APPLIED CHEMISTRY FOR EEE STREAM
MODULE-2
ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS
Batteries: Introduction, classification of batteries. Components, construction, working and
applications of modern batteries; Na-ion battery, solid state battery (Li-polymer battery)
and flow battery (Vanadium redox flow battery). Fuel Cells: Introduction, construction,
working and applications of methanol–oxygen and polymer electrolyte membrane
(PEM)fuel cell. Solar Energy: Introduction, importance of solar PV cell, construction and
working of solar PV cell, advantages and disadvantages.
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Self-learning: Electrodes for electrostatic double layer capacitors, pseudo-capacitors,and
hybrid capacitor.
Definition: Battery is a device that consists of two or more galvanic cells connected in
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series or parallel or both, which converts chemical energy into electrical energy through
redox reactions.
Example: Zn – Air battery, Lead-acid battery, Lithium batteries, etc.
Basic components of a battery:
A battery consists of four major components. They are anode, cathode, electrolyte and
e.
separator as shown in the figure.
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1. Anode: An electrode at the surface of which oxidation takes place. It releases electrons
into the external circuit by undergoing oxidation. It is a negative electrode.
Mn+ + ne- ↔ M
It contains active materials which spontaneously take part in the oxidation reaction. To
become effective anode, anodic material should possess the following properties.
2. Cathode: An electrode at the surface of which reduction takes place. It accepts
electrons from anode through an external circuit. Reduction of active species occurs at
cathode. It is a positive electrode.
Mn+ + ne– ↔ M
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It contains active materials which spontaneously take part in the reduction reaction.
3. Electrolyte: It provides medium for migration of ions inside the battery between
anode and cathode leading to the generation of electricity. It is the active mass in the
anodic and cathodic compartments in the form of a solution or a slurry of an acid,
alkali.
4. Separator: It is used to isolate anode and cathode in a battery to prevent internal short
circuiting. It is permeable to ions but does not conduct electrons. It transports ions from
anode to cathode and vice versa. Fibrous forms of regenerated cellulose, vinyl polymers,
polyolefins, Nafion are commonly used as separators.
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CLASSIFICATION OF BATTERIES
Batteries are broadly classified into three categories:
1. Primary Batteries: In primary batteries, the chemical energy is converted into
electrical energy as long as the chemical components are active. In these batteries, the
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reaction occurs only once and after that they have to be discarded. These batteries
cannot be recharged as the chemical reactions which occur within the primary batteries
are irreversible.
2. Examples: Zn – air battery, Dry cell, Li – MnO2 battery, etc.
e.
3. Secondary Batteries/Storage Batteries: Secondary batteries are those which after
discharging can be recharged. In these batteries chemical reactions taking place are
reversible. The redox reaction which converts chemical energy into electrical energy can
be reversed by passage of current.
Examples: Lead storage battery, Ni-Cd battery, Ni-MH battery, Lithium ion
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battery, etc.
4. Reserve Batteries: In these batteries one of the components is isolated and
incorporated into the battery when required. Usually, electrolyte is the component that is
isolated, but some water activated batteries contain the electrolyte solute and only
water is added for activation.
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Examples: Mg batteries activated by water (Mg – AgCl and Mg – CuCl), Zn – Ag2O batteries,
etc.)
SOLID STATE BATTERY (LITHIUM-POLYMER BATTERY
Introduction:
Lithium is the lightest of metals and it is a highly reactive material. The electrochemical
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properties of lithium are excellent. These properties give the potential to achieve very high
energy and power densities in high-density battery applications such as automotive and
standby power.
Composition of the battery:
Reactive species at anode : graphite
Reactive species at cathode : LiCoO2
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Electrolyte :Polyethylene Oxide,PMMA
Separator : Polypropylene
Output Voltage : 3.6V
Construction:
Anode is made of carbon material (graphite) with a high energy density and large
doping capacity of lithium ion.
Cathodes are metal oxide material containing lithium with capable of dedoping
lithium ion during charging and undergo lithium doping during discharging
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Electrolyte is Polyethylene Oxide,PMMA
Separator used is polypropylene.
The output voltage of this battery is 3.6V.
Working of LIB:
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During charging lithium ions in cathodic side (positive electrode) is migrated and move
towards anodic side (negative electrode)
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂 → 𝐿𝑖( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + 𝑥𝑒
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + 𝑥𝑒 + 6𝐶 → 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶
e.
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 6𝐶 ↔ 𝐿𝑖( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶
During discharging lithium ions move from anode to cathode.
