
Working
(a) A=37, Z=17 , From A=Z N 37=17 N N=37-17=20
Hence the number of neutrons is 20
(b)The number of protons =17
DEFINITION OF ISOTOPES
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different neutron numbers eg Chlorine (Cl-35 and Cl-37),
Carbon (C-12, C-13 and C-14) , hydrogen (H-1, H-2ie deuterium and H-3ie tritium), Helium (He-3 and He-4)
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (R.A.M)
 is the mass of one atom of an element compared to the mass of one carbon-12 atom

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 
is denoted by Ar
 is found in atomic mass unit(a.m.u)
 is calculated as follows

R.A.M=

Example
Chlorine has two isotopes, Chlorine-37 and Chlorine-35. Chlorine-37 has an abundance of while Chlorine-35
has an abundance of 75 Determine the relative atomic mass (RAM) of Chlorine.
Working

R.A.M

UNIT 13: RADIOACTIVITY

 Radioactivity (Radioactive decay/Nuclear decay) is the spontaneous disintegration(break down) of unstable
nuclei of an atom that emits(releases) particles( or The process whereby the nuclei disintegrate and emit
nuclear radiations )
NATURAL & INDUCED/ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY
 Natural radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable atomic nuclei in nature
 Induced radioactivity is when unstable nuclei are prepared by bombarding them with neutrons
TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY (RADIATION/NUCLEAR RADIATIONS)
There are three types of radiations
i) Alpha (α) particles (ii) Beta (β) particles (iii) Gamma (γ) rays
1. ALPHA PARTICLES (α) & NUCLEAR EQUATIONS
 Is the disintegration of the nucleus into alpha particle (4He nucleus) and a nucleus of another element
(daughter).
 Alpha particles are Helium atoms minus two electrons (Helium ions with a double positive charge).
 Helium atom is expressed as or or
 When an element undergoes an alpha particle it releases 2 protons and 2 neutrons
 Thus, during alpha decay, the mass number (A)of the daughter(element produced)nucleus decreases by 4
and atomic number(Z) decreases by 2 as compared to the parent(original)nucleus
 In general, alpha decay is represented as
 These isotopes whose decay emit alpha particles have too much mass to be stable and so give out alpha
particles in order to form smaller and more stable atoms.
Example:
Radium undergoes radioactive decay by losing an alpha particle to form Radon (Rn)as shown

Parent Daughter -particle emitted

 Similarly Uranium and Thorium undergo radioactive decay by losing an alpha particle as shown in the
equations below;



 Other examples are:

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 (a) 2 (c)

 Alpha particles have a charge of +2

PROPERTIES OF ALPHA PARTICLES
1. Travel in straight lines in free space
2. Posses a lot of KE
3. Have little penetration power as can be stopped by paper.
4. Are readily absorbed by air, paper and even surface of body‟s skin.
5. Are deflected by both magnetic & electric field.
6. Ionizes the gas
7. Get scattered when passing through thin metal foils
2. BETA PARTICLES(β) & NUCLEAR EQUATIONS
 Is the disintegration of the nucleus into beta particle (an electron) and a nucleus of another element.
 Beta particle is denoted as or
 In a beta decay, a neutron (n) is transformed into a proton and an electron at the nuclear surface.
 The proton remains in the nucleus and the electron is emitted.
 Thus, beta decay is the loss of an electron from the nucleus of a radioisotope.
 The daughter nucleus has one more proton.
 Beta particles are emitted from heavier nuclei with too many neutrons compared with the number of protons.
 In beta decay, there is a loss of one neutron and a gain of one proton.
 So the number of neutrons decreases by 1 while the number of protons increases by 1 and the mass
number remains unchanged.3
 Beta decay is represented as ,where P and Q is the parent and daughter elements
respectively

Example:

 Beta particles have no mass and are negatively charged.

 Lack of mass makes beta particles to be light.
PROPERTIES OF BETA PARTICLES
1. Have greater penetration power than alpha particles
2. Are absorbed by thin metal such as tin foil or aluminum.
3. Deflected by both magnetic field & electric fields due to small mass.
4. Cause less ionization in air than alpha particles
GAMMA RAYS (γ)
 The gamma rays are given out in the form of electromagnetic radiation, as a result of the nucleus setting
down after the decay.
 A gamma ray being a photon (packet of energy) of high energy electromagnet radiation has no mass
number or atomic number.
 Gamma decay occurs when the nucleus emits gamma ray (γ) and becomes a less energetic form of the
same nucleus.

