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The Utrecht Homesickness Scale: Background, Questionnaire and Guidelines

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 < Unpublished Report >

The Utrecht Homesickness Scale:

Background, Questionnaire and Guidelines
Margaret S. Stroebe
[email protected]
Department of Clinical Psychology & Experimental Psychopathology,
University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
Wolfgang Stroebe
[email protected]
Department of Social & Organizational Psychology,
University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
Henk Schut
[email protected]
Department of Clinical Psychology,
University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Corresponding author:
Margaret Stroebe, M.S. (Margaret) [email protected]
 Abstract
This brief report presents the Utrecht Homesickness Scale (UHS), providing background

knowledge as well as the scale itself for accessibility by researchers, students and health

care professionals. A definition of the homesickness concept, key references for further

information and sources giving practical guidance for cases of homesickness are included.

The procedure and rationale for the original scale development and its application as an

instrument for assessing the intensity of experienced homesickness are described and the

20 items selected in the final, frequently-used UHS scale are detailed, as well as the scoring

key. Information on validation of the UHS is given. Frequent questions about UHS usage are

listed and addressed, notably, those about copyright and citing the UHS. Key issues for

future research and its practical application are outlined. The underlying objective in UHS

research is to contribute to better assessment and understanding of homesickness

worldwide; existing cross-cultural applications are referenced.

Keywords: homesickness; separation; questionnaire; migration; illhealth

 1. Background to the development of the UHS

It is important to have accurate ways to measure homesickness (HS), because it can

be a distressing and debilitating experience for those who have left home, sometimes

with no forewarning of the suffering that such separation will involve (for review:

Stroebe et al. 2015). Assessment of intensity helps establish whether manifestations are

mild and therefore even potentially formative (e.g., among children) or extreme and of

possible clinical concern (e.g., there may be question of an associated separation anxiety

disorder). HS occurs among many different subgroups, including hospitalized children;

migrants; refugees, expatriates; soldiers; seamen; monastic novitiates.

The Utrecht Homesickness Scale (UHS) was developed by van Vliet and colleagues as

part of a doctoral thesis (van Vliet, 2001)1. It was designed to fill a gap in HS

measurement, to provide an instrument to ascertain the extent of experienced HS

among persons who have left their homes, either temporarily or permanently. As such, it

enables administration among broader samples than the predominantly boarding school

or college students of earlier investigations.

UHS items were selected to reflect key concepts put forward in major theories

(attachment; cognitive stress theory), covering the themes of perceived loss of support

figures on the one hand (i.e., attachment and community), as well as perceived increase

in situational demands, ineffective coping (e.g., rumination) and consequent emotional

state (e.g., loneliness), on the other hand.

1
The thesis is available via Google Scholar as a PDF: TUDelft.NL. All three of the authors of the current article
have been involved as (co)promotors/co-authors in research relating to the UHS. Van Vliet has retired from
academic work but his contribution is gratefully acknowledged here.
 The questionnaire has not been separately published, but demand has been high

among researchers and students wanting to use the scale – requests have come from

those who are involved in conducting studies on a variety of samples and associated

topics, across various countries of the world. Thus, the aim of this article is to make the

UHS easily accessible and to provide basic information about it.

2. The UHS Questionnaire: Noteworthy Points

UHS. The original version from which the UHS was derived is presented in its entirety
below. This longer questionnaire was shortened on the basis of factor analysis and
reliabilities (see van Vliet, 2001). While most empirical investigations use the UHS (20
items), a few have derived their selection of items from the original list and/or made
modifications for cultural appropriateness (e.g., Akbari et al., 2019; Ezheei et al., 2008).

UHStems marked with * are the ones included in the short form (e.g., Stroebe et al.,
2002). These are the numbers 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30,
31, 32, 41.

The instructions are straightforward, as shown in the next section containing the items.
Note that the word homesick/ness does not appear (the questionnaire can be presented
without its UHS title).

The scoring key and SPSS syntax for the UHS are given in Appendix 1.

Psychometric properties: See Appendix 1 (following van Vliet, 2001; also, e.g., Duru &
Balkis, 2013; Ezheel, Dehghani, Ganjavi, & Khodapanahi, 2008; Nartova-Bochaver,
Reznichenko, Ochoa, & Zulkarnain, 2024; Xuan, 2024).

Empirical investigations using the UHS: studies identified through search engines are
marked with an asterisk in the list of references.

