MODULE 1 • So, they open the toy to see what is inside

it and what makes it, perhaps, move or

speak.
Philosophy as Love of Wisdom & The Nature of
• After seeing the “mechanism” behind it,
Philosophy
there is a sense of satisfaction of knowing
what makes it as a toy. Like children,
Philosophy as Love of Wisdom students of philosophy ask questions until
Philosophy there are no longer questions to be
- comes from the Greek words, φιλόσ (philos) asked.
and Σοφία (sophia). • Alfredo Co, a Filipino philosopher, wrote
- philos means love while sophia means wisdom, in his book The Blooming of the Hundred
hence, φιλοσοφία (philosophia) or “love of Flowers that there are three major
wisdom.” philosophical questions that were asked
- however, philosophy is more than just loving by the ancient civilizations, namely:
wisdom. “Who am I?,” “What am I?,” and “Where
- it is also an activity in which we ask questions am I?”.
that are fundamental in nature. • The question of who we are (“Who am
- they are called fundamental because they are I?”) as human beings was posted by the
the basic questions a human being can ask. ancient Indians in the Indus Valley.
- examples of these questions are: “Is there a • Throughout their writings and various
God?” “Am I free?” “What is reality?” and religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism,
“What is goodness?”. and Jainism, it is evident that they saw
- philosophy is not just an intellectual work, but human beings as subjected to a
an activity that involves our actions. particular set of rules and laws and that
- unlike any other disciplines such as the following of these precepts is equal
mathematics or physics, philosophy is not just to having a well-lived life in one with the
something that we define and learn in Absolute.
classrooms; rather, it involves our whole being • The question of who we are (“What am
because it affects our belief systems which, in I?”) focuses on how a person should live
turn, affects our actions. in society.
• For instance, much of the literary
The Nature of Philosophy produce of the ancient Chinese
civilization revolves around the
• Philosophy starts with wonder.
education of the young so that they may
• Norris Clarke calls this element the
radical dynamism of the human spirit. become good citizens in the society.
• He tells us that it is our inherent or inborn • The religions of Confucianism and
Taoism, for instance, that thrived and
desire “to know all that there is to know
continue to thrive in China focused on
about all that there is.”
moral education with the purpose of
• It is our nature to ask questions and be
inquisitive. living a life that is in accordance with
“nature” or the natural order of the
• Ito ang dahilan kung bakit natural sa tao
world.
ang maraming tanong.
• What this means for the readers of these
• For example, when parents buy their
ancient schools is that a human being
children toys to play with, because
reaches his or her full potential only
children are naturally curious and
insofar as s/he becomes a moral person
inquisitive, they want to know what
and contributor to society.
makes the toy as it is.
• As to the question of where we are
(“Where am I?”) and what is our place in

Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A

 this vast and impersonal universe, it was nature, one important value of
the ancient Greeks, more than any philosophy, therefore, is to keep these
civilizations, that belabored this question. questions alive in our lives.
• These ancient thinkers asked the • Another importance of philosophy,
question on the origin of all things Russell tells us, is that it enables us to think
considering that then, it was ancient more objectively in situations that we
µύθος (mythos or mythology) that would otherwise be emotive.
guided their day-to-day decisions. • Also, where we are demanded to think
• It was therefore a revolutionary, and clear and precise in a chaotic and
even irreverent, move from this Pre- emotional situation, philosophy seems to
Socratics, as they had to be known, to be the best antidote to such chaos and
seek answers from other than what is disorder.
already given by fate and the gods.
• Thinkers such as Thales, Heraclitus, and Branches of Philosophy
Anaximander, just to name a few, tried
Epistemology
to provide theories on how things came
- branch of philosophy that studies theories of
to be.
knowledge such as its methods, scope, and
validity.
The Value of Philosophy & Branches of
- distinguishes truth from opinion.
Philosophy
Metaphysics
- philosophy that studies with theories of reality.
The Value of Philosophy - it deals with principles and abstract concepts
• In a 1946 essay Philosophy for Laymen, such as being, causation, identity, time, and
the British philosopher Betrand Russell space.
(1872-1970) discusses the importance of Logic
philosophy. - branch of philosophy that studies the validity
• In it, he lists a set of questions that of an argument using categorical concepts
philosophy inquiry asks: “Do we survive and/or symbolic and mathematical
death, and if so, do we survive for a time techniques.
or forever? Can we dominate matter, or - traditionally divided into traditional or
does matter completely dominate the Aristotelean logic and modern or mathematical
mind, or has each, perhaps, a certain logic.
limited independence? Does the Ethics
universe have a purpose? Or is it driven - studies moral principles that governs a person’s
by blind necessity? Or is it a mere chaos behavior and distinguishes moral correctness of
and jumble, in which the natural laws an action.
that we think we find are only a fantasy Aesthetics
generated by our own love of order?” - branch of philosophy that deals with a set of
• Many would recognize these questions principles concerned with the nature of beauty
as broadly religious and existential. found in art.
• However, being agnostic as Russell was, Social and Political Philosophy
he confesses that he cannot answer - branch of applied philosophy that studies
such questions and does not believe that political theories such as politics, liberty, justice,
they can be answered either. rights, and laws.
• Nevertheless, he believes that “human Philosophy of Religion
life would be impoverished if they were - study of the meaning and nature of religion
forgotten”. and religious belief. It analyzes religious
• Because these questions address concepts, beliefs, terminologies, and
aspects of our lives that are existential in
Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A
arguments of both religious and atheistic • The quality of life of the members of the
adherents. community depends on the intensity of
his or her following of this rule book
Defining Ethics & Nature of Ethics faithfully and committedly.
• Analogously, an altar server who follows
Defining Ethics the rules of being an altar server is
considered a “good” altar server.
• Socrates, in the dialogue Apology,
stated the famous dictum that an
“unexamined life is not worth living.” Nature of Ethics
• According to tradition, these words were • Ethics is both practical and normative
spoken by Socrates at his trial for science.
introducing new gods and corrupting the • It is practical because it involves what
youth for which he was condemned to the ancient Greek calls πράξη (praxis) or
death by drinking the poison hemlock. action.
• We may all agree along with Socrates • In particular, ethics involves human
that a well-lived life demands that we actions.
examine life with seriousness and depth. • It is also normative because, unlike the
• So, we may ask, “what does it mean to natural sciences that purports to be
live a well-lived life?” or “what does living objective, ethics prescribes what is a
well mean?” moral act and what is not.
• All these questions demand that we • We can break down these two
examine our day-to-day decisions and categories of praxis and normativity into
actions and the way these actions, in different sub-categories and these are:
turn, affect our own lives and the lives of reason, freedom, responsibility, and
those who surround us. human agency.
• Ethics is the branch of philosophy that Reason
examines these simple yet complex
- human beings are unique because, as far
aspects of our lives in which we are
as we know, we are the only ones in the
called upon to make moral decisions
animal kingdom that are endowed with
that define our character as human
reason or rationality.
beings.
- precisely because we are able to perform
• Ethics is the branch of philosophy which
this capacity of self-awareness and
studies the moral of an action.
introspection, we are different (not more
• It comes from the Greek word ήθος
special) from other creatures.
(ethos) which means custom, usage or
- we can apprehend instinctively, though we
character.
are not immune to making a wrong
• It follows that ethics is defined or
judgement, what is beautiful and ugly and
understood as the set of rules, manners,
what is good or bad.
habits, and customs of a group or
- we are also able to examine our choices
community.
even before making those choices.
• These rules and norms define and set the
- in other words, we are able to project
parameters in which a community
ourselves into the future and decide what we
judges the rightness or wrongness of a
can be on the basis of our actions and
human action.
decisions.
• In a way, an ethical system of a given
community functions as a “rule book” by Freedom, and Responsibility
which every member of the community - throughout the history of philosophy,
must follow. philosophers are divided as to whether

Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A

 freedom is objective or a subjective creation Goodness
of the mind. - Christian thinkers have always presented
- however, what is for certain, is that it is that the human person is created in the
impossible to act without presupposing that image and likeness of God.
we are free. - it follows, then, that we are inherently good.
- this presupposed freedom, however, is Because of the human person’s nature as
always accompanied by responsibility. created in God’s image, human beings have
- if we are to attain the well-lived life of an innate goodness.
Socrates, then, there must be some level of - other thinkers affirm this such as the Chinese
accountability for our actions. philosopher Mencius and the modern
- primarily, accountability is our ability to political thinker Jean Jacques Rousseau.
correct our past mistakes we made in our - these philosophers argue that human
past decisions. beings are “originally” good only that society
- on the other hand, we are also, in more than and the introduction of property corrupted
one way, intertwined or interconnected with this inherent goodness.
our neighbors partly because we live in - it is only through education that we can
societies but also because we are creatures reclaim this primordial nature of ours.
that require interaction with one another. - it is the task, then, of ethics to point the
- we are not islands on our own and our human person in the right direction on how to
actions affect, in one or the other, the lives of become a good human being.
the people around us.
Happiness
- hence, we need to become responsible in
our freedom. - thinkers throughout history have suggested
- we cannot just use freedom for our own that the goal of human beings is to be happy.
sake. - Luminaries such as Aristotle, Epicurus, Saint
- we need to use it for the sake of others also. Thomas Aquinas and John Stuart Mill are just
- we need to use it the right way. some of the thinkers who looked at the
happiness of the human person as a goal of
Human Agency
our human actions.
- ethics involves not just actions but human - ethicists teach us, however, that happiness
actions. can only be attained through a good and
- it involves human agency--our capacity to moral life.
make a choice and act according to that - it follows, then, that to be happy is to live a
choice. moral and ethical life.
- hence, the object of ethics is human action
Humanity
or human agency.
- like any good science, it analyzes very - psychoanalyst Erich Fromm argued that
carefully what makes this object of study living an ethical life is an important aspect in
important and, in the case of ethics, what the preservation of humanity.
makes human actions good or bad, moral or - he tells us that only in the ethical platform
immoral. that we are able to attain virtues like faith,
justice and peace.
- the choices we make now will have ripple
The Value of Ethics
effects to the rest of the people around us. It
- importance or value of ethics may be
is imperative, then, that we make wise and
understood in the tripartite study of goodness,
ethical decisions if we want to achieve
happiness, and humanity.
harmony in our society.

Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A

 Types of Ethics & Ethics, and Morality these involve personal choice and volition from
- divided into two types, namely: Normative or first person point of view.
prescriptive ethics and descriptive or applied
ethics. MODULE 2
Normative, or Perspective Ethics
- type of ethics which determines what moral The Euthyphro Problem as the Foundation of
standards determine the rightness or the Divine Command Theory
wrongness of our actions.
- it prescribes how a person should act in • In answering the problem of the
society. Euthyphro dilemma, we begin to
- in this approach, the ethical principles serve encounter a philosophical impasse.
as our moral standard. • If we say that it is morally upright because
- usually, prescriptive ethics have either a God commands it, it implies that we
religious origin such as the Bible, or a non- have to obey God categorically even if
religious or purely humanistic ethics. God commanded us to inflict suffering
Descriptive, or Applied Ethics on others for fun.
• We would be obliged to do so because
- involves the factual investigation of moral
God commanded it. It follows, then, that
behavior. In a given society, these standards
since morality is based on God’s
are identifiable as they are embedded in
command, morality becomes arbitrary
cultural and religious practices.
and what is considered morally
- the task of an ethicist is to examine these
reprehensible becomes morally
existing ethical theories and identify valid or
obligatory.
correct ethical systems in an objective
• Theists or those who believe in God’s
manner.
existence tend to avoid this arbitrariness
- for example, a student of ethics may study
by arguing that God commands it
the morality or the ethical validity of
because it is morally right.
infanticide or child sacrifice in the ancient
• By this account, advocates of DCT avoid
world and how may look at this ancient
having to accept that inflicting suffering
practice from the point of view of ethics.
could be a morally right action.
• However, two new problems arise. (1) If
Ethics and Morality God commands an action because it is
- have always been used interchangeably for morally right, then morality no longer
different persons. depends on God as DCT maintains. By
- ethics is a moral philosophy which studies this account, God is no longer the
whether an action is good or bad. foundation of ethics. Furthermore, (2) it
- it also examines and analyzes moral issues and appears that God has become subject
investigates whether these issues are good or to an external moral law implying that
bad. God is no longer sovereign.
- morality, on the other hand, refers to human • Thus, DCT adherents face a dilemma:
actions which are done with knowledge, morality either rests on arbitrary
freedom and voluntariness. foundations or God is no longer the
- the morality of an action is usually judged by source of ethics and subject to an
the norm or standard of the society. external moral law.
- to differentiate, ethics is more theoretical and • Both undermine God’s attributes of
detached as it is a systematic study of the omnipotence (all-powerful) and
morality of human actions and behaviors while omniscience (all-knowing).
morality is more personal and subjective as

Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A

 St. Augustine of Hippo on Doctrine of Love • Only our love, writes Augustine, is our
direct participation in God in such a
• Saint Augustine of Hippo was a
manner that it is God whom we love in
philosopher and theologian who
creatures that reflect his goodness, truth,
became a key figure in the rise of
and beauty. Mahal kita, sapagkat
Christianity during the Medieval period.
nakikita ko sa iyo ang Diyos.
• His most famous works are Confessions
• Augustine was also a theologian;
and City of God.
naturally his thinking is molded very
• Most of his works focused on philosophy
largely by Christian tradition.
of the human person, apologetics, that
• This influence is manifested in the various
is, a rational defense of faith, and ethics.
categories he uses such as the concepts
• Central to St. Augustine’s philosophical
of sin, grace, and divine law.
ethics is the role of the human person
• However, he is also prepared to use
and his or her search for God, the Divine
philosophical concepts especially those
Truth.
of Plato in reading Christian writings
• Augustine tells us that God is the “unique
found in both the Old and the New
and perfect cause” that created all
Testaments.
things.
• He is, therefore, able to define
• God, therefore, permeates all of
“blessedness” in terms that make no
creation in its different forms.
reference solely to Christian thinking.
• If Augustine is right, even we are
• For instance, he says that human beings
permeated by God and we gravitate
are blessed when all of their actions are
toward that which created us.
in “harmony with reason and truth.”
• This Christian anthropology of Augustine
• Ethics lies at the center of Augustine’s
may be summarized in his famous
thoughts.
dictum, “Oh Lord, you have created for
• More than any theories that concern
yourself, and our hearts are restless until
him, it is morality that fills most of his
they rest in you.”
writings more than any discussions of
• It follows too that we naturally seek what
concepts and principles.
is true, good, and beautiful for these are
• At the heart of Augustine’s ethical
attributes or characteristics of God.
system, are the concepts of love, law,
• When we get a glimpse of these
and the moral order.
“transcendental” characteristics of God,
• The human person takes the center
we get a sense of fulfillment and
stage because human beings differ from
happiness.
other things in nature.
• All of creation for Augustine is replete
• According to Augustine, within the
with God’s grace and act.
human person lies complex desires and
• All creatures reflect God’s existence
drives.
including the persons around us.
• On the other hand, satisfaction, which is
• Though the created world can lead us to
the end of all desires, is distant and
God, it is not “equal” to God but only
scarcely realized.
“participates” in God’s creative act.
• The reason for this, Augustine tells us, is
• All creatures are mere analogies of the
the fact that these desires of ours have
qualities that God possesses.
been “disordered” and deprived of their
• Hence, we love things that are true,
“original harmony.”
good, and beautiful not because of their
• Augustine interpreted this aspect of the
own merit but only insofar as they reflect
human condition as a result of the sin of
God who is the Truth, Goodness, and
Adam and Eve.
Beauty.

Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A

 • Nevertheless, according to the good Augustine urges us to become like the
saint, we are not at the mercy of these spiritual human being who loves God.
conflicting forces. • By becoming a spiritual person, our
• To some degree, we are capable of actions will be directed towards
selecting among these desires, which to goodness with the inspiration of God’s
resist and which to follow. love.
• Augustine called this human capacity
“will,” and will is the one that endorses or Saint Thomas Aquinas on Divine Law
approves what we love or not.
• Love, therefore, is “neutral” only insofar • Saint Thomas Aquinas is considered as
as the will approves. the greatest intellectual figure of the
• Moreover, Augustine defined virtue as Medieval Age.
“rightly ordered love.” • Aquinas combined Aristotelian science
• Virtue, of course, consists in setting things and Augustinian theology into a
in their order of priority and making comprehensive system of thought that
choices according to their worth. later became the authoritative
• God, according to Augustine, is our philosophy of the Roman Catholic
ultimate end; then we choose and love Church.
what is good. • His major works are Summa Theologica
• This is our way to happiness and and Summa Contra Gentiles.
fulfillment. • Moreover, Aquinas wrote different works
• Augustine pointed out that being which tackled almost all branches of
Christians we can experience real philosophy.
happiness only with God because God is • In this lesson, we will focus on Aquinas’
the source of true love and true joy. typology of laws to understand his
• Sin and evil are a distortion of this love, a Christian ethics.
breach of order of some kind. • For Aquinas, there are four primary types
• The moral of Augustine’s philosophy is of law - the Eternal, Natural, Human and
that true happiness is not found in this Divine laws.
physical world of ours. 1. Eternal Law
• There are things in this world that are just - refers to the rational plan of God
there for a short time because they do by which all creation is ordered.
not mean to last. Because the Eternal is part of
• For example, your brand-new laptop, God’s “mind,” it has always
your iPhone, your books, your crush and existed, hence, the word eternal.
even your pets are just temporary. - and since God created the
• They just give you temporary happiness. universe, everything in it is subject
In the end, as Augustine would agree. to Eternal Law.
• God is the only reality that is permanent. - this being subject to God’s
• He is the one who leads us to eternal Eternal Law, Aquinas tells us, is
happiness. Wala sa katabi mo ang manifested by the fact that
forever, na kay God. everything has a purpose and
• Augustine tells us that there are two types follows a plan.
of human beings: material and spiritual. - he writes that everything has a
• The material human desires material τέλος (telos) or goal/end.
happiness and temporal peace. - and so, like Aristotle, Aquinas
• On the other hand, the spiritual person is believes that something is good in
a person who loves God, seeks a spiritual as far as it fulfills its goal or end. For
happiness and an eternal peace. example, a good student is one

Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A

 who studies and grows into a - these laws are those revealed by
mature member of society. God for us to follow such as the
- even though Eternal Law is Ten Commandments.
something we cannot - Aquinas believes that these laws
comprehend because we are not are unattainable neither by
like God, this law, Aquinas tells us, human laws nor by the Natural
is manifested in both Natural Law Law.
and Divine Law. - only God could have revealed
2. Natural Law these laws that are found in the
- Aquinas believes that if we act Bible and Christian Tradition.
according to reason, then we are
partaking, as it were, in the SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Natural Law whose origin is the
• In this module, we discussed the Divine
Eternal Law.
Command Theory. We answered the
- Aquinas tells us that if we act
question: “What is God’s role in our
according to our reason, then we
lives?” The answer that we got from this
agree to some “overarching
theory is that God is our Creator, source
principle” that is absolute and
of love and happiness, and basis of
binding.
morality. DCT has been evident to many
- furthermore, this principle is
individuals since religion has indubitably
shown in what Aquinas calls
influenced humanity. Moreover, we
“primary precepts.”
discussed that the question asked by
- these are preservation of life,
Socrates to Euthyphro is a good jump
reproduction and education of
start on understanding the connection of
offspring, knowledge and worship
God and morality. The revised question
of God, and living well in society.
“Does God command this particular
3. Human Law
action because it is morally right or is it
- Aquinas also introduces the idea
morally right because God commands
of “secondary precepts” which
it?” indicates that God has a role in
he calls Human Law.
morality. It shows that God’s commands
- these laws are created by
and preferences can be the guide to
governments, communities, and
one’s moral beliefs.
societies.
• We also discussed Saint Augustine of
- these laws might include such as
Hippo and Saint Thomas Aquinas. Saint
traffic law, civil obedience and
Augustine explained that God is the
the likes.
Divine Truth, source of happiness and
- it is not always acceptable to
ultimate end of a human person. It is our
follow these laws such as when
goal to know Him since He is the one who
governments fail to protect their
created us. Augustine proposed that the
people.
physical things around us are God’s
- only if these laws are consistent
manifestation in our world. Hence, we
with the Natural Law that we are
need to express love in them so that we
to obey them according to
can also experience God’s love. Also,
Aquinas.
Augustine accentuated that to reach
4. Divine Law
this goal, we must become a spiritual
- discovered in Revelation (found
human being who focuses on loving God
in both Scripture and Sacred
and seeking spiritual peace and eternal
Tradition).
happiness. On the other hand, Aquinas
talked about the Divine Law. Divine Law
Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A
 is discovered in Revelation (found in both - the concept of natural law reached its peak
Scripture and Sacred Tradition). These with St. Thomas Aquinas who systematically
laws are those revealed by God for us to incorporated it into Christian theology.
follow such as the Ten Commandments. - Aquinas’s synthesis of natural law with
Aquinas believes that these laws are theology was so influential that his position was
unattainable neither by human laws nor considered in the Medieval world as
by Natural Law. Only God could have paradigmatic.
revealed these laws that are found in the
Bible and Christian Tradition. Law
• Perhaps, one way to look at the
- Aquinas begins his discussion on natural law by
Euthyphro dilemma and overcome its
defining the nature of law in the Summa
impasse is to recognize that whatever is
Theologiae (hereafter referred to as ST) as “a
good comes from God alone. Therefore,
rule of acts, whereby man is induced to act or is
it is impossible to do good without God.
restrained from acting.”
We can do little things for our neighbors
- proper laws, however, writes Aquinas, must
such as lending a helping hand or being
aim towards the “general good.”
understanding, loving, and forgiving. The
- this general good, which is the goal of human
said virtues may seem human at first, but
life, is happiness.
they later make us realize that it is
- oftentimes, when we talk about the law,
impossible to exist in a metaphysical
lawyers and judges are the first ones whom we
world without God. A world without God
think of.
is a world of selfishness and survival of the
- we usually think of the Supreme Court or our
fittest. Perhaps we should not separate
judicial system.
God from being good and loving our
- we usually think that laws are commands and
neighbor. As John the Evangelist puts it,
obligations that we need to follow to live
“Everyone who loves has been born of
peacefully in our society.
