1. This construct is iteratively updated by truncating a Taylor expansion in the SR1 method.

An
approximation of this construct is multiplied by the step direction and set equal to del-f in each step of the
BFGS algorithm. In optimization problems, the definiteness of this construct can be used to identify solutions
among the stationary points of the Lagrange multiplier. The (*) Laplacian is the trace of this matrix. This
matrix is symmetric due to the symmetry of the underlying operation of its elements by Clairaut’s theorem. This
matrix is indefinite at saddle points and positive semidefinite for convex functions. For 10 points, name this matrix
consisting of second partial derivatives of a scalar-valued multivariable function.
ANSWER: Hessian matrix (accept bordered Hessian; prompt on second partial derivatives until “matrix” and do
not accept or prompt afterwards; prompt on B or H or del-squared f; do not accept or prompt on “del f” or
“gradient”)

2. A formula for calculating this quantity is often multiplied by the Gaunt correction factor. In pulsating
stars, this quantity unusually increases upon compression due to the high degree of ionization. A background
value of this quantity induced by Thomson scattering is used when computing the Eddington luminosity, and
ignores bound-bound, bound-free and free-free contributions. A negative 7/2-power law dependence of the
frequency-averaged form of this quantity on temperature is given by (*) Kramers’ Law. This quantity is often
expressed in Rosseland mean form. The optical depth is equal to the distance integral of the product of the density
and this quantity. The SI unit for this quantity is meters squared per kilogram, and it is defined as the reciprocal of
the product of density and mean free path. For 10 points, name this quantity denoted kappa which measures the
impenetrability of stellar atmospheres to light.
ANSWER: opacity (accept Rosseland mean opacity; accept mean absorption coefficient)

3. Damage to these cells can be assessed using the CD146 marker. These cells contain storage granules called
Weibel-Palade bodies, which often exhibit the protein P-selectin. The protein VCAM-1 is activated after
cytokines stimulate these cells. The nitric oxide produced by these cells is a potent vasodilator which causes
an increase in VSM cyclic GMP, and is historically called their namesake (*) relaxing factor. A common early
symptom of many cardiovascular diseases is these cells’ namesake dysfunction. These cells are often distinguished
from a similar type of cell with the presence of vimentin. For 10 points, name these cells which form a namesake
tissue lining the interior surfaces of blood vessels, often contrasted with epithelial cells.
ANSWER: endothelial cells (accept answers describing cells in the endothelium; prompt on epithelial cells due to
the vague distinction; prompt on mesenchymal cells)

4. In microbiological analysis, this quantity can be adjusted using a chemical solution of barium chloride and
sulfuric acid, called a McFarland standard. In the air, this quantity’s namesake factor, denoted T-sub-L, is a
convenient measure for pollution. A region with a sharp gradient in this quantity is called a lutocline. The
EPA uses a unit for this quantity called (*) NTU, which is measured with a nephelometer, to develop water
quality standards. The extinction coefficient is used as a measure of this quantity when using a Secchi disk. The
Bouma sequence is a set of sedimentary structures induced by this quantity’s namesake currents. For 10 points,
name this quantity which measures the cloudiness of a fluid induced by suspended particles.
ANSWER: turbidity (accept Linke turbidity factor; accept turbidity currents)

5. The weathering feedback loop ESWI occurs for bodies that have undergone this process. When estimating
the characteristic time for this process, the greatest sources of uncertainty are the dissipation function and
the k2 Love number. When that characteristic time is in the billions of years, the radius at which this process
occurs is slightly greater than the Hill radius. The (*) 3:2 spin-orbit resonance of Mercury is an example of this
phenomenon relative to the Sun which unusally does not involve synchronous rotation. This phenomenon occurs
when the rotational and orbital period of a satellite are equal. For 10 points, name this phenomenon which ensures
that the same half of the Moon is visible at all times.
ANSWER: tidal locking (or gravitational locking; or captured rotation; or word forms thereof; prompt on spin-
orbit resonance; do not accept or prompt on “rotation”)