Copyright & acknowledgement. Requests to use the UHS do not have to be made;
researchers and clinicians are free to use it with appropriate acknowledgement to either
van Vliet’s (2001) thesis, this report and/or to our other articles (e.g., Stroebe et al.,
2002).

Critical assessment of the UHS. Since UHS development, ideas about HS have become
more nuanced (cf., Stroebe et al., 2016). To illustrate: loneliness (included in the UHS),
 can be considered an outcome variable, and as such, may overlap with variables used
separately to measure the impact of HS on well-being – artificially raising the level of
association between HS and outcome.

Adaptation of the scale. Given the above point, adaptation of the original UHS may be
appropriate (for an example, see Nartova-Bochaver, Reznichenko, Ochoa, & Zulkarnain,
2024). Researchers may weigh up this option with other considerations (e.g., adapting
the scale limits comparability with results from existing studies). In cases of adaptation,
please acknowledge derivation from the original UHS (citing as indicated above).

3. The UHS: Questionnaire

The following questions deal with longing.

Could you please indicate to what extent you Not Weak moderate strong very
have experienced the following in the past 4 strong
weeks

1 Finding it difficult adjusting to a new □ □ □ □ □

situation.*
2 Having crying spells. □ □ □ □ □
3 Feeling uncomfortable in a new situation.* □ □ □ □ □
4 Feeling lost in the a new situation.* □ □ □ □ □
5 Dreaming about an old situation. □ □ □ □ □
6 Feeling anxious that friend could not □ □ □ □ □
immediately be of assistance.
7 Feeling isolated from the rest of the world.* □ □ □ □ □
8 Feeling lonely.* □ □ □ □ □
9 Finding it difficult to accommodate new daily □ □ □ □ □
routines.
10 Feeling unloved.* □ □ □ □ □
11 Feeling up-rooted.* □ □ □ □ □
12 Hating a new place. □ □ □ □ □
13 Feeling the urge to go home. □ □ □ □ □
14 Missing people whom you trust and can talk □ □ □ □ □
with.*
15 Longing for acquaintances.* □ □ □ □ □
16 Longing for familiar places. □ □ □ □ □
17 Searching for familiar faces.* □ □ □ □ □
18 Missing your partner. □ □ □ □ □
19 Missing the old house. □ □ □ □ □
20 Missing familiar foods. □ □ □ □ □
21 Missing home.* □ □ □ □ □
22 Missing the daily routines of home. □ □ □ □ □
23 Missing your trusted environment. □ □ □ □ □
24 Missing your family.* □ □ □ □ □
25 Missing your friends.* □ □ □ □ □
26 Missing your parents.* □ □ □ □ □
27 Missing your pet(s). □ □ □ □ □
28 Having difficulties in getting used to new □ □ □ □ □
customs.*
29 Continuously having thoughts about home.* □ □ □ □ □
30 Regretting the decision to leave an old □ □ □ □ □
situation.*
31 Having thoughts that an old situation was □ □ □ □ □
better than here and now.*
32 Repeatedly thinking of the past.* □ □ □ □ □
33 Often wanting to go to the old home. □ □ □ □ □
34 Having difficulties with taking on new □ □ □ □ □
challenges.
35 Repeatedly wishing that everything is normal □ □ □ □ □
and familiar.
36 On the one hand wanting to be in a new □ □ □ □ □
situation, on the other wanting to be in an old
situation.
37 Being more at ease in an old situation than a □ □ □ □ □
new situation.
38 Feeling unable to cope with a new situation. □ □ □ □ □
39 Being uncertain over the future. □ □ □ □ □
40 When having difficulties wanting to contact □ □ □ □ □
your family.
41 Feeling missed by your family.* □ □ □ □ □
42 Wanting to be in an old situation when waking □ □ □ □ □
up.

43 Miss the smell of an old neighborhood. □ □ □ □ □

44 Miss the coziness of an old neighborhood. □ □ □ □ □
45 Miss the familiarity with the shops and public □ □ □ □ □
facilities of an old neighborhood.

Could you indicate, never Rarely sometimes often very often

46 how often have you felt homesick in the past □ □ □ □ □
4 weeks?
47 how often have you felt homesick in the past? □ □ □ □ □

Could you indicate, n.a. Weak moderate strong very

strong
48 how strong have you felt homesick at its worst □ □ □ □ □
?
 4. Homesickness (HS): Points of Relevance to UHS

Topic2 Details / References Additional Information & Comments

Definition of “A negative emotional state primarily due to The theoretically-based rationale for
homesickness separation from home and attachment this definition, as well as a tabulated
persons, characterized by longing for and list of alternatives, can be found in the
preoccupation with home, and often with Stroebe et al. (2016) article.
difficulties adjusting to a new place”.
(Stroebe et al., 2016)
The essence of homesickness is thus
missing home, family and friends but,
according to this definition, it also involves
problems in adjustment to the new place.