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶 → 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + 𝑥𝑒 + 6𝐶
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + 𝑥𝑒 → 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂
dg
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶 → 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 6𝐶
Applications
The Li - ion batteries are used in mobile phones, cameras, calculators, LCD TVs, pagers, to
operate laptop computers, in aerospace applications.
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SODIUM-ION BATTERY (SIB)
Composition of the battery:
Reactive species at anode : Carbon
Reactive species at cathode : NaCoO2
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Electrolyte : Ethylene carbonates
(EC),
Diethyl carbonate
(DEC)
Separator : Polypropylene
Output Voltage : 1.85 to 3.45 V.
Working of SIB:
During charging sodium ions in cathodic side (positive electrode) is migrated and
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move towards anodic side (negative electrode)
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑜𝑂 → 𝑁𝑎( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 𝑥𝑁𝑎 + 𝑥𝑒
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝑁𝑎 + 𝑥𝑒 + 6𝐶 → 𝑥𝑁𝑎𝐶
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 6𝐶 ↔ 𝑁𝑎( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 𝑥𝑁𝑎𝐶
During discharging sodium ions move from anode to cathode.
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝑁𝑎𝐶 → 𝑥𝑁𝑎 + 𝑥𝑒 + 6𝐶
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑁𝑎( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 𝑥𝑁𝑎 + 𝑥𝑒 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑜𝑂
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑁𝑎( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 𝑥𝑁𝑎𝐶 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑜𝑂 + 6𝐶
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Advantages of SIB:
Rechargeable sodium ion for energy storage.
Easier to recycle
Low market prices
Capable of working at room temperature, good efficiency.
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Disadvantages of SIB:
Large ionic size Na+ which require more power to keep energy flowing.
It takes seven days to charge in case you forget to charge it.
Lower operating voltage.
Need high temperature for optimal work
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Applications:
Used in cellular phones and laptops.
In electric vehicles and power tools.
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FLOW BATTERY
In a battery, the electrolyte is the medium through which electrons can travel between the
cathode and anode. In a flow battery, the anode and cathode themselves are electrolyte
solutions.
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A flow battery, or redox flow battery (after reduction–oxidation), is a type of
electrochemical cell where chemical energy is provided by two chemical components
dissolved in liquids that are pumped through the system on separate sides of a
membrane.
OR
A redox flow battery is a type of electrochemical cell in which the chemical energy
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of a reversible redox couple reaction is converted into electrical energy.
Vanadium redox flow battery
Composition of the battery:
Anode : Carbon based material (Graphite)
Cathode : Carbon based material (Graphite)
Electrolyte : Vanadium salt dissolved in sulphuric Acid
Separator : Perfluorinated sulphonic acid (Proton exchange membrane)
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Anodic Electrolyte :V /V in Sulphuric acid is circulated over anode electrode
Cathodic Electrolyte : VO /VO in Sulphuric acid is circulated over cathode electrode
Construction:
Electrodes: Both the electrodes are carbon based.
Electrolyte: Both electrolytes are vanadium-based. The electrolyte in the negative half-cells
consists of V3+ and V2+ ions, While the electrolyte in the positive half-cells contains VO2+
(VO5+) and VO2+(VO4+) ions.
Membrane: The most common membrane material is perfluorinated sulfonic acid (PFSA)
(Nafion).
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e.
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Cell potential: 1.4-1.6 V
Working:
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Cell reactions:
During Discharging
Anode: V →V +e
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Cathode ∶ VO + 2H + e → VO +H O
Over all reaction ∶ V + VO + 2H →V + VO +H O
During Charging
Cathode ∶ VO + H O → VO + 2H + e
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Anode: V +e →V
Over all reaction ∶ V + VO +H O →V + VO + 2H
Advantages:
Long charge-discharge cycle
Safe, non-flammable aqueous electrolyte
Wide operating temperature range
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Good shelf life
Low maintenance
Can remain discharged indefinitely without damage
Disadvantages:
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Relatively poor energy-to-volume ratio compared to standard storage batteries
High weight of aqueous electrolyte
Relatively high toxicity of oxides of vanadium
Applications: Battery can be used in utility-scale energy storage projects, micro grids,
grid smoothing, backup power and in remote and off-grid power applications.
e.
FUEL CELLS
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Definition: Fuel cells are galvanic cells which converts chemical energy of the
fuels into electrical energy through catalyzed redox reactions with elimination
of minimum harmful biproducts
At anode, 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 → 𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 + 𝑛𝑒
At cathode, Oxidant Oxidant + ne → 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
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Advantages:
• They offer high energy conversions.
• They produce energy as long as fuel and oxidant are supplied.
• Silent operation.
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• They are eco-friendly as the products of the overall reactions are non-toxic.
• No need of charging.
