Research Methodology 1

MODULE-2
Importance of literature review in defining a problem, Survey of literature, Primary and secondary
sources, Reviews, treatise, monographs patents, web as a source, searching the web, Identifying gap
areas from literature review, Development of working hypothesis.

Research Design: Meaning of Research Design, Features of a Good Design, Important

Concepts Relating to Research Design, Different Research Designs, Basic Principles of
Experimental Designs.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

A new research is depends on the past knowledge, and not includes a part of knowledge. A
literature review is an account of what has been published in books, journals and internet on a
topic by accredited scholars and researchers.
In general, the literature review should:
1. Literature review is most important to identify the problem of the study. It can
be solved by collection of data. It is very important to know that the work is doing
by researcher in a research should not be repeated again (or if it is repeated, that
it is marked as a "replication study").
2. It also helps to avoid the mistakes, which already done by another one.
3. A new research is depends on the past knowledge, and not includes a part of
knowledge.
4. It verifies that it has not been already done (outline gaps in previous research).
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5. Literature review is important to judge research question and to provide latest

research material for the readers.
6. Help refine, refocus or even change the topic
Why is a literature review necessary? The literature review performs a number of
important functions:
1. It demonstrates to a Ph.D committee that the student has read a large amount
of statistical literature to prove that the student is aware of the wide range of
research in theory and methodology related to the proposed research topic.
2. It provides proof to a Ph.D committee that the student has a deep understanding
of the published statistical research related to the topic of the dissertation.
3. It should convince the Ph.D committee that the student can communicate this
understanding of the statistical literature and its relationship to the proposed
research.
4. It should support the originality and relevance for the Ph.D research problem.
i. This is done by identifying specific gaps in the statistical literature. That is,
the student identifies statistical questions that have not been answered and
problems that have not been solved.
ii. By identifying gaps in the statistical literature, the student can justify the
originality of the proposed dissertation research. The originality can be
an extension of research that has been published or a modification of existing
methodology or theory that can be used to perform the Ph.D research.
5. In the proposal the student emphasizes or stresses the originality of the
dissertation. Without a good literature review, the student cannot convince the
committee that that the proposed research is original.
6. A dissertation may be unacceptable because the Ph.D student does not clearly
show that the research problem is original due to a poor literature review.
7. Remember: the Literature Review is more than a summary of publications. It
provides evidence that your research will be an original and relevant contribution
to statistics.

SURVEY OF LITERATURE
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After defining a problem, the researcher has to do literature survey connected with the
problem. Literature survey is a collection of research publications, books and other documents
related to the defined problem. It is very essential to know whether the defined problem has
already been solved, status of the problem, techniques that are useful to investigate the problem
and other related details. One can survey
1. The journals which publish abstracts of papers published in various journals,
2. Review articles related to the topic chosen,
3. Journals which publish research articles,
4. Advanced level books on the chosen topic,
5. Proceedings of conferences, workshops, etc.,
6. reprint/preprint collections available with the supervisor and nearby experts
working on the topic chosen and
7. Internet.
[A free e-print service provider for physics, mathematics, nonlinear science, computer
science and biology is http://www.arXiv.org]
Other sources are the Education Index and the Educational Resources information centers
(ERIC). Computer-assisted searchers of literature have become very common today. They have
the advantage of comprehensiveness and speed. They are also very cost-effectivein terms of
time and effort although access to some of the databases requires payment. Irrespective of the
sources of the literature, ethics of research require that the source is acknowledged through a
clear system of referencing.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES

For some research projects you may be required to use primary sources. How can you
identify these?
Primary sources are the surviving original records of a period, eyewitness accounts andfirst-
published documentation of new information.

Primary Sources
1. A primary source provides direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object,
person, or work of art.
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2. Primary sources include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts, and
results of experiments, statistical data, pieces of creative writing, audio and
video recordings, speeches, and art objects.
3. Interviews, surveys, fieldwork, and Internet communications via email, blogs,
listservs, and newsgroups are also primary sources.
4. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies—
research where an experiment was performed or a direct observation was made.
5. The results of empirical studies are typically found in scholarly articles orpapers
delivered at conferences.

