Geophysics and its application to

Mineral Exploration in Manitoba

By
Michael Issigonis
 Contents
• 1. Background on geology of Manitoba
• 2. History of geophysical prospecting in Manitoba
• 3. Geophysics in Exploration: methods &
overview
• 4. More details for each method
• 5. Regional (by air) and follow-up ground surveys
• 6. Regional surveys
• 7. Follow-up ground surveys
• 8. Geophysical prospecting in Flin/Flon – Snow
Lake Greenstone Belt
• 9. Geophysical prospecting in the Lynn Lake
Greenstone Belt
• 10. Geophysical prospecting in the Rice Lake area
• [Link] prospecting in the Gods Lake area
• [Link] prospecting in other areas
• 13. Conclusions
 Confidentiality
• Since I am involved in exploration (process to
carry out field and lab research to find mineral
deposits)
I am not at liberty to make public some
information that is geologically important,
even exciting, yet it is confidential.
Whether the information can become part of
a course depends on the confidentiality status
at the time
 Purpose of this presentation
• I assume it has to do with the geophysics course
offered at BU
• Mineral exploration is only one part of any
geophysics course
• Any such course would also have problem-
solving labs (simple, not with complex math) for
students to familiarize with the instruments and
methods used
• This presentation introduces the physics part
slowly, because I know some students are scared
of the subject
1. Background on geology of Manitoba
• Red: ancient mountains, Canadian Shield,
metal deposits
• The rest: sedimentary platform with evaporite
deposits (plus potential for diamonds?)
 Mineral Deposits
• In the Superior : metals (Au, Cu, Zn, Ni)
• In the Trans – Hudson Orogen: metals (Zn, Cu,
Au)
• In the Superior Boundary Zone (SBZ): metals
(Ni + Pt, Au)
• In the Sedimentary Basins: evaporites
 In the Superior Province
• Great abundance of metal
deposits/occurrences
• Gold deposits in shear zones, iron formations,
etc
• Pegmatite deposits with lithium, beryllium,
tantalum, niobium, etc
• Titanium deposit in anorthosite intrusion
• Nickel – Copper – Platinum Group elements
(PGE) in mafic-ultramafic volcanics
 In the Trans – Hudson Orogen
• Mostly base metals deposits
• Copper – Zinc – Gold VMS deposits in lavas
• Some gold deposits
• Some Nickel – Copper – PGE (Platinum Group
Elements)
• REEs in carbonatites
• Uranium
 In the Superior Boundary Zone
• Thompson Nickel Belt (Ni + Cu, Pt, Au)
 In the Sedimentary Basins
. Evaporite deposits (salt, potash, gypsum)
• Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) Lead – Zinc –
Silver occurrences
• Oil / gas
 Sedimentary formations
• Mesozoic / Paleozoic in age
• Mesozoic is mostly shales
• Paleozoic is mostly limestone / dolomite
• Evaporite deposits are known
• Oil / gas deposits have been found
 2. History of Geophysical prospecting
in Manitoba
• Most of the big producing mines (like Flin Flon,
Thompson) found prior to the use of geophysics
in mineral exploration
• Deposits were found on outcrop (surface)
• Some deposits are still discovered on surface by
prospectors
• However, the new deposits now and in the future
will most likely be found by either geophysical
and /or geochemical methods of remote
prospecting
 Records of prospecting
• Like all provinces/ territories, Manitoba
maintains data of all exploration work
performed
• There is a period of some years when data are
kept confidential (after their submission)
• The Dept. of Mines in Manitoba had a staff
geophysicist to keep records, compilations
and comprehensive reports, but he retired in
2004 (Dr. Ifti Hossain)
• Since 2004, no compilation work is done by
the province
• In the last provincial Report of Activities
(2014) there is no mention of geophysics or
geophysical data anywhere in the report!
• Potential explorers have to do their own
compilation / examination of data. That will
slow down their investigations or even turn
them away from exploring in Manitoba
 For new projects
• Geophysical prospecting may amount to half
of the cost of exploration
• Airborne surveys can be done anytime, but
ground surveys are usually done in the winter
when ground access is easier
 New graduates
• Need the exposure to some of the methods
used, because you may be asked to carry a
survey on the first day of work!