6. Strong fields may induce a form for this process which requires energies twice as high as usual, called the
Trident process. The mean free path for this process is 9/7 times the radiation length. Bremsstrahlung and
this process are the primary interaction mechanisms in the electromagnetic shower. When this process
occurs virtually, a dielectric constant is imparted on free space, a phenomenon called (*) vacuum polarization.
This process is dominant over Compton scattering and the photoelectric effect at energy levels well above 1 MeV.
This process leads to recoil of the nucleus involved. This process requires particles with energies of at least 1.022
MeV, and its inverse is electron-positron annihilation. For 10 points, name this process in which an electron and a
positron is produced by a photon.
ANSWER: pair production (prompt on vacuum polarization before read; accept Trident process before read)

7. The upper bound error rate of performing this operation randomly is the subject of the Johnson–
Lindenstrauss lemma. In one common technique for dimensionality reduction, this procedure is performed
with respect to every column of an orthogonal matrix in the eigendecomposition of the covariance matrix. In
linear algebra, a matrix named for this operation satisfies the equation P squared equals P. This process is
performed with respect to (*) orthogonal axes in PCA. The Gram-Schmidt process subtracts the output of this
process from each vector in a basis. For two vectors u and v, the output of this process is given by the dot product of
u and v divided by the norm of the square of u, multiplied by u. For 10 points, name this process exemplified by a
flat representation of a sphere named for Mercator.
ANSWER: projection(s) (or vector projection; or map projection; prompt on PCA with “What mathematical
operation is performed at each step of PCA?”; prompt on dimensionality reduction)

8. A 2000 paper by Lawler et al. showed that the dimension of this phenomenon’s namesake frontier is 4/3. A
boosting algorithm based on equations governing this phenomenon was developed by Yoav Freund, and
features a non-convex potential loss function. Blob and edge detection often rely on the fact that, in R-n, the
infinitesimal generator of this phenomenon is one-half of the Laplace operator. A common problem
regarding this phenomenon is when a (*) particle will escape, the narrow escape problem. The Ornstein–
Uhlenbeck process a variant of this process for massive particles in the presence of friction. The probability
distribution function for particles undergoing this process is given by the Fokker-Planck equation. For 10 points,
name this stochastic process modeled as a Wiener process, the random motion of suspended particles.
ANSWER: Brownian motion (or pedesis; accept Brownian frontier; accept Wiener process before mention;
prompt on diffusion; prompt on BrownBoost)

9. Description acceptable.
A quantity often named for this condition is the largest of three related quantities by Normand’s theorem.
Plotting a power law relationship between the ratios of atmospheric temperature vs. pressure under this
condition gives an exponent of 2/7. An adiabat describing this condition is the less steep of two lines which
intersect at the LCL on a diagram plotting Z vs. T. The adiabatic lapse rate under this condition is
approximately (*) 9.8 Kelvin per kilometer. Gravimetric hygrometers are usually calibrated using air with this
property. This property’s namesake bulb temperature is often used to refer to the actual air temperature, and air with
this property has a low dew point. For 10 points, give this property of air with low humidity.
ANSWER: dryness (accept obvious equivalents; accept dry bulb temperature; accept answers referring to low
humidity or low moisture or low water content or zero humidity/moisture/water content before the end; accept
“dew point” for humidity such as low dew point until mentioned; accept dry adiabatic lapse rate)

10. Participants in the annual Sygenta challenge design machine learning models to predict and optimize this
quantity. Estimates of this quantity from remote sensing data such as GYURI are often computed by fitting a
double-Gaussian curve. The impact of nematodes on this quantity is given by the Seinhorst model. This
quantity is plotted on the y-axis of the Bleasdale-Nelder and Farazdaghi-Harris curves, which exemplify
curves plotting this quantity against (*) density. The seed ratio is the ratio between the investment in seeds and
this quantity. This quantity is usually measured in kilograms per acre or bushels per hectare. For 10 points, name
this quantity which gives the agricultural productivity of land.
ANSWER: crop yield (accept agricultural productivity before mention; prompt on answers indicating the amount
of vegetation)