Secondary Sources
1. A secondary source is second-hand information.
2. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate,
summarize, and process primary sources.
3. Secondary source materials can be articles in newspapers or popular magazines,
book or movie reviews, Web pages or articles found in scholarly journals that
discuss or evaluate someone else's original research.

WEB AS A SOURCE - SEARCHING THE WEB

From past one decade or so the internet became an important source of knowledge and an
effective medium for research. For researchers, it is providing a range of new opportunities for
collecting information, networking, conducting research, collecting data and disseminating
research results.
Electronic mail, e-journal, on-line submission of articles to journals, online focus groups,
online video conferencing and online questionary are some of the latest tools opened-up by the
internet. We note that thousands of books and other print publications have been made available
online. Otherwise, that would be extremely difficult to locate, including out- of- print books,
classic literature and textbooks.
Some of the scientific research information available on the internet is:
❖ Details about various scientific and nonscientific topics.
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❖ Titles and other relevant information of article published in various journals,

possibly, from past one decade or so (full article will not be available).
❖ Preprint of papers submitted by researchers in certain websites.
❖ Information about scientific meetings to be held.
❖ Contact details for other researchers.
❖ Databases of reference material.
❖ Places where one can discuss topics and ask for help.
In general, academic research that has been commercially published is not freely
available on the internet.
Some of the features of conducting research through internet are:
Short time for collecting and recording data.
Data unknown to us can be identified and downloaded.
The possibility of conducting interviews and focus groups by e-mail, which
results in enormous saving in costs and time.
New communities to act as the object of social scientific enquiry.
While the internet contains a virtually-unlimited wealth of information not found in
traditional resources, this abundance also may hinder academic research. The following are some
of the new challenges for the researcher:
➢ Problems of sampling.
➢ Reliability and accuracy of the obtained data information.
➢ The ethics of conducting research into online communities.
➢ Physical access and skills required to use the technologies involved.
➢ The changed chronology of interaction resulting from asynchronous
communication.
For websites and authors which have little popularity, one must consider the credentials
of the source–if those are available and valid. Even though a website may be written in a
professional or academic manner, the lack of central body to determine its credibility may be a
prohibitive factor for serious research.
The main survey site is
http://survey2000.nationalgeographic.com/
Some of the potential advantages of online questionnaire are:
⚫ Low-cost delivery and return.
⚫ Wide potential coverage.
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⚫ Ease of completion.
⚫ Submission and data capture.
⚫ Appropriateness to particular populations.
⚫ High respondent acceptance for some groups.
Potential difficulties include:
o The paucity of methodological literature.
o Appropriateness to research aims.
o Target population.
o Technical difficulties.
o Sampling and response rates.

IDENTIFYING A GAP IN THE LITERATURE

Once we have found a promising research area of interest, we must identify research questions
that are not only unresolved but whose exploration can meaningfully contribute to existing theory
and/or practice.
In this section, it helps to
i. Learn to identify such promising research questions by avoiding common
beginner's mistakes.
ii. Understanding how to identify a "gap" in the scholarly literature. and
iii. Making sure it is worthwhile to try to fill the gap.

What is a gap in the literature?

A gap in the literature is a research question relevant to a given domain that has not
been answered adequately or at all in existing peer-reviewed scholarship.
A gap in the literature may emerge if…..
1. The question has not been addressed in a given domain, although it may have been
answered in a similar or related area.
2. The question has never been asked before, but it now merits exploration due to
changes in accepted theory, data collection technology, or culture.
3. The question has been asked and tested in peer-reviewed research, but themethods
were either of questionable validity or had necessitated limited applicability of
results. Alternatively, a replication study could be run to verify a published
study's results if appropriate.
Research Methodology 7

Why does it matter?

Even if a legitimate gap in the literature exists, it does not necessarily mean that the research
question(s) merits pursuit. To justify to yourself and others the investment of timeand energy
into designing and conducting research, you must ensure the research will likely have valuable
practical and/or theoretical implications.
1. Practical implications: Answering the research question could improve existing
practice and/or inform professional decision-making.
2. Theoretical implications: Answering the research question could revise, build
upon, or create theory informing research design and practice.

DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING HYPOTHESES

Researchers do not carry out work without any aim or expectation. Research is not of
doing something and presenting what is done. Every research problem is undertaken aiming
at certain outcomes. That is, before starting actual work such as performing an experiment or
theoretical calculation or numerical analysis, we expect certain outcomes from the study. The
expectations form the hypothesis.
1. After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis or hypotheses. It is the focal point for research
2. The development of working hypothesis plays an important role.
3. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens
his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem.
The development of working hypotheses can be developed by using the following approach:
a. Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution;
b. Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible
trends, peculiarities and other clues;
c. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
d. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on
a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater
insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
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What are the criteria of a good hypothesis?

1. A hypothesis should have conceptual clarity and a theoretical orientation.
2. It can be tested by investigation.
3. A hypothesis made initially may become incorrect when the data obtained are
analyzed. In this case it has to be revised. It is important to state the hypothesis
of a research problem in a research report.
4. We note that if a hypothesis withstands the experiments and provide the required
facts to make it acceptable, not only to the researchers performing the experiments
but to others doing other experiments then when sufficiently reinforced by
continual verification the hypothesis may become a theory.
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RESEARCH DESIGN:
BASIC PRINCIPLES
More explicitly, the designing decisions happen to be in respect of:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data are found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analysed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
The research design has following parts:
a. The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study;
b. The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
c. The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are
to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
d. The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
A research design usually involves the following features
❖ It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
❖ It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analysing the data.
❖ It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain—
a. A clear statement of the research problem;
b. Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
c. The population to be studied; and
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d. Methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

For a scientific research one has to prepare a research design. Essentially, the research design
creates the foundation of the entire research work. It is needed because it facilitates the smooth
functioning of the various research operations. It makes the research as efficient as possible by
giving the maximum information with minimum expenditure of effort, time and money. For
construction of a house, we need to have a proper blueprint prepared by an expert architect.
Similarly, we need a proper research design or plan prior to data collection and analysis of our
research project. Preparation of research design should be done carefully as even a minute error
might ruin the purpose of the entire project. The design helps the researcher to organize his
ideas, which helps to identify and correct his flaws, if any. In a good research design, all the
components with each other or go together with each other in a coherent manner. The theoretical
and conceptual framework must with the research goals and purposes. Likewise, the data
collection strategy must fit with the research purposes, conceptual and theoretical framework
and approach to data analysis.
The need or importance for research design is as follows:
1. It reduces inaccuracy;
2. Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;
3. Eliminates bias and marginal errors;
4. Minimizes wastage of time;
5. Helpful for collecting research materials;
6. Helpful for testing of hypothesis;
7. Provides an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money,
manpower, time, and efforts;
8. Provides an overview to other experts;
9. Guides the research in the right direction.

FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DESIGN

A characteristic of a good research design is
❖ Flexible, appropriate, efficient, and economical and so on.
❖ Minimises the bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and
analysed.
❖ Gives the smallest experimental error in many investigations.
Research Methodology 11

❖ Yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering

many different aspects of problems.
❖ Related to the purpose or objective of nature of the problem to be studied.
A good research design should satisfy the following four conditions namely objectivity,
reliability, validity and generalization of the findings.
i. The means of obtaining information;
ii. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
iii. The objective of the problem to be studied;
iv. The nature of the problem to be studied; and
v. The availability of time and money for the research work.
If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative one, wherein the major
emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights, the research design most appropriate must be
flexible enough to permit the consideration of many different aspects of a phenomenon. But when
the purpose of a study is accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables
(or in what are called the descriptive studies), accuracy becomes a major consideration and a
research design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the evidence collected is
considered a good design. Studies involving the testing of a hypothesisof a causal relationship
between variables require a design which will permit inferences about causality in addition to the
minimisation of bias and maximisation of reliability. But in practice it is the most difficult task
to put a particular study in a particular group, for a given research may have in it elements of
two or more of the functions of different studies. It is only on the basis of its primary function
that a study can be categorised either as an exploratory or descriptive or hypothesis-testing
study and accordingly the choice of a research design may be made in case of a particular
study. Besides, the availability of time, money, skills of the research staff and the means of
obtaining the information must be given due weightage while working out the relevant details
of the research design such as experimental design, survey design, sample design and the like.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various
concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.
1. Dependent and independent variables
➢ A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable.
Ex.: The concepts like weight, height, income.
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➢ The phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal
points are called ‘continuous variables’.
Ex.: Age is an example of continuous variable
➢ The integer values are non-continuous variables or ‘discrete variables’.
Ex.: The number of children is non-continuous variable.
➢ A variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a
dependent variable.
Ex.: Height depends upon age, behavioural changes, occurring as a result ofthe
environmental manipulations.
➢ The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent
variable.
Ex.: Readymade films and lectures are examples of independent variables.
2. Extraneous variable
Extraneous variables are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable.
Ex.: Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts.
In this case, self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is
a dependent variable.
Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement. But it is not related to the
purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher; it will be termed as an extraneous variable.
3. Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or
effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study
minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables.
4. Confounded relationship
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded byan
extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis
The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable
to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent
Research Methodology 13