• All geophysical methods use sophisticated
equipment that need to be serviced and
prepared before you go into the field
• Make  sure  you  have  good  batteries  or  it  won’t  
function!
• In-house surveys get into numerous delays &
problems unless the organizers are very
efficient & knowledgeable
• We had people dropped off and picked up by
helicopter with geiger counters for uranium
exploration that forgot to TURN their
instruments ON during their day-long trek!
• And  everyone  was  surprised  they  didn’t  find  
anything  radioactive  in  a  “hot”  area!
 Contractors
• That is why some or most of the geophysical
surveys  are  contracted  out  to  “professionals”  
with lots of experience
• It is costly, but there are always improvements
in the methods to meet all kinds of situations,
to go through conductive overburden or to
differentiate between a conductor and a
geological  “noise”,  caused  by  something  else
3. Geophysics in Exploration: overview
• Geophysics: Basically physics of the Earth, just
like waves from earthquakes
• Uses remote methods to study the subsurface
• Measures properties like density, magnetic
susceptibility, elasticity and electrical
conductivity
 Summary of methods
• Seismic
• Gravity
• Magnetic
• Electrical
• Electromagnetic
• Radiometric (uranium)
• Borehole geophysics (well logging) using any of
the above
• Remote sensing (areas with salt or pyrite, no
trees! or color of vegetation, rocks, etc)
 Instruments
• The Geology Department (BU) has a resistivity
meter that last time (1994) did not work, but
students can carry a mock survey in the field
to see what is required
• I have an EM16 (electromagnetic unit by
Geonics Ltd) that can be used around the
Water Treatment Plant to pick up pipes and
buried hydro cables quite easily
 Targets
• Metallic or non metallic ores
• Oil / gas
• Geological structures, faults, folds, igneous
intrusions
• Groundwater
• Geothermal reservoirs
• Buried archeological remains
• Foundations for engineering structures
 Measured parameters
• Gravity measures density of rock
• Magnetics measure amount of magnetite
/hematite & pyrrhotite
• Electrical measure resistivity (conductivity) &
induced polarization (I.P.)
• Electromagnetic measure disturbance of
electric field by conductors of the subsurface
• Radiometric measure gamma radiation
emitted by radioactive minerals
• Remote sensing produce hyper-spectral
images of the ground where some minerals
can be identified, esp. those in the long wave
infrared (LWIR)
 Gravity and magnetic methods
• They both measure natural fields. It is not
necessary to measure absolute value
• An anomaly is a disturbance in the fields
produced by a geological
structure/composition
• There is a problem: The variations can be
produced by many situations of structure and
compositions (of rock)
Seismic and electrical EM methods
• Need to introduce energy into the ground
• The source of the energy has to be in contact
with the ground
• They are more precise than using natural fields
• The seismic are expensive and slow. However,
they are the most highly developed and yield the
most information about the subsurface
• The waves of energy are reflected & refracted at
interfaces as the densities & elastic properties
change
 Electromagnetic methods
• The electrical energy is not in contact with the
ground (can be carried on the ground or flown
in the air)
• There is a transmitting coil and a receiving
coil
• The field of transmitting coil may be distorted
in amplitude, direction or phase by subsurface
conductors and this distortion is measured by
a detecting coil
 Radiometric methods
• Investigate the presence of radioactive
elements and minerals
• There are about 50 radioactive isotopes, but
most are rare or very weakly radioactive
• Only three are picked up in radiometric
surveying:
• U 238, Th 232 and K 40
• The last one is not always associated with
uranium  deposits,  so  it  is  like  a  “noise”
• There is also radon gas which is in the air or
dissolved in groundwater
• As it is a decay product of uranium minerals,
so a uranium body may be buried in the area
 Borehole logging
• Uses existing boreholes to get additional
information from the ground surrounding the
hole
• Resistivity, self-potential and radiometric are
the common methods used
4. More details for each method
 Gravity method
• Measures the density of the subsurface
• Basically, identify dense rocks within less dense
rocks. A measure of composition and porosity
• Effectively, the rate of change of rock properties
• The anomalies are very small compared to the
earth’s  gravity  field  (980  gal)
• The instrument measures the vertical component
of the acceleration of gravity
• “gal”  units  in  honor  of  Galileo
• I gal = 1 cm/sec2 is too large
• Anomalies in milligals (103 mgal = 1 gal)
• “Anomalies”  are  called  Bougeur anomalies
• They need to be corrected for latitude and
elevation
• Gravity will differentiate between an EM
conductor that is dense (sulfides) from a less
dense conductor (graphite)
 Magnetic method: directly detects

• Magnetite in Iron Formation

• Magnetite in skarn
• Pyrrhotite
• The above minerals in hydrothermal alteration
• Ultramafic lavas and intrusions
 Indirectly detects:

• Gangue minerals associated with ore deposits

 Resistivity method
• The conduction of electricity in the subsurface is
electrolytic (in water).