11. This quantity is the supremum of the field of values, which is the range of the Rayleight quotient. In
epidemiology, the basic reproduction number is this property of the next-generation matrix. For any matrix
norm, the limit of the norm of A-to-the-k all to the 1 over k is this property of A, by (**) Gelfand’s theorem.
The maximum of the quadratic form x-transpose-A-x divided the L2-norm of x is this property of A. This
quantity is the magnitude of the first output of the (*) power iteration. A matrix is convergent if and only if this
quantity is less than 1. Because this property for any stochastic matrix is 1, all Markov chains have at least one
stationary distribution. This quantity is the maximal magnitude of the roots of the characteristic polynomial of a
matrix. For 10 points, give this quantity, denoted rho-of-A, defined as the maximum absolute value of the
eigenvalues of a matrix.
ANSWER: spectral radius (accept numerical radius; prompt on eigenvalue or dominant eigenvalue or answers
indicating the magnitude of the largest eigenvalue)

12. Symmetric examples of these objects are odeco. Rates and directions of diffusion are incorporated into
one of these objects used to computationally model diffusion MRI. These objects are the first namesake of a
theory proposed by Bekenstein which fails to predict observations in the Bullet Cluster and extends MOND.
Unlike the SVD, Tucker decompositions such as HOSVD are applied to these objects. These objects are
analogous to NumPy arrays in PyTorch. Keras builds upon a software collection named for these objects
which is used to implement (*) machine learning models. In mechanics, one of these objects is invariant under
stretching in the principal axes. The outer product of an arbitrary number of vectors is one of these objects.
Quantities often expressed as these mathematical objects include the stress and the moment of inertia. For 10 points,
name these mathematical objects which generalize matrices to higher dimensions.
ANSWER: tensors (prompt on stress or moment of inertia with “What type of mathematical object is used to
represent stress/moment of inertia?”; do not accept or prompt on “matrices” or “vectors”)

13. This man is the alphabetically latter namesake of a theorem which states that a bounded function on a
compact interval is Riemann integrable if and only if it is continuous almost everywhere. A result named for
this mathematician extends (**) Lebesgue’s dominated convergence theorem by characterizing convergence
in L-p in terms of convergence in measure and uniform integrability. This mathematician names a result
about the existence of a disjoint sublist of open intervals with three times the length containing the original
list up to a negligible subset, his (*) covering lemma. A set named for this mathematician satisfies the property
that, for each real number r, there exists exactly one number in the set such that v minus r is rational. For 10 points,
name this Italian mathematician who names the prototypical non-measurable subset of the real numbers.
ANSWER: Giuseppe Vitali

14. A modification to this proof technique is visualized by intersecting a family of symmetric hyperbolae in
the first quadrant with the line y = x. This technique was used along with the finiteness of the quotient group
E-Q mod 2E-Q to prove the Mordell–Weil theorem. The aforementioned modification to this proof technique
is called Vieta jumping. This technique is often applied on homogenous equations because the inputs can be
assumed to be coprime. In most contexts, this technique makes use of the (*) well-ordering of the integers.
Classroom examples of this proof technique include the n = 4 case of Fermat’s Last Theorem, and proving that the
square root of 2 is irrational. For 10 points, name this technique which arrives at a contradiction by showing that if a
Diophantine equation has a solution in positive integers, then there exists another smaller one.
ANSWER: proof by infinite descent (accept Vieta jumping before mention; accept root flipping before “Vieta
jumping”; prompt on partial answer; prompt on proof by contradiction)

15. HMF undergoes this type of reaction to produce BHMF. The direct form of this reaction, which has
attracted theoretical interest but has not been implemented industrially, produces 1,2-propanediol and
isopropanol as by-products. Fatty alcohols can be produced in a reactor whose final step is the sump phase
form of this reaction. Alkenes are adsorbed onto a metal in the first step of the Horiuti–Polanyi for
catalyzing this type of reaction. A reagent consisting of (*) ruthenium binded to BINAP performs the catalytic
asymmetric type of this reaction. Wilkinson’s catalyst is widely used for performing this type of reaction on
alkenes. Unsaturated fats are converted to saturated ones during this type of reaction. For 10 points, name this type
of reduction in which hydrogen gas is added across a double bond.
ANSWER: hydrogenation (prompt on reduction)