and one dependent variable. Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the
relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are not termed research hypotheses.
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research
When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-
testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.
A Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis-testing research’.
Ex.: Suppose there are 50 students to take a course in statistics. They are divided into two
groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies programme, and 25 to Group B
the special studies programme. At the end of the course, he administers a test toeach group
in order to judge the effectiveness of the training programme on the student’s performance-level.
This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research because in this case the
independent variable, viz., the type of training programme, is manipulated.
A Research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research’.
For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading
ability for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their
intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets
of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because herein
the independent variable, intelligence, is not manipulated.
7. Experimental and control groups
▪ When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as
hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-
experimental design.
▪ When a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed as a ‘control group’. But
when the group is to some novel or special condition, it is termed as ‘experimental
group’.
▪ The different conditions under which experimental group and control group are
put up usually referred to as treatment.
8. Treatments
The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put areusually
referred to as ‘treatments’. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the usual studies
programme and the special studies programme. Similarly, if we want to
Research Methodology 14

determine through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on

the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.
9. Experiment
The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research
problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to examine the
usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute
experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact ofa fertilizer on
the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of
one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be
termed as a comparative experiment. Often, we undertakecomparative experiments when we
talk of designs of experiments.
10. Experimental unit(s)
The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are known
as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very carefully.

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PLAN

After identifying and defining the problem as also accomplishing the relating task, researcher
must arrange his ideas in order and write them in the form of an experimental plan or what can
be described as ‘Research Plan’. This is essential specially for new researcher because of the
following:
(a) It helps him to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him
to look for flaws and inadequacies, if any.
(b) It provides an inventory of what must be done and which materials have to be
collected as a preliminary step.
(c) It is a document that can be given to others for comment.
Research plan must contain the following items.
1. Research objective should be clearly stated in a line or two which tells exactly
what it is that the researcher expects to do.
2. The problem to be studied by researcher must be explicitly stated so that one
may know what information is to be obtained for solving the problem.
3. Each major concept which researcher wants to measure should be defined in
operational terms in context of the research project.
Research Methodology 15

4. The plan should contain the method to be used in solving the problem. An overall
description of the approach to be adopted is usually given and assumptions, if any,
of the concerning method to be used are clearly mentioned in the research plan.
5. The plan must also state the details of the techniques to be adopted. For instance,
if interview method is to be used, an account of the nature of the contemplated
interview procedure should be given. Similarly, if tests are to be given, the
conditions under which they are to be administered should be specified along
with the nature of instruments to be used. If public records areto be consulted
as sources of data, the fact should be recorded in the research plan. Procedure for
quantifying data should also be written out in all details.
6. A clear mention of the population to be studied should be made. If the study
happens to be sample based, the research plan should state the sampling plan i.e.,
how the sample is to be identified. The method of identifying the sample should
be such that generalisation from the sample to the original population is feasible.
7. The plan must also contain the methods to be used in processing the data.
Statistical and other methods to be used must be indicated in the plan. Such
methods should not be left until the data have been collected. This part of the plan
may be reviewed by experts in the field, for they can often suggest changes that
result in substantial saving of time and effort.
8. Results of pilot test, if any, should be reported. Time and cost budgets for the
research project should also be prepared and laid down in the plan itself.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Various types of research design are as follow:
1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies;
2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.
We can take up each category separately.
1. Research design in case of exploratory or formulative research studies
The main purpose of such studies is
❖ Exploratory research is used when problems are in a preliminary stage.
Research Methodology 16