• Most minerals are insulators (do not conduct)
• The conduction is carried out through interstitial
water, especially if it contains dissolved salts
• The Induced Polarization method is to detect
conducting sulfide bodies and coal and the least
conductive bodies (resistive) such as salt and
carbonates
 Electromagnetic method
• No need to be in contact with the ground (like
the electric methods), so they are quicker
• Electricity creates a magnetic field around it
and the movement of a magnet can induce an
electric field (in a wire)
• Both transmitter and receiver can be mounted
on aircraft
• The induction of current flow results from the
magnetic component of the EM field
• Composed of an alternating electric intensity
and a magnetizing force
• The primary EM field is generated by passing
alternating current through a small coil made
up of many turns of wire or through a large
loop of wire (need a power generator)
• The response of the ground is the generation
of secondary EM fields
• The plane of the coil is at 90 degrees to the
direction of the arriving field
• Max. penetration is 500 m
• These are indirect inferential methods of
detecting mineralization, as the sought metal
is not directly conductive or not sufficiently
conductive to be measurable
• The target is base metal sulfides with
conductivity anomalies generated around the
sulfides
 5. Geophysical Methods: Regional (air) and
follow-up ground methods

• A. Regional methods (flown in the air)

• Aeromagnetic survey
• Airborne Gravity survey
• Airborne Electromagnetic survey (EM)
(Some or all of the above can be done together)
• B. Detailed surveys (on the ground)

• Magnetic
• Gravity
• EM : (the majority of the surveys)
• Resistivity
• Seismic (mostly for oil / gas)
 In NW corner of Manitoba
• Airborne radiometric survey for uranium
deposits
 6. Regional surveys
• Airborne magnetometer surveys have covered
most of Manitoba and Canada
• Operated by the Geological Survey of Canada
(GSC) since 1946
• Set in 1961 to complete the aeromagnetic
mapping of the Canadian Shield in 12 years
• Early systems capable of resolution of only a
few nanoTeslas (nT), but now capable of 0.1
nT or less
• Today world-class aeromagnetic data have
contributed significantly to regional geological
mapping as well as mineral and oil exploration
in Canada
• Also had an inboard gradiometer system for
awhile which was passed on to private
industry
• The entire province of Manitoba has been
covered by this type of survey
 Aeromagnetic surveys
• Magnetic survey is quick to cover the ground and
allows regional reconnaissance
• Aircraft flies in a grid pattern with height and line
spacing determining the resolution of the data
(and cost)
• The magnetometer measures total field at the
sensor which is a combination of field generated
in  the  earth  plus  solar  wind  plus  the  airplane’s  
field. By eliminating the last two we can have the
abundance of magnetite and pyrrhotite in the
rocks below
• In this way, we get a visual of the geological
structure, the spatial geometry of bodies of
rock, faults and folds.