16. This equation was used by Lopes et al. as an alternative to the Lagergren equation to model the removal
of mercury (II) from aqueous solutions via adsorption onto thin chitosan membranes. The Jeziorny method
adds the logarithm of a rate term to this equation to account for temperature fluctuations. This equation is
combined with the (**) Ozawa equation in the Mo method. The exponent of the time in this equation depends
on whether the process it describes occurs in homogeneous or heterogeneous fashion and is usually between
(*) 1 and 4. Major assumptions made when deriving this equation include a constant growth rate and random and
homogeneous nucleation at all sites. For 10 points, name this eponymous equation which is used to model the
kinetics of isothermal single crystallization.
ANSWER: Avrami equation (or Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov equation; or JMAK equation)

17. It’s not measured in meters, but for devices with extremely low values of this quantity, a Gaussian shape
is replaced with an expression proportional to hyperbolic secant squared. Methods for measuring low values
of this quantity include FROG and SPIDER. A method for producing low values of this quantity can be
enhanced with spectral modulation in a technique called FDML. A non-AM or FM modulation named for
this quantity can be performed by adjusting the PRF and the duty cycle. For a laser, this is limited for a
given (*) spectral bandwidth by an analogue of the uncertainty principle. A fixed phase relationship between
longitudinal modes is induced in a technique to produce low values of this quantity, called mode locking. This
quantity is multiplied by the power to obtain the work performed by a laser per pulse. For 10 points, name this
quantity which, for ultrashort laser pulses, can be measured in femtoseconds.
ANSWER: pulse duration (or pulse width; accept coherence time; prompt on time or lifetime; prompt on t or delta
t)

18. SPH simulations of spherical halo mergers by Zhang et al. indicated that this quantity is roughly equal to
the predicted value in the pre-merger stage but significantly greater than predicted during the post-merger
stage. H. Olivier devised a model for this quantity in frozen equilibrium flow. A normalized form of this
quantity is related to a free stream energy parameter by the (**) Hornung correlation. That form of this
quantity is computed by dividing this quantity by the curvature radius. It’s not drag or drag coefficient, but
this quantity is greatest just above Mach 1 and roughly constant in the hypersonic regime. For 15 points,
name this quantity symbolized delta, which, in supersonic flows, is defined as the distance between the
stagnation point and a namesake front. (*)
ANSWER: (dimensionless) shock standoff distance (or SSD; prompt on partial answer; prompt on delta)

19. A spectral method named for this quantity is often used to simulate the propagation of gravity waves in
the atmosphere. Methods for solving hyperbolic PDE’s, such as the Lax-Friedrichs method, often add an
“artificial” term named for this quantity to the FTCS scheme. In CFD, the numerical form of this quantity
often arises when discretizing the advection term in the Navier-Stokes equations. The (*) drag on a spherical
body varies linearly with velocity for high values of this quantity and quadratically for low values. The Hagen–
Poiseuille equation is only valid when this quantity is large compared to inertial forces. Dividing the dynamic form
of this quantity by the density gives the kinematic form. For 10 points, name this quantity which characterizes a
fluid’s resistance to flow.
ANSWER: viscosity (accept spectral viscosity method; accept artificial viscosity; accept dynamic viscosity; accept
kinematic viscosity)

20. All Lipschitz continuous functions are order 1 of the Nemitski type of these functions. When these
functions have Lipscitz constants sigma with respect to a hypothesis class H, they are sigma-admissible.
Surrogate types of these functions are often used as proxies for computational purposes and are exemplified
by the hinge type. Methods of (*) regularization usually add a factor of a function of the coefficients to this type of
function. In backpropagation, gradient descent is performed on one of these functions. Common examples of these
functions for regression include RMSE and mean absolute error. For 10 points, name these functions used as
performance metrics in machine learning problems.
ANSWER: loss functions (or cost functions; accept performance metrics before mention; prompt on error
functions; prompt on objective functions)