Alternative HS See Stroebe et al. (2015) Table 1 for a list of Extension beyond self-report
measures other HS questionnaires, application to questionnaire measurement to:
different subgroups, scope of content and ecological momentary assessment
further comments on the various scales. (EMA) by Nauta, et al., (2020),
More recent additions include adapted providing information about ongoing
questionnaires (partly) based on UHS, e.g., fluctuations of HS in real life, within-
for the elderly (Deng, Qiu et al., 2024); person (e.g., context-related)
other cultures (Nartova-Bochaver et al., variation in HS. Similarly: Use of
2024). smartphone to measure volatility
longitudinally: Götz et al. ,(2019).
Empirical HS among children in general (Demetriou et Historically, much research was
research / al., 2022), hospitalized children: Demetriou, conducted on boarding school and
reviews of et al. (2024), summer camp (Thurber summer camp children (e.g., the
some specific studies; Kerns et al., 20008). Fisher, Thurber, studies) and students
domains HS among college students: Ferrara (2020). (e.g., Archer; Vingerhoets and van
Nartova-Bochaver et al. (2024) include Tilburg, 1998), listed among
overview of articles exploring HS among references.
(international) students. Both domains are
strong continued interests in HS research.
Hack-Polay & Mahmoud (2021) continue
Van Vliet’s (2001) interest in expatriates’
HS.

Theoretical Van Vliet (2001) reviews relevant-to-HS Since HS is a separation phenomenon,

articles theoretical perspectives. Bowlby (1953; attachment as well as stress theory
1980) for classic attachment-separation perspectives are relevant. Other
theory approach (see also Flett et al., 2009). perspectives include perceptions of
Furnham (2021) and Van Tilburg &

2
Information remains selective: referencing includes some key sources. .Alternative definitions, perspectives &
intervention guidances can be found in the scientific literature.
 Vingerhoets (2021) from an acculturation control (e.g., Rajguru & Srivastava,
perspective. Application of a “mini-grief”- 2020; Thurber & Weisz, 1997).
coping perspective to HS: Stroebe et al.
(2016). Watt & Badger (2009) for a social
belonging perspective.
Risk, Identifying vulnerable subgroups has been a See also empirical articles listed in
preventive and major research focus, see review articles for references for further, wide-ranging
coping factors systematic presentation of variables (e.g., investigated factors (e.g., Benn et al.,
for HS Stroebe et al., 2015); Van Tilburg, 2005; Brewin et al., 1989; Onuoha et
Vingerhoets, & van Heck (1997) for coping al., 2013), Thurber, Sigman et al.,
perspective. An early study included the 1999; Wittrup & Hurd, 2021;
impact of HS on academic performance Zulkarnain et al., & Maya, 2019).
(Burt, 1993). Associations with depression,
anxiety and stress disorders and anger
have been reported (Mohamud & Bhat,
2023; Verschuur et al., 2004). Hendrickson
et al. (2010) provided analysis of HS in social
context.
A clinical While HS is not a category in manuals of While this is standard ethical practice
caveat diagnostic disorders, it can be of relevance when using questionnaires relating to
in extreme forms; it is known to be mental health, in the case of HS, given
associated with certain disorders, including (a) the listed associations in the left
attachment/separation, depressive, anxiety hand column and (b) the fact that the
and/or acculturation difficulties. See UHS is used by many students still in
Verschuur et al. (2004) for examination of the process of acquiring skills, to
relationships between HS, anxiety and emphasize 2 points:
depression. 1. Expert supervision is called for
in carrying out the student
projects.
2. Systems should be in place for
referral to counselling
services, should a participant
score extremely and/or show
evidence of experiencing
symptoms of the listed
disorders.
Psycho- For review of different approaches, see Example: Thurber & Walton (2007,
therapeutic Stroebe et al. (2015). For a coping 2012) developed guidelines for
intervention perspective, Van Tilburg et al., (1997). (summer camp) children, adolescents
guidelines and college students.
Prevalence Published rates vary enormously. See both review and empirical articles
for subgroup estimates.
Concluding remarks
Various conclusions and directions for future UHS-related research emerge:

• The UHS is a useful, sufficiently-valid tool for assessing homesickness in both

research projects (including studies of mechanisms; risk factors, etc.) and in practice
(e.g., to identify vulnerable persons).
• Adaptation of the UHS is encouraged and considered appropriate for application to
certain (e.g., cultural; specific age) subgroups.
• Refinement of the UHS can extend to more systematic coverage of new-environment
related (sometimes acculturation) stressors.
• Measurement extensions are recommended (e.g., ecological momentary assessment
/ use of smartphones) adding to UHS-based assessment to capture volatility /
longitudinal patterns.
• Subgroup investigations (incorporating assessment through the UHS) remain
centrally important (e.g., in the context of migratory patterns following manmade
and natural disasters; international mobility of student populations).
• Given the formative nature of leaving-home experiences among the young, HS
assessment among children is a recommended priority (with potential UHS
adaptation).
• Theoretically-based research using the UHS (with extended item inclusion) has
potential to deepen understanding of underlying HS processes (e.g., attachment
phenomena; control and effective coping mechanisms; cultural adaptation
phenomena).
• The UHS is relevant for assessment of the efficacy of HS intervention programmes
(Randomized Control Trials with pre-post designs).
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 Appendix 1
UHS INSTRUCTIONS FOR RESEARCHERS
(van Vliet, 2001)

The UHS consists of 45 questions (1-45) which assess to what extent subjects experience
different aspects of homesickness.

Questions 46 and 47 were used to assess how frequently subjects had experienced
homesickness in the past 4 weeks and in the past.

Question 48 assesses the intensity of homesickness at its peak, whenever that was.

For the construction of scales only a subset of the items was used to avoid linear
dependencies, [determinant >0].3

The scales were constructed as follows:

In SPSS syntax

To compute scales:4

Value labels UHSq1_01 to UHSq1_45 1’not’ 2’weak’ 3’moderate’

4’strong’ 5’very strong’.

compute UHSq1rum=mean(UHSq1_31, UHSq1_30, UHSq1_29, UHSq1_32).

compute UHSq1lon=mean(UHSq1_08, UHSq1_07, UHSq1_10, UHSq1_11).
compute UHSq1fam=mean(UHSq1_26, UHSq1_24, UHSq1_21, UHSq1_41).
compute UHSq1frd=mean(UHSq1_15, UHSq1_25, UHSq1_17, UHSq1_14).
compute UHSq1adj=mean(UHSq1_01, UHSq1_28, UHSq1_03, UHSq1_04).
compute UHSq1tot=mean(UHSq1_31, UHSq1_30, UHSq1_29, UHSq1_32,
UHSq1_08, UHSq1_07, UHSq1_10, UHSq1_11,
UHSq1_26, UHSq1_24, UHSq1_21, UHSq1_41,
UHSq1_15, UHSq1_25, UHSq1_17, UHSq1_14,
UHSq1_01, UHSq1_28, UHSq1_03, UHSq1_04).

variable labels
UHSq1rum 'ruminations about home'
UHSq1lon 'loneliness'
UHSq1fam 'miss family'

3
Note authors’ comments in the text: the 20 items evolved into the by-now widely-used UHS.
4
This is the syntax for the UHS (20-items)
 UHSq1frd 'miss friends'
UHSq1adj 'adjustment difficulties'
UHSq1tot 'homesickness'.

To asses prevalence:

TEMPORARY.
Recode UHSq1_46 (1=1) (2 thru 5 = 2).
Compute UHSq1pre= UHSq1_46.
Value labels UHSq1pre 1”not homesick” 2”homesick”.

Van Vliet (2001, Appendix) gives the following additional information:

INSTRUMENTS AND RELIABILITIES5

THE UTRECHT HOMESICKNESS SCALE:
The UHS sub-scales are computed by calculating the arithmetic means for the following
items:
adjustment difficulties (1, 3, 4, 28)
miss family (21, 24, 26, 41)
miss friends (14, 15, 17, 25)
ruminations about home (29, 30, 31, 32).
loneliness (7, 8, 10, 11)
UHS total (1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 41)
Note that reliabilities are tabulated in the van Vliet (2001) appendix as well, and detailed
in Chapters 3-5.

5
Authors’ note: this information is contained in the SPSS syntax, but is included in this form for teaching
purposes/clarity.

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