• This especially useful where
overburden/water covers the bedrock
• Data presented as contours (red or black),
recently as colored and shaded computer-
generated topography-like images
See dikes and lots of structure
• Apparent  “hills”,  “ridges”  and  “valleys”  are  
aeromagnetic anomalies
• One can use mathematical models to infer the
shape, depth and properties of rock bodies
responsible for the anomalies
• Airplanes are used for flat terrains and
helicopter for mountains or detailed surveys
• Mostly used to interpret the subsurface
structure in the upper crust
• Other uses is to detect iron deposits
• There are province-wide aeromagnetic maps
as well as on scale of 1:250,000 and 1:50,000
Part of Manitoba in a company
promotion
Old survey (red) and newer (black):
Dauphin Lake in the middle
Flin Flon area
 Regional Gravity survey: Gradiometry
• Measurement of variations in the acceleration
due to gravity
• Is used to measure the density of the
subsurface. Need to build subsurface
anomalies to target mineral deposits
• Measure the vertical gradient between two
points separated by a small vertical distance
• Gravity anomalies can be related to features
like salt diapirs, faults, reef structures and
kimberlite pipes
• Have been useful in geological mapping for a
large variety of minerals and deposit types
• Diamonds have been the biggest single target,
also base metals, Iron-oxide-copper-gold
(IOCG) deposits, porphyries, VMS, BIF, nickel
deposits and gold
The results always have surprises
The Camperville Gravity Low (CGL)
• Is a large (65 km diameter) anomaly just east
of the Superior Boundary Zone (SBZ)
• The low is about 30 mGal, the most intense
low in Manitoba
• Has not been explained
• A major fault separates the SBZ from the
gravity low
• The provincial investigators concluded that
the SBZ was active during the Paleozoic
 Other features
• There are numerous circular aeromagnetic
highs within the CGL
• Renewed exploration in the area
• Interesting finds near this CGL
• There is a new showing of sphalerite and
pyrite in the Winnipegosis Transition Zone as
well as barite in lower Dawson Bay beds
Low in blue, CGL in middle left
 Digital Mag & Gravity on disc
• From the Department of Mines, Manitoba
 Regional Airborne EM
• Responsible for numerous discoveries
• Cost effective method for scanning large areas
for conductors for follow-up ground targeting
• It is a preferred method for mapping massive
sulfides and paleochannels that may contain
uranium and /or groundwater
• Aimed at conducting a quick and cheap search
for metallic conductors
• Also applicable to general geologic mapping
 Two types
• Frequency domain measures frequencies of the
induced EM response, and
• Time domain measures the rate of change of the
EM response
• An EM field is created in a transmitter coil which
induces a secondary EM response from
conductors below the surface
• The response is measured in the off-time by a
receiver coil that is coincident with the
transmitting coil
• Magnetic data also recorded in the off-time
 limitations
• Poor results if rocks are highly conductive
• Overburden is thick and conductive (clay-rich)
• Weathered mafic flows will have highly
conductive backgrounds
 EM anomalies
• Strongest from massive sulfides and
progressively less strong for ..
• Graphite
• Clays, till and gravel/sand
• Igneous and metamorphic rocks
• In sedimentary rocks graphitic shales are the
most conductive and limestone/dolomite the
least conductive
 Typically
• Graphite, pyrite and pyrrhotite are
responsible for bedrock EM responses
• Fair to good responses from
volcanic/sedimentary stratabound sulfide ores
of Cu, Pb, Zn and precious metals
• Fair to poor responses from carbonate-hosted
Pb-Zn with marcasite, pyrite or pyrrhotite,
sometimes with graphite
• Fair to good responses from massive
pyrrhotite – pentlandite with Ni, Cu and
precious metals in mafic/ultramafic flows
/intrusions
• Poor responses from vein deposits of gold
with pyrite
Some  “geological  noise”  that  can  block  
EM conductors
• Graphitic bands in metamorphosed rocks
• Altered (to clays) mafic – ultramafic rocks
• Faults and shear zones carrying water and clay
gouge
• Magnetite bands in serpentinized ultramafics
 Basic Principles
• Electromagnetic induction methods, both
airborne and ground make use of man-made
primary EM fields; an alternating magnetic field is
established by passing a current through a coil (or
along a long wire). The field is measured with a
receiver consisting of a sensitive electronic
amplifier and meter or potentiometer bridge. The
frequency of the alternating current is chosen
such that an insignificant eddy-current field is
induced in the ground if it has an average
electrical conductivity.