21. Band dispersion relations are commonly derived using a form of perturbation theory which computes the
dot product between the wave vector and this vector. For charge carriers in topological insulators, this
vector is always perpendicular to the spin, a phenomenon called locking. A form of this quantity is given by
the reduced Planck constant times the wave vector, its (*) crystal form. The Brilluoin zone is the primitive cell
of the reciprocal lattice in this quantity’s space. Because this quantity’s space is the Fourier transform of the
position space, this quantity cannot be precisely measured simultaneously with position. For 10 points, name this
quantity which is classically equal to mass times velocity.
ANSWER: linear momentum (accept crystal momentum; accept p; do not accept or prompt on “angular
momentum” or “rotational momentum”)

21. Description Acceptable

The COLEX process was an early attempt to perform this procedure by adding an amalgam to an aqueous
strong base. A vortex tube allows twenty stages for a form of this procedure to be combined into one in the
Helikon process. The GEBIK or GEBIF equations may be used to model the kinetics of this procedure when
it is performed in a transient kinetic manner. The efficiency of devices used in this process is quantified in
SWUs. A form of this procedure can be performed with a (*) Zippe-type device, which contains a rotating
magnetic field and is usually filled with the hexafluoride of one element. One method for this procedure dissolves
yellowcake in nitric acid. One element which has undergone a form of this procedure is usually differentiated into
HEU and LEU types depending on the extent. For 10 points, name this procedure which is often used to obtain
uranium-235 from natural uranium.
ANSWER: isotope separation (or isotope fractionation; or uranium enrichment; or lithium enrichment; accept
answers indicating the extraction of isotopes; accept answers replacing any specific isotope in place of “isotopes”
such as extracting lithium-6 or extracting uranium-235 or extracting deuterium; prompt on centrifugation;
prompt on gaseous diffusion; prompt on answers indicating extracting elements or the extraction of any specific
element; prompt on answers such as building nuclear reactors or building nuclear bombs with “What chemical
procedure is used for that task?”)

22. SPICE parameters used to simulate these devices include transit time, or TT, as well as CJO. A factor
denoted eta describes these devices’ deviation from ideal behavior, and can be as high as 2 in the presence of
high current densities. A stabistor is a type of these devices with an extremely stable forward voltage.
Negative resistance occurs when electrons tunnel through a P-N junction in a type of these devices named for
(*) Esaki. These devices may deviate from their usual behavior for sufficiently high values of the reverse bias. A
type of these devices emits light when a current flows through them and is often used with lamps. For 10 points,
name these circuit elements which only allow current to flow in one direction and include LEDs.
ANSWER: diodes (accept light-emitting diodes; accept LEDs before metion; prompt on semiconductor devices)
(The second sentence refers to the non-ideality factor)

23. A lymphocyte named for this letter expresses both B-cell and T-cell receptors, and is widely considered to
be a “rogue” cell which drives Type 1 diabetes. A 154-amino acid protein often named for this single letter
interferes with transcription and apoptosis among HBV patients. This letter written out gives an alternate
name to the Stuart–Prower factor, whose deficiency causes blood clotting disorders. A (*) condition named for
this letter is most commonly caused by expansions of the CGG repeat and is a common inherited cause of
intellectual disabilities. Red-green color blindness and DMD are examples of this letter’s namesake linked recessive
disorders. An extra structure named for this letter is present in people with Klinefelter syndrome. For 10 points,
females have two of what letter’s chromosome?
ANSWER: X (accept X cell or X lymphocyte or Protein X or Factor X or Fragile X Syndrome or X chromosome(s))

