COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Lectures: Dr. Kashif Naseer Qureshi

WEEK-5: PROCESSOR DATA PATH AND CONTROL
Processor Data Path and Control
Processor Data Path and Control
–It is a fundamental components of a CPU (Central Processing Unit) in a
computer system.

Processor Data Path

– The data path is the portion of the CPU responsible for the manipulation
and processing of data.

– It comprises various components such as registers, arithmetic logic units

(ALUs), multiplexers, and buses.

– The data path is where actual computation takes place, including

arithmetic operations, logic operations, and data movement between
registers and memory.
Processor Data Path and Control
Processor Data Path and Control

Control Unit
– The CU is another crucial component of the CPU that manages the
execution of instructions.

– It generates control signals that coordinate the activities of the data

path, memory, and other peripheral devices to execute instructions
fetched from the memory.

– The CU decodes instructions, determines the sequence of operations,

and directs data movement and processing within the CPU.
Processor Data Path and Control
Processor Data Path and Control

Interaction

– The control unit and data path work closely together to execute
instructions efficiently.

– The control unit fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and
generates control signals to direct the data path's operations
accordingly.

– This interaction ensures that instructions are executed in the correct

sequence and that data is processed accurately.
Processor Data Path and Control
Importance in Computer Architecture

• Execution of Instructions

• Performance Optimization
• Resource Utilization

• Flexibility and Adaptability

• Fault Tolerance and Error Handling

• Scalability and Future-Proofing

Processor Data Path and Control
Processor Components Overview

• Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Control Unit

• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

• Registers

• Data Path

• Memory Management Unit (MMU)

• Cache Memory

• Pipeline
Processor Data Path and Control
Data Path
– The data path, also known as the data processing unit

– Responsible for executing arithmetic and logic operations on data.

– It consists of various functional units, such as registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), multiplexers, and buses,
interconnected to facilitate the movement and manipulation of data during instruction execution.

Diagram of Data Path Components

• Registers
– Small, high-speed storage units
– Hold temporarily data, operands, and intermediate results during instruction execution.
– Common types include accumulator, general-purpose registers, and program counter.

• Arithmetic Logic Units (ALUs)

– Perform arithmetic operations and logic operations on data.

– Receive input operands from registers and produce output results based on the operation specified by the instruction.
Processor Data Path and Control
Data Path
Processor Data Path and Control
Data Path

• Multiplexers (MUX)

– Digital circuits that select one of several input data sources and route it to a single output.

– In the data path, multiplexers are used to select operands, control signals, or data paths

based on the instruction being executed.

• Buses

– Communication pathways that allow data to be transferred between various components of

the CPU, memory, and peripheral devices.

– Consist of data buses, address buses, and control buses, each serving a specific purpose in

data movement and control.

Processor Data Path and Control
Data Path

• Data Path Control Signals

– These signals are generated by the control unit and used to coordinate the

activities of the data path components. They include signals for selecting input

sources, enabling/disabling operations, and controlling data flow within the CPU.

• Data Path Functionality

– Perform arithmetic and logic operations on data as instructed by the CPU's
control unit.

– During instruction execution, the control unit fetches instructions from memory,
decodes them, and generates control signals to direct the data path's operations.

– Input operands and control signals are fetched from registers and memory.
Processor Data Path and Control
Data Path Functionality….

– Determines the operation to be performed (e.g., addition, subtraction)

– Generates control signals

– Executes the operation

– Multiplexers select appropriate data paths

– The result is stored back in registers or memory

– Timely and accurate execution of instructions

– Contributing to the overall performance

Processor Data Path and Control
Control Unit
– Managing the execution of instructions.

– Controls the activities of other CPU components

Role in Executing Instructions

• Instruction Fetch
– The CU retrieves instructions from memory according to the program counter's value, which
specifies the address of the next instruction to be executed.
• Instruction Decode
– Once an instruction is fetched, the CU decodes it to determine the operation to be
performed, the data involved, and the required resources.
Processor Data Path and Control
Control Signal Generation
– Generates control signals

– Direct the data path's operations, such as selecting input operands, enabling specific
functions in the ALU

– Controlling data movement.

Execution Sequencing
– Executed in the correct sequence

– Flow control
Error Handling
– Error detection and handling, (detecting arithmetic overflow or illegal instructions)

–Initiating appropriate error-handling procedures.