• If the source and receiver are brought near a
more conductive zone, stronger eddy currents
may be caused to circulate within it and an
appreciable secondary magnetic field will be
created. Closer to the conductor, this
secondary or anomalous field may be
compared in magnitude to the primary field,
in which case it can be detected by the
receiver. The secondary/primary ratio will be
in % or ppm
General principle of EM prospecting
 Airborne EM systems
• INPUT, the most common system. GEOTEM &
MEGATEM are newer
• The transmitting coil, usually encircling a fixed-wing
aircraft, is energized by a step current. In the absence
of conductors, a sharp transient pulse proportional to
the time derivative of the magnetic field is induced in
the receiver. When a conductor is present, however, a
sudden change in magnetic field intensity will induce in
it a flow of current in the conductor which will tend to
slow the decay of the field. The switching is repeated
several times a second as the aircraft follows its flight
line, so that the signal is continuous.
INPUT: The primary field is a step function and the receiver
records the decay of the field after the transmitter stops
 INduced Pulse Transient: by Barringer
• The receiver listens only when the transmitter is
quiet. If the decay of the secondary field could be
observed, the response would be equivalent to
AC measurements made over the whole of the
frequency spectrum.
• The anomalous fields associated with good
conductors decay very slowly.
• The decay function is measured using from 6 to
12 time delays from the instant the transmitter
stops transmitting before recording the signal
received.
• INPUT has a powerful transmitter
• Detects conductors down to 400 m
• Has 20 channels of AC current like time-
domain I.P.
Frequency domain EM: Helicopter EM (HEM)
• Both the transmitting & receiving sets are
housed  in  a  rigid  boom  or  “bird”  towed  
beneath the helicopter. Usually, half of the
coils are co-axial (axis normal to the plane of
the coils passes through the center of both
coils) the rest are co-planar (like lying down
flat on the ground)
Bird is smaller than shown, has a stabilizing airfoil
 Operation
• The receiver measures the in-phase and out-of-
phase or quadrature of the secondary field as
ppm of the primary field.
• The two different coil orientations discriminate
between dike-like conductors (may be ore bodies)
and horizontal conductors like conductive
overburden.
• System has a small bird with a magnetometer (to
differentiate between metallic & non metallic
conductors). HEM may also carry a VLF receiver
 Airborne VLF EM
• Very Low Frequency (VLF) electromagnetics
• The primary field is supplied by powerful radio
transmitters used for military communications
(submarines). The receiver is towed in a bird
• Because of high frequencies (15-22 Khz), system
susceptible to geologic noise
• Possible conductors should be at 90 degrees to
direction of transmitter
• Depth penetration is about the same at height of
bird above ground
VLF transmitters & ranges of reception
 Airborne Radiometric
• NW Manitoba survey combined with Radon-
in-water survey in the Maguire Lake area
 7. Follow-up ground surveys
• Magnetic
• Gravity
• EM
• Electrical
• Radiometric
 Magnetic
• Most common instrument is the proton
magnetometer
• Since most magnetic work done from the air,
ground surveys are limited. Station spacing is
10 – 100 m
• Readings to be avoided near metallic objects
• The operator should not wear metallic objects
• The magnetic anomaly contains positive or
negative elements due to its dipolar nature
• Intensity of magnetization is a vector and the
direction of magnetization in a body closely
controls the shape of its magnetic anomaly
• Thus, magnetic anomalies are much less
closely related to the shape of the body that
causes them than gravity anomalies
• Intensity of magnetization of a rock can vary
by a factor of 10 to the sixth power
• Magnetic anomalies are independent of the
distance units employed
• For example, the same magnitude anomaly is
produced by say a 3 cm cube as a 3 km cube
with the same magnetic properties
• Magnetic contour maps provide major clues as to
the geology and structure of a broad region from
an assessment of the shapes and trends of
anomalies
• Sediment-covered areas with deep basement are
represented by smooth contours reflecting
basement structures
• Igneous and metamorphic terrains generate
much more complex anomalies and the effects of
deep features may be obscured by shallow
structures
 Gravity
• A very wide range of geological situations give
rise to zones of anomalous mass that
produces significant gravity anomalies
• On a small scale, buried relief like a valley can
give measurable anomalies
• On a larger scale, salt domes can give rise to
small negative anomalies
• On a larger scale still, major anomalies by
granite plutons or sedimentary basins
• Station spacing can be as small as a few
meters
• Readings in reference to the International
Gravity Standardization Network (IGSN)
stations
• Density is a bulk property
• There is a small variation in the density of the
rocks
• In the range 1.50 to 3.50 Mg m3
• Gravity anomaly is entirely positive or
negative depending whether the body is more
or less dense than its surroundings
 Interpretation
• The inverse problem exists like in magnetic
and electrical methods
• This means that even though the anomaly can