24. A book by Peter Jansson, who names a method for this operation, is titled for this operation and spectra.
Krishnan et al. introduced the use of hyper-Laplacian priors for efficiently performing this operation. A
common approach to a form of this operation is to test varying values of the (**) point-spread function.
Seismologists use this operation to obtain a reflectivity function from seismogram measurements and a
wavelet. A form of this operation can be performed by taking the (*) Fourier transform of the output, and
dividing the result by the Fourier transform of the impulse function, which uses a theorem named for the reverse of
this operation. That is the nonblind form of this operation, which is contrasted with the blind form in which the
kernel is unknown. For 10 points, name this operation which reverses an operation symbolized f-star-g.
ANSWER: deconvolution (accept image reconstruction or signal reconstruction or image restoration; prompt on
image processing or signal processing with “What mathematical operation is used?”, do not accept or prompt on
“convolution”)

25. The filling factor and this quantity are the two dimensionless quantities used to define the A-f-rho
parameter used to measure mass loss rates of comets. This quantity is related to polarization by Umov’s law.
The geometric form of this quantity is related to its Bond form by the phase integral in terms of directional
scattered flux. The incoming energy in climate models is the solar constant times (*) 1 minus this quantity,
times pi r-squared. Enceladus has the highest known value of this quantity among any body in the Solar System.
This quantity is equal to 1 minus the emissivity according to Kirchoff’s law. A positive feedback loop is based on
the high value of this quantity for ice. For 10 points, name this quantity which is 0 for a blackbody and 1 for a body
which reflects all incoming radiation.
ANSWER: albedo

26. In 2018, McInnes et al. devised an alternative to t-SNE which assumes data takes on this distribution over
a manifold. The Fisher-Neyman factorization theorem can be applied to this distribution by splitting the
indicator function into two indicators of intersecting intervals, and shows that the nth order statistic is
sufficient. Eigenvalues of random matrices approach this distribution according to the circular law.
Legendre polynomials are mutually orthogonal with respect to this distribution. The (*) German tank problem
concerns estimation of a parameter of this distribution. Taking the logarithm of a variable with this distribution
gives an exponential distribution. This distribution’s variance is one-twelfth of the square of its support, and its
CDF is linear along its support. For 10 points, name this distribution with constant PDF.
ANSWER: continuous uniform distribution (accept standard uniform) (The lead-in refers to UMAP)

27. A study by Blasco et al. found a high burden of structures named for this adjective in patients with
COVID-19 and ST-elevated myocardial infarction. The activation of structures named for this adjective
comes in vital and suicidal forms, and is called NETosis. A substance named for this adjective is divided into
intravascular and interstitial compartments. Neutrophils bind to pathogens using (*) traps named for this
adjective. A substance named for this adjective is characterized by high concentrations of sodium and low
concentrations of potassium, and makes up 20% of the human body. Collagen makes up much of the matrix named
for this adjective. For 10 points, name this adjective whose namesake fluid is not contained in cells, contrasted with
intracellular.
ANSWER: extracellular (accept neutrophil extracellular trap(s) or extracellular fluid or extracellular matrix)

28. In response to this phenomenon, γ-PAK is activated more than twofold in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts and U937
macrophages. The elevation of superoxide dismutase levels was used to discover nonlinearities in curves
describing this phenomenon, called the Petkau effect. The oxygen effect can increase the RBE and the
namesake weighting factor of this phenomenon. This phenomenon is the subject of the controversial (*) linear
no-threshold model. Fractionation is a technique used to mitigate the effects of this phenomenon. Complete blood
cell counts can be used to quantify the severity of this phenomenon’s namesake acute sickness. The SI unit for
exposure to this phenomenon is Coulombs per kilogram, while other common units include the Sievert and the Gray.
For 10 points, name this phenomenon which can lead to cancers such as leukemia.
ANSWER: ionizing radiation (or nuclear radiation; or gamma-ray radiation; accept acute radiation sickness;
prompt on light or high-energy light or photons or high-energy photons)