Processor Data Path and Control
Instruction Execution Cycle
• Process through which a CPU executes instructions.

Fetch Stage
– CPU retrieves the next instruction from memory
– Instruction stored in a special register called the instruction register
(IR)
Decode Stage
– CPU decodes the fetched instruction
– Interpreting the instruction opcode and extracting operand addresses
or immediate values.
Execute Stage
• CPU performs the actual operation
• Produced as output
Processor Data Path and Control
Store Stage
– The result stored back in memory or a register, depending on the
instruction's requirements.

– CPU writes the result back to the specified memory location.

[Fetch] -> [Decode] -> [Execute] -> [Store]

• Each stage of the cycle is interconnected

• Forming a continuous loop

• CPU processes instructions, enabling the execution of complex programs

and tasks.
Processor Data Path and Control
Control Signals
– Electrical signals generated by the CU

– To control the activities of various CPU components

– Directing the flow of data

– Ensuring that instructions are executed accurately and efficiently.

Examples of Control Signals

• Read/Write Signals

• Clock Signal

• Enable/Disable Signals

• Control Signals for ALU Operations

Processor Data Path and Control
Examples of Control Signals

• Control Signals for Data Path Multiplexers

• Branch Control Signals

• How Control Signals Influence Data Path Operation

• Selecting Input Sources

• Enabling/Disabling Operations

• Routing Data Paths

• Coordinating Timing and Sequencing

Processor Data Path and Control
Data Path and Control Interaction

How Control Signals Direct Data Path Operations:

• Control signals generated by the control unit dictate the activities of the data
path components during instruction execution.

• These signals determine which operations are performed, which data paths
are selected, and how data is moved and manipulated within the CPU.

– Control signals specify the input sources for the ALU, enable/disable operations, and
control the routing of data within the data path.
Processor Data Path and Control
Data Path and Control Interaction

Role of Control Unit in Instruction Execution

• It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them to determine the
required operations, and generates control signals accordingly.

• Flow of control and data between the CPU components, ensuring that
instructions are executed accurately and efficiently.

Synchronization of Data Path and Control

• Synchronization between the data path and control unit

• Generates control signals that synchronize the timing and sequencing of

operations within the data path.

• Ensure that instructions are executed in the correct order

Processor Data Path and Control
Microprogramming vs. Hardwired Control
Microprogramming

– Technique where complex control signals are generated by

executing a sequence of microinstructions stored in a control

memory.

– Each microinstruction corresponds to a specific control signal or

sequence of control signals, providing a low-level control

mechanism for the CPU.

Processor Data Path and Control
Microprogramming vs. Hardwired Control
Hardwired Control

– Also known as combinational or fixed logic control

– Uses fixed hardware circuits to generate control signals directly based

on the instruction opcode.

– The control logic is implemented using combinational logic circuits

– Higher speed compared to microprogramming, as control signals are

generated directly without the need for sequence execution.

Processor Data Path and Control
Overview of ARM Architecture:
– ARM (Advanced RISC Machine) is a family of reduced instruction set
computing (RISC) architectures developed by ARM Holdings.

– ARM processors are known for

• Energy efficiency

• Low power consumption

• Scalability

– Suitable for smartphones, tablets, embedded systems, and IoT devices.

– Simple and streamlined instruction set

– Facilitates efficient instruction execution and minimizes hardware

complexity.
Processor Data Path and Control
Overview of ARM Architecture:

Data Path and Control Implementation in ARM

– A combination of microprogramming and hardwired

– Flexible and ease of modification

– Provide efficient handling of complex instructions and system

configurations.

– Optimize performance and minimize latency, particularly for frequently

executed instructions and critical control signals.

– ARM processors feature a highly optimized data path design with

efficient pipelining, caching, and memory access mechanisms to
maximize throughput and minimize idle cycles.
Processor Data Path and Control
Overview of ARM Architecture:

Efficiency and Performance Considerations

• Energy efficiency and performance optimization

• The streamlined instruction set and efficient data path architecture

• Low power consumption

• High performance-per-watt metrics

• Advanced power management features

• ARM's scalable architecture

Processor Data Path and Control
Challenges and Future Directions

• Complexity Management:

• Performance Enhancement Strategies:

• Emerging Trends

• Parallelism

• Pipelining

• Specialized Accelerators:

• Energy Efficiency
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