God and knows God. Whoever does not
- however, laws, Aquinas tells us, are rational
love does not know God, because God
principles which direct us towards our end--our
is love” (1 John 4).
happiness.
- this means that laws help us fulfil our own
MODULE 3 nature.
- it is a guide, like a teacher, for us to reach our
Saint Thomas Aquinas on Law end.
- in Aquinas’ reading, then, law is like a ruler that
Saint Thomas Aquinas and Natural Law guides, for example, a line to be straight.
- we need a guide to keep walking in the path
- Saint Thomas Aquinas (1255-1274) was a well-
of a moral life and fulfil our nature as created
known Dominican priest, Christian philosopher
beings for happiness.
and spiritual theologian.
- he was influenced by Aristotle, Averroes, and
Aquinas’ Typology of Laws
Maimonides and incorporated their works to his
philosophy and theology.
- he was considered at that time a radical Four Types of Law
thinker. • Aquinas distinguishes among four types
- after his death, he was subsequently of law. (1) Eternal law is Aquinas’
condemned but later canonized as a saint of concept of how things have been
the Catholic Church. intended by God. In Aquinas’ mind, this
idea of how things should be, has the
“nature of law.” The (2) natural law, on

Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A

 the other hand, is the way in which • Finally, Aquinas believes that (4) human
human beings, as rational creatures, are law relies on natural law for its justification
positioned within this order of things, and authority. What he means by this is
directed toward fulfilling their nature in that while human law may add various
the order God created. Aquinas writes: requirements in specifics such as taxation
"Wherefore, since all things subject to and other civil regulations, it may not
Divine providence are ruled and “subtract” from the primary principles of
measured by the eternal law… it is natural law. These principles are
evident that all things partake somewhat expressed as follows, “good is to be done
of the eternal law, insofar as, namely, and pursued, and evil is to be avoided”
from its being imprinted on them, they (ST, [Link]). Aquinas, then, develops
derive their respective inclinations to from these principles other precepts,
their proper acts and ends. Now, among including the duty of self-preservation,
all others, the rational creature is subject procreation and education of offspring,
to Divine providence in the most seeking knowledge of God, living in
excellent way.… Wherefore it has a share society, and avoiding offending others.
of the Eternal Reason, whereby it has a Human laws, therefore, are subject to a
natural inclination to its proper act and comparative test with natural law for
end: and this participation of the eternal their justification and authority. If they
law in the rational creature is called the conflict with natural law, they are not just,
natural law.… It is therefore evident that and not true law. Aquinas writes:
the natural law is nothing else than the "Now in human affairs a thing is said to be
rational creature’s participation in the just, from being right, according to the
eternal law (ST, [Link])." rule of reason. But the first rule of reason
• Then Aquinas adds the category (3) is the law of nature, as is clear from what
divine law. Since the eternal law is the has been stated above. …
expression of the eternal mind of God, Consequently, every human law has just
Aquinas tells us that it is unknowable. so much of the nature of law, as it is
However, because of God’s goodness, it derived from the law of nature. But if in
was deemed that this law be revealed any point it deflects from the law of
through natural law and divine law. We nature, it is no longer a law but a
discussed that natural law is a perversion of law (ST, [Link])."
participation in the eternal of God • Human laws, then, must be made
through our rationality. Divine law, on the through a conscious effort of the
other hand, is a law that is found not in lawmakers that they be in line with
the natural order of things, but in Sacred natural law and for the common good.
Scripture and Sacred Tradition of the In our country, the most evident example
Church. In the Bible, we find God’s Ten is the 1987 Constitution. In its preamble, it
Commandments as well as the New implores the aid of God “in order to build
Commandment to love one’s neighbor a just and humane society and establish
and love God with all one’s heart. All a Government that shall embody our
these laws, Aquinas tells us, are laws ideals and aspirations, promote the
revealed to us by God that could not common good, conserve and develop
have been discovered by our sheer our patrimony, and secure to ourselves
rationality. They needed to be revealed and our posterity the blessings of
to us by God. Hence, they are called independence and democracy under
“revealed truths” in the Christian the rule of law and a regime of truth,
language. justice, freedom, love, equality, and

Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A

 peace, do ordain and promulgate this - yet, the tradition of the Church is monogamy.
Constitution.” How do we decide this question?
- Aquinas argues that marriage has the primary
Primary and Secondary Principles end of producing and raising children, but also
a secondary end of social function within the
- as Aquinas sees it, natural law is the way in community:
which human beings participate in the eternal "Accordingly, plurality of wives neither wholly
law by fulfilling their natural ends. destroys nor in any way hinders the first end of
- Aquinas also believes that the natural law is marriage, since one man is sufficient to get
“imprinted” on us so that we have certain children of several wives. … But though it does
inclinations or tendencies toward our ends. not destroy the second end, it hinders it
- it is our rational capacity that guides us to that considerably for there cannot be peace in a
end by choosing to follow these imprinted family where several wives are joined to one
inclinations. husband, since one husband cannot suffice to
- natural law, then, is objective, grounded on satisfy the requisitions of several wives… (ST,
human nature, and dependent on God as its 3.65.1)."
ultimate source. - thus, in Aquinas’ reading of natural law,
- however, there is no simplistic expression of conjugal act, that is, the sexual union between
natural law. the man and the woman, without the intention
- for instance, the question of whether the of producing children may never be permitted
natural law may be changed, Aquinas but a plurality of wives might be permitted if the
distinguishes between adding to and material resources of the husband and culture
subtracting from the requirements of natural made it workable.
law and also between primary and secondary - it is important that we take into account the
principles of natural law. commandment of the Bible that men may only
- adding to what the natural law requires, take one wife as their partner for life indicates
Aquinas writes, is not a problem “since many the primacy of the divine law over the natural
things for the benefit of human life have been law.
added over and above the natural law, both
by the Divine law and human laws” (ST, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
[Link]).
• In this module we discussed the concept
- subtracting from the natural law, however,
of natural law as St. Thomas Aquinas
depends on what level of principle we are
understood it.
considering.
• Although the history of natural law goes
- the primary principles, such as the precept of
back to ancient times, it was Aquinas
pursuing good and avoiding evil and the
who systematized it and incorporated it
precepts of self-preservation, and so on, cannot
to Christian theology.
be changed.
• Since then, the Thomistic interpretation of
- the secondary principles, however, may be
natural law influenced international laws
changed in some particular cases.
particularly Human Rights reflection.
- this added complexity demands that it is
Furthermore, we learned that there are
incumbent upon people, especially law
four laws as Aquinas understood it.
makers, to use their reason to determine what is
• Eternal law emanates from the mind of
and is not permissible according to the
God and is unknowable to us.
secondary principles.
• The Eternal law of God may be found in
- let us take, as an example, the pursuit of
both the natural and divine laws.
procreation. It might seem natural, as indicated
• The natural law is discovered by reason
by various cultures, for men to have multiple
and our end or goal, which is ultimately
wives.
our happiness, is to follow this law
Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A
 manifested in the principles of the • In 1779, he was appointed chair of logic
preservation of life and avoidance of and metaphysics in the same university.
evil. • On February 12, 1804, just short of his 80th
• These precepts may never be changed birthday, he died.
as they are objective and universal. • Kant influenced different philosophers
Divine law, on the other hand, are laws who followed him.
found in both the Bible and the Sacred • His works on epistemology, ethics,
Tradition. aesthetics, and philosophy of religion
• They are laws that human reason cannot were influential to the rise of German
possibly discover, hence, can only be Idealism.
revealed by God. • His legacy was greatly appreciated by
• Lastly, we discussed human laws which his peers and successors and regarded
ideally are supposed to conform to him as one of the greatest philosophers
natural laws. who lived.
• When human laws are in perfect • Kant’s most famous works are the
harmony with natural law, we are Critique of Pure Reason (1781), the
required to follow them. Critique of Practical Reason (1788), and
• If they are not, we are required to dissent the Critique of Judgment (1790).
and, in some cases, to revolt against • Kant’s philosophy seeks to answer three
them. fundamental questions: “What can I
• Lastly, we discussed primary and know?” “What I ought to do?” and
secondary principles of natural law. “What can I hope for?”.
• Primary principles may never be • These three questions correspond to
changed while secondary principles can each major branch of philosophy during
be changed in some cases. Kant’s time, namely, epistemology which
deals with the nature of knowledge,
MODULE 4 ethics or moral philosophy, and
philosophy of religion.
• Unlike the Divine Command Theory and
Kantian Deontology
the natural law ethics, Kantian ethics
does not make God as the basis or
Deontology foundation of morality.
- ethical theory which implies that our actions • Nor does it assume that there is a
are to be determined, whether good or bad, universal principle of morality as the
according to a set of rules or moral duties. natural law ethics believes.
- came from the Greek word Ντέον (deon) • Instead, Kant believes that there is a pure
which means “necessary” or “duty.” a priori that is independent of
- also called duty ethics. experience or divine influence, ethics of
- Immanuel Kant is said to be the main duty.
proponent of this ethical system. • The categorical imperative is his ultimate
moral rule founded on the human
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) person’s sheer rationality and autonomy.
• German philosopher Immanuel Kant was
born on April 22, 1724, in Konigsberg, Kant’s Fundamental Principles
Prussia. • Kant writes in the Fundamental Principles
• As a student, he went to the University of of the Metaphysics of Morals (1797), that
Konigsberg, and obtained his bachelor he seeks a single and universal law of
and post-graduate degrees. moral action that is neither dictated by
some universal moral principle as in the
Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A
 case of natural law nor some divine • In other words, we must do what is right
reality as in the case of the Divine because it is the right action and not for
Command Theory. any other reason or end.
• Instead, what Kant seeks to establish is a • We must act not according to duty but
moral system dictated by reason alone. from or because of duty.
• In Kant’s ethical system, consequences
Criteria for Ethical Judgments are morally irrelevant because we
• When Kant stated that two things fill our cannot judge the morality of an act
mind, the “starry heavens above me and based on its consequences or ends.
the moral law within me,” he was
referring to the innate human tendency Reason
to inquire about the nature of reality and
• Kant believed that other moral
morality.
principles, such as Aristotle’s ευδαιµονία
• More importantly, Kant suggests that
(eudaimonia) or Mills’ utilitarianism, were
ethical judgment can be found solely
not fundamental enough and not
within the human person with no external
immune to moral wrong.
factors that dictate our understanding of
• Instead, the ultimate moral law must be
the moral law.
derived from reason alone—not from
• He enumerates reason, good will, and
God nor from any ends such as
duty as the criteria for his proposed
happiness, love, or utility.
ethical system.
• Instead, Kant proposes that human
• Kant writes, “there is no possibility of
beings derive their moral principle from
thinking of anything at all in the world, or
rationality alone, independent of divine
even out of it, which can be regarded as
law, or natural law, and any empirical
good without qualification, except a
conditions.
good will.”
• By our sheer rationality, we can make
• What Kant means by this statement is
rules of morality and judge whether our
that no object or end is intrinsically and
acts are moral or not based on the rules
universally good.
we make.
• Things we normally consider as good in
• It follows, therefore, that since our action
themselves such as happiness, love, or
is not based on any conditions, it must be
health are compatible with moral wrong.
abstract and capable of being applied
In other words, these objects of morality
anywhere and anytime, like a
can be corrupted.
mathematical formula that can be
• According to Kant, we can love, desire
replaced by numerical equivalence.
to be happy or healthy all for the wrong
• Hence, it is not love, as Christian believers
reasons. Even belief in God, for Kant,
would argue, as the greatest of all virtue
cannot serve as the basis of morality for
or the highest of all moral acts.
we can believe in God for the wrong
• Rather, it is our ability to subject ourselves
reasons.
to a rule.
• History is replete of people who did
atrocious acts all in the name of God. If
what is morally right cannot be Good Will
understood in terms of these ends, what, • Kant’s work the Ground of the
then, can serve as the foundation of Metaphysics of Morals opens with the
morality that is immune to moral wrong? most quoted line, “It is impossible to think
Kant believes that morality is the of anything at all in the world, or indeed
conformity of act to a rule. even beyond it, that could be

Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A

 considered good without limitation consequences of not perfecting your
except a good will.” quiz, you are tempted to cheat.
• Kant would agree that the concept of a • However, because of your good will, you
good will is a necessary implication of a studied hard and took the test banking
morality that is unconditioned, that is, a on what you learned and reviewed. You
moral system not anchored on some took the quiz honestly and did not
divine reality or objective morality as in succumb to cheating.
the case of the Divine Command Theory • In the example above, we can see that
and natural law ethics. the decision made was the right thing to
• Only in a moral system where the sole act do.
of being moral serves as the foundation • This situation simply shows that good will
of morality independent of any external does not help a person look at the
conditions can a good without limitation, consequences of his or her actions but
the good will, be understood. the motive that doing good is the right
• The rest simply do not count. thing to do.
• For instance, the concept of power is • Hence, preparing for a test instead of
good only insofar as it is wielded not for cheating is an act of good will; the
selfish purposes or for the use of evil. Or, decision to review is moral because
as in the case of love, it can serve as the doing so respects the moral rules which is
foundation of morality only if it is unselfish simply choosing what is right.
and sacrificial. • The example above tells us that actions
• After all, we can love for the wrong must not be motivated by
reasons. consequences but by simply doing our
• Only in a moral system that is duty.
unconditioned can the concept of a • Hence, good will is a will that urges us to
good will thrive because only in the do what is good because it is our duty to
concept of a good will can we anchor conform to moral laws.
moral acts without qualification,
meaning that we are able to act with no Duty
other ulterior motives other than to will
• Kant believes that good will is
the good for others.
determined by the demands of the
• In other words, a good will is a will that is
moral law.
good in and of itself.
• Kant states, “Unmixed with the alien
• Kant tells us that actions must not be
element of added empirical
motivated by consequences but by
inducements, the pure thought of duty,
simply our desire to do our duty.
and in general of the moral law, has by
• Hence, good will is a will that urges us to
way of reason alone an influence on the
do what is good because it is our duty to
human heart.”
conform to moral laws.
• What Kant suggests is that our moral
• Honestly, we know that we do not always
obligations come in the form of duty to
act because of our good will.
do the right thing.
• Sometimes, we act because of our selfish
• As we soon realize that the only good
desires.
without limitation or qualification is the
• However, Kant tells us that good will is the
good will, we also learn that good will
only way to be moral.
can only be expressed in the form of duty
• For example, you are failing in a subject
if morality is to be unconditioned and
and you need to get a perfect score in
independent of any external influence.
your last quiz for you to pass. Knowing the
• Simply, we do good not because it is
convenient or not because we are afraid
Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A
 of the punishment if we do not do so. Categorical Imperative
Rather, we do good simply because it is
the right thing to do. Hypothetical, and Categorical Imperatives
• Moreover, you act not because you
• Kant conceives of human agency, that
want to but because you have to.
is, human actions, in terms of the
Minsan may mga bagay na
interaction of three faculties of the mind,
napakahirap gawin dahil labag sa loob
namely, reason, desire, and will.
natin pero kailangan gawin dahil ito ang
• The interaction among the three
tama. Hence, a person acting in
faculties results in two kinds of
accordance with duty is not motivated
“imperatives,” or rules that we give
by any other factors. This person is simply
ourselves.
motivated by the sole intention of doing
• The first imperative is guided by our
what is right because this is what the
inclination or desire which Kant calls the
moral law demands.
natural or animal part of us. Kant terms
For example, you are a tricycle driver and you
this the hypothetical imperative.
hit a luxury car in a rotonda or a roundabout.
Hypothetical imperative
Since you are a tricycle driver, your initial
- a command of reason in which we do
response is that you do not have enough
an act because we can get something
money to pay for the damage that you caused.
in return for doing so.
• By looking at the owner of the car, you
- it is a conditional command.
thought of driving away since you think
- for example, a person works hard
that that person has a lot of money
because s/he wants to become rich.
because he drives a luxury car. However,
• The second imperative is guided by
because you know that the right thing to
reason which gives us laws and the belief
do is to stop and converse with the driver,
that the morality of our acts depends on
you did not run away. While talking with
these laws. Kant calls this the categorical
each other, the driver of the car said that
imperative.
he understood your situation and would
Categorical Imperative
let you pay a little amount. He did not
- a person does not look at the possible
cause you any further harm since he did
consequences or rewards in his or her
not charge you with a huge amount of
action.
money nor sue you for hit and run. After
- rather, s/he does something because it
your conversation, you both settled and
is an absolute command which tells him
went home with relief.
or her to always choose what is right.
• What lesson can we get in this situation?
- The means do not justify the ends.
• How is this? The Categorical Imperative
- If you drive away to not be caught, you • Kant suggests that there is only one
do not do the right thing. In this situation categorical imperative: act so that you
of conversing with the driver, you did can will the maxim of your act to be
your moral duty and complied with the universal law.
moral demands. • A person can act only as s/he would all
• In brief, acting in accordance with duty others to. This moral formula may sound
urges us to obey the moral law even if it abstract.
is not what we want. We just simply do • As a matter of fact, it is, because it is the
our moral duty because it is the right product of reason alone. If reason alone
thing to do. There must not be any other dictates the moral law, then, it must be
intentions or qualifications. Simply, we do universal, unaffected by any desire or
what is right. inclination.

Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A

 • It is as if Kant is telling us that there is no need to be good simply because we
specific moral rule as such but that we fear God’s punishment or we await some
must act according to a rule of reason. kind of reward or recognition but simply
• This universalizability of the categorical because being good is just part of being
imperative is one way to state the human.
categorical imperative.
• The other two is to act so as to treat
rational beings as ends in themselves
and never as means and to act only in
accord with the intention that every
human being has a will that is self-
legislating; that is, every human being
has the autonomy or freedom to create
his or her own rules of morality.
• Finally, Kant tells us that if we act in
conformity with one of these
formulations, we obey all of them.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

• In this module, we veered away from
ethical systems based on God and the
natural law. Instead, we introduced an
ethical system that is solely humanistic
and based on mere duty.
• Such an ethics, known as deontology,
implies that all our moral actions are
anchored on the fact that it is simply right
to do the right thing not because of any
impending punishment or reward. The
consequences of Kantian ethics are
enormous both in Kant’s time and our
town time.
• In Kant’s time, he was able to personalize
and subjectivize morality, severing it from
any moral authority, such as religion and
society, and relegating it to the individual
person by the merit of his or her freedom
and dignity not be treated as means but
as an end.
• Kant’s ideas also affected our own way
of thinking particularly in the realm of
human rights reflections in that we saw
human beings as deserving of dignity or
respect not on the merits of their deeds
but simply because of being a human
being.
• Perhaps the most important lesson that
we may draw from Immanuel Kant’s
radical take on ethics is that we do not
Tranate, Sophie A. BSMT 2 - A