29. The simplest intrinsic matrix consists of this quantity, this quantity, and 1 on the diagonal. The disparity
is defined as this quantity times the baseline divided by the z-depth. The 4F system consists of two identical
devices for which this quantity is 0.2 of its SI unit. In projective geometry, this quantity can be computed as
half the width divided by the tangent of half of the horizontal field of view. The reciprocal of this quantity is
(*) measured in diopters and is the power of a lens. This quantity is classically approximated using the equation 1
over this quantity equals 1 over d-sub-o plus 1 over d-sub-i, called the mirror equation. For 10 points, name this
quantity denoted lowercase f which is the distance between the center of a lens to a namesake point where light rays
converge.
ANSWER: focal length (prompt on f or length)

30. Linear examples of these devices make use of materials with constant magnetic permeability, such as
bakelite and wood. A parameter named for these devices is defined as the DC power divided by the VA
rating, and is around 0.3 for half-wave rectifiers. The EMF equation for these devices is 2-pi over the square
root of 2 times F-N-A-B. The no-load impedance of the excitation branch of these devices can be determined
using the (*) open-circuit test. Losses in these devices are caused by hysteresis and eddy current effects in their
cores. These devices are usually placed at the source and end of power lines to deliver electricity to houses. For 10
points, name these devices which consist of inductively coupled coils and “step-down” or “step-up” voltage.
ANSWER: transformers (accept transformer utilization factor; prompt on inductors)

31. Delay corrections in this region may be approximated using the NeQuick-G code. This region’s namesake
traveling disturbances have been proposed as a method for detecting underground nuclear explosions.
Scintillations in this region are measured by the ratio of the standard deviation of signal intensity to the
actual intensity in the S4 index. The (*) uppermost portion of this region often differentiates into F1 and F2 layers
at night. In 2022, 40 SpaceX satellites were forced to re-enter after a geomagnetic storm increased the density of
this layer. This region reflects and refracts radio waves which then propagate as skywaves. This region’s D layer
occupies altitudes from 60 to 90 kilometers. For 10 points, name this region of the Earth’s atmosphere of high
densities of free electrons and namesake charged atoms and molecules.
ANSWER: ionosphere (prompt on Earth’s atmosphere or sky; prompt on thermosphere)

32. A related algorithm which performs this algorithm at each iteration achieves cubic convergence with a
Wilkinson shift. Online algorithms often use the “tall and skinny” variant of this algorithm, which is
numerically stable and easy to parallelize. This is the most popular algorithm defeated by the Kahan matrix.
Under certain conditions, the (**) iteration defined by this algorithm converges to the Schur form. It’s not
Gaussian elimination, but column pivoting is performed based on the trailing norm in the rank-revealing
variant of this algorithm, which is faster than SVD. A backward stable method of implementing this
algorithm uses Householder reflections as an alternative to the (*) Gram-Schmidt algorithm. This algorithm can
be derived from the Cholesky factorization with the second namesake factor set equal to the transpose of a lower
triangular matrix. For 10 points, name this algorithm which factorizes a matrix into orthogonal and upper triangular
factors.
ANSWER: QR factorization (or QR decomposition; accept QR iteration or QR algorithm; accept any variant
mentioning QR; accept QU or RRQR in place of “QR” at any time; accept LQ or QL or RQ in place of “QR”
before “lower triangular”; prompt on classical or modified Gram-Schmidt algorithm with “What other algorithm is
the Gram-Schmidt algorithm used to implement?”; prompt on matrix factorization or matrix decomposition)

33. Onsager and Feynman showed that vorticity enters quantized lines in a common material exhibiting this
phenomenon. The tricritical density of a phase transition involving this phenomenon is 2/3 according to the
the Blume–Emery–Griffiths Model. A material exhibiting this phenomenon can be synthesized using a
Pomaranchuk cell. Kosterlitz–Thouless theory fails to predict a discontinuity in density measured by the
torsional oscillator method at the (*) critical temperature for this phenomenon. Either Bose-Einstein condensation
or this phenomenon names an approach in which the vacuum is viewed as a material exhibiting this phenomenon.
Rollin films are formed by materials exhibiting this phenomenon. For 10 points, name this phenomenon, exhibited
by helium-4 below the lambda point, in which a fluid loses all viscosity.
ANSWER: superfluidity (accept word forms; prompt on BEC or Bose-Einstein condensation or word forms; do not
accept or prompt on superconductivity)