be calculated uniquely there are an infinite
number of bodies that can give rise to any
specified anomaly
• Clues from regional geology and structures
can narrow down the cause of the anomaly
 EM
• In the absence of a conductor there is no
difference in the primary & secondary fields
except a small reduction in amplitude of the
latter
• If there is a conductor the magnetic
component of the EM field going through the
ground induces alternating currents (eddy) to
flow in the conductor. The latter generate
their own EM field that travels to the receiver
• The response differs in both phase and
amplitude from the primary
• Even if sulfides are not conductive, an
accompanying pyrrhotite can give an anomaly
• The amplitude decreases exponentially with
depth. Depth of penetration increases as both
the frequency of the EM field and the
conductivity of the ground decrease
 Detection of EM fields
• The amplitude of the induced voltage is
proportional to the component of the field
perpendicular to the plane of the coil
• Therefore, the strength of the signal in the
earphones is at a max when the plane of the coil
is at right angles to the direction of the arriving
field
• Since the ear is more sensitive to sound minima
than maxima the coil is turned until a null
position is reached. The plane of the coil lies in
the direction of the arriving field
 Tilt – angle methods (VLF & AFMAG)
• Traverses should be made normal to the
geological strike
• At each station the search coil is rotated until a
null signal is obtained
• The tilt angle is the angle between the primary &
secondary fields
• The tilt angle may be determined by rotating the
coil about a horizontal axis at right angles to the
plane of the coil until a further min. is
encountered
 The VLF method
• Signals come from powerful transmitters of
the USA Military (for submarines)
• They are in the frequency range: 15-25Khz
• No need for transmitter, but depth
penetration is limited (if transmitter is used,
penetration is much more)
• Field equipment is light and small (like EM16)
 EM 16
• The most widely used EM geophysical
instrument of all time
• Has discovered many base and precious metal
ore bodies and water-bearing faults
• It measures the local tilt and ellipticity of VLF
broadcasts and resolves these values into in-
phase and quadrature components
• Max penetration is only 25 m due to its high
frequency ( 24,000 Hz)
 EM 34
• Detects conductors down to 300 m
• It is like MaxMin
• Equipment is heavy and needs 2 people to
move it
MaxMin
 The AFMAG method
• The source of energy is natural EM fields
generated by thunderstorms (lightning) which
take place somewhere on Earth at any one
time
• This method is good for detecting structures,
not so good for conductors
• Can pick up BIF, dikes, faults, graphite
• Detects deeper than with the EM16
 Turam
• Similar to the above, but uses a very large
loop of wire laid on the ground
• Cumbersome to use
• Transmitter and receiver coils are about 1 m in
diameter and are carried horizontally
• Coils linked by a cable that allows the coil
separation to be steady at between 30–100 m
• Equipment first read on barren ground, then
moved to measure just secondary signal
• Max depth is half the transmitter/receiver
separation
• Survey at right angles to geological strike
 Time-Domain EM (TDEM)
• One problem with EM equipment is trying to
read a small secondary signal while the more
powerful primary field is on-going
• This can be overcome with Time-Domain EM,
by using a primary which is not continuous
but consists of a series of pulses separated by
inactive periods
• The secondary is measured when the primary
is quiet
• Transmitter loop is a large loop of wire several
tens of m in diameter laid on the ground
• The secondary eddy field can last for a millisec
(poor conductors) to more than 20 ms (good
conductors)
• After primary cut-off the decay is channeled
into time slots (channels)
• Depth can be estimated from the decay
pattern
 VTEM: relatively new method
• Versatile Time domain Electromagnetic system
• High quality signal-to noise level gives greater
depth perception and higher resolution
• Multiple loop sizes for terrain and depth
variations
• Able to energize strong conductors and
adjustable pulse widths give access to greater
depth
 Telluric / Magnetotelluric
• Natural AC currents (telluric) & natural low
frequency magnetic currents (magneto telluric)
flow inside the earth
• Both can be used in prospecting
• By measuring the potential differences they cause
between points on the surface
• No electrodes are needed, instead use Pb plates
separated by 30m or less, connected to an
amplifier
• Limited use
 Ground –penetrating Radar
• To image shallow soil and rock structure at high
resolution (similar to seismic, sonar)
• Radar waves are controlled by electrical
properties at high frequencies
• Pulse of 10-1000 MHz introduced into the
ground. Pulse is controlled by dielectric effect and
conductivity. Part of it is reflected, amplified and
recorded
• Depth penetration limited to 20 m, maybe a bit
more in areas of low conductivity
 Electrical methods
• Some methods use natural fields, others
require introducing currents into the earth
• Study the horizontal and vertical
discontinuities in the electrical properties of
the ground and detect 3D bodies of
anomalous electrical conductivity
• The Induced Polarization (I.P.) method looks
for disseminated conducting minerals
 S.P.