Limitations/Disadvantages:
• The electrodes used are Pt, Ag or the alloys of noble metals which are costly. Hence
cost of the power is high.
• Fuels and oxidant need to be stored in tanks under high pressure.
• Power output by a single unit is moderate.
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• These are only energy conversion devices and not energy storage devices.
How fuels cells are different from batteries?
Conventional Batteries Fuel
Cells
1. Batteries are energy storage devices. Fuel cells are energy conversion
devices.
2. Secondary batteries need charging. Fuel cells do not need charging.
They are not chargeable in
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conventional manner.
3. The reactants and products form Reactants are continuously
an integral part of batteries. supplied and the products are
constantly removed.
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4. Waste products in a battery may be Waste products in a fuel cell are
harmful (Less eco-friendly). harmless (More eco-friendly).
METHANOL-OXYGEN FUEL CELL
Composition:
e.
Fuel : CH3OH,
Oxidant : Oxygen
Electrolyte : H2SO4,
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Voltage : 1.2V
CONSTRUCTION:
It consists of anodic and cathodic
compartments.
Both the compartments contain
platinum electrodes.
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Methanol containing H2SO4 is passed through anodic compartment and oxygen is
passed through cathodic compartment.
Sulphuric acid is used as electrolyte
A membrane made of cellulose is provided which prevents the diffusion of methanol
into the cathode.
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The output voltage is 1.2V.
Working:
Reactions:
At Anode: C𝐻 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂 + 6𝐻 + 6𝑒
3
𝐴𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒: 𝑂 + 6𝐻 + 6𝑒 → 3𝐻 𝑂
2
3
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝐻 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂 + 2𝐻 𝑂
2
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Advantages of Methanol-Oxygen Fuel Cell
Stable at all atmospheric conditions.
CO2, a product of the reaction can be easily removed.
Easy handling.
Methanol has low carbon content.
The –OH group is readily oxidizable.
Application:
Used in military applications
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Large-scale power productions.
Polymer electrolyte fuel cell:
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Polymer electrolyte fuel cells are electrochemical devices, converting the chemical energy of
fuel directly into electrical energy. Their working principle is based on the anode-oxidation
of hydrogen (fuel) to protons, and the reduction of oxygen to water at the cathode. These
use a proton-conducting polymer membrane as the electrolyte. Hydrogen is typically used
as the fuel. These cells operate at relatively low temperatures and can quickly vary their
output to meet shifting power demands.
e.
COMPOSITION:
Fuel: Pure hydrogen, Methanol, Ethanol, etc.
Oxidant: Pure air or O2
dg
Electrodes: Both the electrodes are carbon based coated with platinum catalyst
Electrolyte: Proton exchange membrane such as Perfluorinated sulfonic acid (Nafion)
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It consists of anodic and cathodic compartments.
Both the compartments contain platinum electrodes.
Pure hydrogen is passed through anodic compartment and oxygen is passed
through cathodic compartment.
Perfluorinated sulfonic acid used as electrolyte
WORKING:
Cell reactions:
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𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝐻 → 2𝐻 + 2𝑒
1
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝑂 + 2𝐻 + 2𝑒 → 𝐻 𝑂
2
1
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐻 + 𝑂 → 𝐻 O
2
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Applications: They can be used as power sources in electric vehicles, portable and
stationary applications in hospitals, hotels.
SOLAR ENERGY
e.
Photovoltaic cells or solar cells are semiconductor devices that convert sunlight into direct
current. As long as light is shining on the solar cell, it generates electrical power. When the
light stops, electricity stops.
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Construction And Working Of Photovoltaic Cell
Construction:
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Construction:
The device consists of p-n junction diode coated with anti-reflective layer (TiO2) at
the top.
Two electrical contacts are provided, one in the form of metallic grid at the top of the
junction and the other is a silver layer at the bottom of the cell.
The antireflective layer coated in between the metallic grids which allow light to fall
on the semiconductor.
Working:
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The photons of solar radiations enter n-type semiconductor breaks barrier potential
and moves to p-type semiconductor where photons knock the electrons in p type to
form electron hole pair.
The free electrons so formed will travels through the circuit from n-type and
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recombines with holes again in p-region.
The movement of electrons from n type to p type generates electric current. The
electrical energy produced from the solar cell is used for various applications
Advantages of PV cells:
Eco friendly energy conversion device.
e.
Do not undergo corrode
No moving parts in PV cell, hence no wear and tear.
Disadvantages of PV cells:
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Installation cost is high.
Produced only during the day time.
It generates only DC current.
Applications:
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Used in toys, watches, remote lighting systems
Used in water pumping, water treatment.
Used in emergency power, satellites. Etc.
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