2
BY OCHOMAKANDA
3

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  So the radioisotope that emits gamma rays loses energy and becomes stable.
Example:

 In most cases, gamma rays are emitted along with the emission of alpha and beta particles.
PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS
 have greatest penetration power because they carry no charge. Can be stopped by thick lead
metal/concrete.
 can not be deflected in a magnetic field.
 .are absorbed by thick lead metal or concrete.
 cause little ionization of air particles.
 no change on the mass or atomic number of the radio isotope substance. The nucleus only loses energy.4

DIAGRAM SHOWING PENETRATING DISTANCES OF THE THREE DECAYS

HALF LIFE, ACTIVITY & DECAY CURVE..

 is the time taken for half of the mass of radioactive element to decay.
 Half lives differ from one radioactive element to another
 Half life can be calculated in many ways, for example using formula: N , where N is the quantity
remaining , is the quantity at first, T is the time taken & t is the half life
 Activity is the average number of disintegrations per second
 The SI unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq).
 An activity of, say, 100Bq means that 100 nuclei are disintegrating per second

 Decay curve is the graph showing the decrease in an activity of a radioactive substance against time.
 If the activity is measured at different times, a decay curve of activity against time can be plotted

 EXAMPLE 1
 A radioactive source has a half life of 20 minutes. What fraction is left after 1 hour?
 Working
 Method 1
 After 20 minutes, left =
 After 40 minutes, left =

4
BY OCHOMAKANDA

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  After 60 minute, left =
Method 2 using formula

 N ,,
1, t 20min, T 1hr 60min N 1 , ,
EXAMPLE 2
 A radioactive element has a half-life of 2 days. If you start with 20g, how much would you have left after 6
days?
Working
 N , 20g, t 2 dys, T 6 dys N N ) 2.5g

..EXAMPLE 3
A radioactive element is giving count rate of 15 counts per second. What was its count rate hours ago if its half life is
2 hours
Working
N ,, N 15, t 2hr, T 8hr 15 15 ) 240
Example 4
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 yrs. suppose in 2000 we buried 15kg of carbon-14 somewhere & someone digs it
up in the year 13460. How much Carbon-14 would they find?
Working

N , 15kg, t 5730yrs, T 11460 yrs N N )

3.75g

RADIATIONS IN MAGNETIC & ELECTRIC FIELDS

1. magnetic field:

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2. Electric field

 Beta particles are deflected to the positive while alpha particles are deflected to the negative charge. Unlike
charges attract each other.
 Gamma rays are not deflected because they have no charge.
 Beta particles are deflected more than alpha particles because beta particles have no mass.
NUCLEAR FISSION

 is the splitting(breaking up) of heavy nucleus into two (or more) lighter nuclei.
 For example when uranium-235 is hit by a neutron, it becomes unstable and immediately split into two

→ →
Neutron Fission fragment neutrons
 When the two neutrons released bombard another uranium-235, the process continues as before
continuously hence large amount of energy is released (a bomb explodes).
 This is called a chain reaction.
 A chain reaction is a reaction where the products are able to produce more reactions
 During nucleus fission, energy is released

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  Controlled nuclear fission can be used in generating electricity. A small mass of uranium can generate
electricity for many years.
USES OF NUCLEAR FISSION
(a) It is used to produce energy (nuclear power plant)
(b) It is used to make an atomic bomb (nuclear weapon)
NUCLEAR FUSION
 is the combination of two smaller nuclei to form one large nucleus.
OR ( is the joining of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus).
 During nuclear fission, the nuclei of elements with small masses fuse to form nuclei of large masses and
energy is released in the process.
i.e. →

→
INSTRUMENTS FOR DETECTING & MEASURING RADIOACTIVITY (radiation detectors)
1. Geiger-Műller (G-M) tube..
 It consists of a tube filled with inert gas such as argon or helium
 When radiation enters the tube through a thin window, it ionizes (creates argon ions ).
 The ions accelerate towards the electrodes and cause more ionization by collisions with other argon atoms.

 On reaching the electrodes, the ions produce electric current which is amplified and fed either to a digital
scaler counter or a ratemeter then produces light & a clicking sound
.