• The Self-Potential method makes use of
natural currents flowing in the ground that are
generated by electrochemical processes to
locate bodies of anomalous conductivity
• Use direct or low frequency alternating
currents (instead of the high frequencies of
the EM method)
• Four electrodes are spread on the ground,
two to introduce the current and two to
receive  the  “potential”
• There are many configurations of the spread
of the electrodes, such as distance between
them and in which order to plant them
• The interpretation of the results is very
complex (like in gravity & magnetic)
• Depth limit is shallow
 The I.P. method
• If, when using a standard 4-electrode resistivity
spread in a DC mode, the current is switched off,
the voltage between the potential electrodes
does not drop to zero immediately
• After a large initial decrease the voltage suffers a
gradual decay and can take many seconds to
reach zero
• Same effect as current is switched on, initial
increase, then a slow increase until a steady value
• The ground acts as a capacitor & stores
electrical charge (polarized)
• If low-freq. AC current is used instead, the
resistivity decreases as the frequency is
increased, because the capacitance of the
ground transmits AC currents with increasing
efficiency as the frequency rises
• The two effects are part of the same
phenomenon (time & frequency domains)
• Decaying voltage over time is the time-
domain & measurements in two or more
frequencies is the frequency-domain method
• IP equipment is bulky and elaborate
• Survey is lengthy, laborious and expensive
• However, it is extensively used and has a high
success rate in locating low-grade ore deposits
such as disseminated sulfides
• These targets are non conducting, therefore
not detectable by EM methods
• Cost can be $2000 /day and can only cover a
distance of 1 - 1.5 km
• max. depth of detection would be 600 m
• Transmitter has a max power of 7.5 Kw
( a survey in Ireland with a 2.5 Kw unit killed a
cow!)
 S.P. method
• Spontaneous polarization of natural potential
differences from electrochemical reactions in the
ground
• The anomalies are several hundred millivolts with
respect to barren ground
• Associated with sulfides, graphite or magnetite
• Limited use due to shallow penetration and
difficult in interpretation, but it is cheap, simple
and quick
 Radiometric surveys
• Geiger counter
• Gamma-ray spectrometer
• Radon emanometer
 8. Geophysical prospecting in the Flin
Flon – Snow Lake Greenstone Belt
• Geophysical characteristics of VMS
• Pyrite is a good conductor, galena is a
conductor while sphalerite is a non conductor
• Airborne surveys: Magnetic and some form of
EM
• Ground surveys: mostly magnetic and some
form of EM
• Down-hole EM surveys have detected off-hole
anomalies
 Conclusions on ground EM methods
• The higher the frequency the less penetration
• The lower the resistivity of the ground the less
the penetration
• A high frequency unit may produce false
conductors in swampy areas
• The coil separation also affects the depth of
penetration. A larger separation will increase
the depth
• The coil configuration plays a very important
part in determining how well the EM waves
couple with conducting bodies
• The primary waves from a horizontal
transmitter couple very well with flat-lying
conductors, which make the horizontal-loop
EM method very susceptible to lake-bottom
clays, conducting overburden, etc. Therefore
the vertical –loop method is preferred
• On the other hand, the ratio of in-phase to
quadrature (obtainable from the horizontal
loop ) would be a better method of
interpreting the strength of the conductor
• All the above needed to assess the anomaly
as strong, medium or weak
• Sulfides and graphite produce most of the EM
anomalies
• A conductor should not be ignored just
because graphite is suspected to be the cause
of the anomaly
• Sometimes airborne surveys are flown in two
directions
• Conductive zones with coincident magnetic
anomalies are given high priority
9. Geophysical prospecting in the Lynn
Lake Greenstone Belt
• Airborne and ground: mostly magnetic and
some form of EM
• Similar conclusions as in the Flin Flon area
• Based on the above, a weak conductor can be