❖ Exploratory research is used when the topic or issue is new and when data is
difficult to collect.
❖ Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses.
❖ Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection
method and selection of subjects.
❖ The discovery of ideas and insights.
❖ Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types
(what, why, how). But it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many".
❖ Individual surveys, referring to secondary sources of data etc. play an important
role in such research designs.
❖ Reviewing related literature, following or surveying people having practical
experience in the problem related field act as very important and most commonly
used methods by an exploratory researcher.
Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are
talked about:
1. The survey of concerning literature;
• The survey of concerning literature is the most simple and fruitful method
of formulating the research problem or developing hypothesis.
• Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their
usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research.
. 2. The experience survey
• Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical
experience with the problem to be studied.
• The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships
between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem.
3. The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples
• For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined.
• The unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach
may be adopted.
• Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the
researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified
interpretation are the main features which make this method an
appropriate procedure for evoking insights.
Research Methodology 17

2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies

❖ Descriptive research studies are concerned with describing the characteristics of
a particular individual, or of a group.
Ex.: The studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of
descriptive research studies.
❖ The diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something
occur or its association with something else.
Ex.: The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated
The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:
a. Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it
being made?)
b. Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data
will be adopted?)
c. Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
d. Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time
period should the data be related?)
e. Processing and analysing the data.
f. Reporting the findings.
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:
Hypothesis-testing research studies are generally known as experimental studies.
In this studies
1. The researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.
2. The studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase
reliability, but also will permit drawing inferences about causality.
Research Methodology 18

Table 3.1
Type of study
Research Design Exploratory of Formulative Descriptive/Diagnostic
Overall design Flexible design (design must Rigid design (design must make
provide opportunity for enough provision for protection
considering different aspects against bias and must maximise
of the problem) reliability)
(i) Sampling design Non-probability sampling Probability sampling design
design (random sampling)
(ii) Statistical design No pre-planned design for Pre-planned design for analysis
analysis
(iii) Observational Unstructured instruments for Structured or well thought out
collection of data instruments for collection of data
(iv) Operational design No fixed decisions about the Advanced decisions about
operational procedures. operational procedures

3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies)
• Explains the structure of an experiment.
• Involve plans for the testing of the causal hypothesis.
• Studies not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but permit drawing
inferences about causality.
• Decides the number of observations to be taken and also the order in
whichexperiments are to be carried out.
• Which randomization method to be used.
• Which mathematical model to be used for explaining the
experiment.Important experiment designs are as follows:
1. Informal experimental design
• After only design.
• After only with control design.
• Before and after without control design.
• Before and after with control design.
2. Formal experimental design
• Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
• Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
• Latin square designs (L.S. Design).
Research Methodology 19

Factorial design

QUESTIONS-I SET
1. Define the term ‘Review of literature’, how is it different from traditional meaning?
Enumerate the objectives and significance of review of literature.
2. Explain the need and functions of review of literature.
3. Describe the role of review of literature in historical research and survey,
experimental type of research in education.
4. Enumerate the sources of review of literature and suggestions, for the use of library
for this purpose.
5. Describe principles and procedures of review of literature and precautions in
consulting library material.

QUESTIONS-II SET
1. Describe fully the techniques of defining a research problem.
2. What is research problem? Define the main issues which should receive the attention
of the researcher in formulating the research problem. Give suitable examples to elucidate
your points.
3. How do you define a research problem? Give three examples to illustrate your answer.
4. What is the necessity of defining a research problem? Explain.
5. Write short notes on:
(a) Experience survey;
(b) Pilot survey;
Research Methodology 20

(c) Components of a research problem;

(d) Rephrasing the research problem.
6. “The task of defining the research problem often follows a sequential pattern”. Explain.
7. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow down the problem itself as well
as the technique that might be used.” Explain the underlying idea in this statement in
the context of defining a research problem.
8. Write a comprehensive note on the “Task of defining a research problem”.

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