 A scaler counts measures the radiation entering the tube in a given time.
 The more intense the radiation the more “clicks”
2. Scintillation Counter
 To „scintillate‟ means „producing flash of light‟
 When radiations strike the crystal, light rays (scintillations) are produced which are detected by the
photomuiltiplier
 The light flashes are converted into electric pulses by photoelectric alloy of cesium and antimony
 The count is then displayed on the screen

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 .

3. Photographic Film (plates)

 A light sensitive material which detects radiations emitted in form of light.
 The film works effectively if used in total darkness in order to avoid interferences from other sources of light.
4. Electroscope

 When a radioactive source is brought near the top of the rod of the electroscope, the rod gets charged by
induction.
 For example, if a positively charged object is drawn close to the electroscope rod, the positive charges in
the object repel the positive charges in the rod.
 The electrons are therefore attracted to the rod, making the leaf and rod to be positively charged and then
repel each other.
 However, when a negatively charged object is placed near the rod, the negative charges in the object repel
the negative charges in the rod making them accumulate in the lower part of the rod and the leaf.
 So, the leaf is repelled away from the rod.

 The repulsion of the leaf from the rod indicates the presence of a charged material, so the presence of alpha
or beta particles will cause the repulsion of the leaf from the rod.
 Thus, detecting the radiation.

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 1. Spark counter

insulator

 Radiations from the source ionizes the air in between the gauze and the metal wire hence sparks
occur
 This detects alpha particles
 -A spark is then seen or heard
 The spark may be registered by an electronic device

2. Diffusion cloud chamber (cloud chamber)

 Radioactive source ionizes the medium through which it travels

 The path along which ionization takes place is visible when light illuminates
 This is the property ,the cloud chamber uses
 When ionization passes through a gas, a trail of positive ions is left along its track
 The cloud chamber is able to obtain photographs on the paths of ionizing particle

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 APPLICATIONSS OF RADIOACTIVITY
1. Medical applications
 Iodine-123 is used by doctors to monitor the function of thyroid gland that controls the metabolism rate(rate
at which the burns its food)
 .For treating cancer. Strong radiation sources are used to kill the harmful tissues such as Cancerous cells
inside the human body
 Gamma rays are used to sterilize medical equipments such as syringes, dressings & surgeons instruments.
 are also used to irradiate certain foods, killing bacteria to preserve the food for longer.
2. Agricultural uses
 is used to sterilize insects & eliminate pests that destroys crops
 is used to monitor nutrients uptake in plants
3. Archaeology (carbon dating)
 Carbon dating is a process of finding the age of fossils of plants and animals such as dug wood or bones.
..
3. In industry
 The Gamma ray is used to locate leakages in underground water pipes. Radiations from Gamma emerge
out through the in steel pipes
 Beta particle can be used to monitor the thickness of manufactured paper and Gamma rays are used to
gauge the thickness of manufactured metal sheets
 Beta particles are used to monitor the volume of tea leaves in the packing process
4. Nuclear power generation (Source of electrical energy).
 Released energy during fission & fusion processes are used to generate heat & electricity
 Energy is released from uranium when an atom is split by neutron
DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVITY
(1) causes cancer (2)sterility (3)DNA damage (4)causes skin burn
SAFE HANDLING & STORAGE OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
1. Enclose the radioactive material in a thick lead-walled container
2. Avoid using the remote control TV operation when a person is between the screen and the
remote control. The remote control works by producing and sending electrons (beta particles) to the screen.
3 Use lifting tools (forceps or tongs) to handle radioisotopes.

REFERENCES

 Kaonga L (2017), Senior Secondary physics Form 4. Grey matter Ltd,LongHorn

 Kawonga F (2018),Achievers Senior Secondary physics Book 4
 MIE (2013),Malawi Senior Sec syllabus for form3 & 4 physics, Domasi
 Serway R & Jewett J (2004),physics for Scientists & Engineers 6 th Ed. USA. Thornson Brooks
 Duncan T (2001), physics for Today & Tomorrow 2 nd Ed. London. Holder Murray
 Abbot A.F (1997), Ordonary Level physics, Heinemann Educational publishers
 Mano M.M (2004),Logic & computer Design fundamental, 3 rd Ed. Pearson Prentice Hall

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