as potentially important as a strong conductor
 10. Geophysical prospecting in the
Rice Lake Greenstone Belt
• Gold is associated with shear zones and quartz
vein systems. Both also have some pyrite
• If pyrite grains are connected they will form a
conductor, so EM surveys will detect them
• If pyrite grains are separated IP would be
preferred
• An EM or IP anomaly without magnetic
association in a mafic unit would increase the
gold potential, because alteration would have
destroyed magnetite
• Alteration and silicification could be detected
by increased resistivity which can be
measured during the IP survey
• On the regional scale, the boundary between
mafic flows and felsic metavolcanics would be
a good place to produce shearing and faults
(with possible gold) due to competency
differences
• The compilation of geophysical surveying in
the Rice Lake area has found out that the IP
method has not been used a lot, probably
because it is costly and lengthy. However, it is
necessary in this area due to the common
disseminated nature of the gold occurrences
(“gold in pockets”  effect)
 11. Geophysical prospecting in the
Northern part of the Gods Lake area
• Gold is the main attraction in areas around
Oxford House where there are many showings
and drill intersections. In some cases, Cu, Zn & Ag
values as well
• Host rocks are volcanic and sedimentary rocks
with iron formations and many deformation
zones and faults
• There are many gold prospects in the area
already (Kistigan & Monument lakes) which
would be economic if there was road access
Gold showing
• Numerous conductors identified from
airborne and ground magnetic – EM surveys
• Some EM conductors have coincident
magnetic anomalies (pyrrhotite?) This would
be exciting at first, but does not guarantee a
mine!
• High amplitude magnetic anomalies are
caused by iron formation
 Not all shine is gold!
• It should be noted that in numerous cases
massive sulfides encountered in the drilling of
conductors had no accompanying gold value.
This is common in rocks of the Shield
elsewhere in Canada
• There is a need for some intrusion (plus
accompanied alteration) to bring in or leach
out the metals from the surroundings
 12. Geophysical prospecting in other
areas
• A. Assean Lake area: Gold showings along the
Assean Lake Shear Zone (ALSZ). It is a major
break in the crust and is traceable for 200 km!
• Host rock silicified and altered with sulfides.
Also, IF with silicate/oxide/sulfide facies
• Helicopter magnetic/EM surveys with ground
magnetic, IP and EM
• B. NW corner of Manitoba: Maguire Lake area
Airborne magnetic / VLF /radiometric followed
by limited ground gravity over an area with
exceptionally high radon-in-water anomalies
Delineated a 35 km-long conductive unit thought to
be caused by graphite. Gravity lows thought to
represent zones of alteration. Previous work has
identified radioactive boulders with high uranium
values in the area
• C. Extension of the Thompson Nickel Belt (TNB) under
the Paleozoic cover rocks
Gravity & magnetic surveys along highway 60 (The Pas
Moraine) were carried out by the province to locate
the deep extension of the TNB. Similar surveys were
carried out across the Camperville Gravity Low
Both identified the TNB with a gravity low and magnetic
high
A new Ni deposit has been outlined (Minago) below 50 m
of Paleozoic sediment cover
• D. Diamond Exploration
“Bull’s  eye”  magnetic  anomalies  will  be  the  
place to start the exploration.
Many such targets have been investigated
throughout the province, but no kimberlite pipes
have been found.
Recently, similar investigations just west of the
Porcupine Mountains inside Saskatchewan has
prompted some exploration in the Swan River
area. Many small concentric anomalies exist
A cluster of small magnetic highs around Mafeking
The prominent magnetic high near Ashern
• For diamond exploration need to follow up
with ground magnetic and ground gravity
surveys
 Conclusions
• Geophysics play an important component of
mineral exploration in Manitoba and
elsewhere
• Geophysical instruments are quickly updated
and upgraded to fit various environments
• Geology students need to be familiar with
theory and current trends in geophysical
exploration