34. A scalar estimator is inadmissible if it takes on values outside of one of these entities containing all
possible values of a statistic. A k-cell is the Cartesian product of these entities. The Weierstrass
approximation theorem is a special case of the Stone-Weierstrass theorem in which the domain is one of these
entities. For Darboux functions, the continuous image of one of these entities is another of these entities,
which is an alternative formulation of the (*) intermediate value theorem. The radius of convergence of a power
series is one-half of the length of one of these entities of convergence. The mean value theorem applies when a
function is continuous along one of these sets. For 10 points, name these sets whose closed type contain all reals
between two numbers inclusive and are denoted with square brackets.
ANSWER: closed intervals (accept real intervals; accept closed unit interval; accept segments; prompt on sets or
closed sets; prompt on compact sets; prompt on closed balls with “What are the 1-dimensional analogs?”; do not
accept or prompt on “open intervals”)

35. Because these stars are difficult to model directly, so-called “synthetic models” for these stars neglect
time-dependent terms of the energy equation. Wolf-Rayet stars and these stars are the only confirmed stellar
sources of fluorine. About a quarter of these stars later transition into a “born-again” type of these stars.
Unlike the first dredge-up, the second and third dredge-ups occur in these stars. Subtypes of these stars
include OH/IR stars and (*) Mira variables. “Super-“ types of these stars may undergo electron-capture
supernovae. Especially massive examples of these stars may undergo hot bottom burning. The evolution of stars of
this type is divided into early and thermally pulsing phases. Carbon stars are a subtype of these stars. For 10 points,
name these stars along a branch parallel to the red giant branch on an H-R diagram.
ANSWER: asymptotic giant branch stars (or AGB stars; prompt on giants; prompt on carbon stars; do not accept or
prompt on “red giants”)
36. Efficient conditions for the heterogeneous catalysis of these reactions can be found by injecting an inert
gas into a reference sample and increasing temperatures over several minutes. Molecules in groundwater
undergo this type of reaction by reacting with nZVI. NOx molecules produced by diesel engines are broken
down by the adsorption of ammonia in the (*) selective catalytic form of these reactions. Carbon monoxide
undergoes this type of reaction in the water-gas shift reaction. Organic examples of these reactions commonly
convert carbonyls to hydroxyls. These reactions occur at the cathode of a galvanic cell, and to oxygen in a typical
fuel cell. For 10 points, name these reactions in which electrons are gained.
ANSWER: reduction reactions (prompt on redox or electron transfer) (The first sentence refers to temperature-
programmed reduction, or TPR)

37. The Rayleigh length is defined as the length over which this quantity increases by a factor of 2. The
derivative of the impact parameter with respect to the solid angle is proportional to this quantity times the
angle-derivative of this quantity. In nuclear engineering, this quantity contains a unitarity limit at which
reactions always occur, and reaction rates at low levels of this quantity are proportional to this quantity. A
form of this quantity may be calculated using the (*) Klein-Nishina formula. Young’s modulus is the product of
the spring constant times this quantity divided by the characteristic length. In scattering experiments, the square of
this quantity is the scattering amplitude, and this quantity is measured in barns. For 10 points, name this quantity
which can be measured in square Angstroms.
ANSWER: cross-sectional area (accept either underlined portion; accept differential cross-section or effective
cross-section; accept surface area)

38. In a so-called “elbow effect”, the convergence rate of the solution to this problem restricted to a ball varies
with 1 over root n or 1 over n depending on the dimension. A robust variant of this problem uses a bounded
loss function such as u-squared over the quantity u-squared plus sigma-squared. Methods for computing the
fundamental matrix usually use the solution of this problem when the system is overdetermined. Solving this
problem is equivalent to solving the (*) normal equations, which can be used to derive the Moore-Penrose
pseudoinverse and the hat matrix. Residuals are differences between the response variable and the values predicted
by the solution to this problem. This problem is stated as minimizing the L2-norm of X-beta minus Y. For 10
points, name this problem solved to find the coefficients of ordinary linear regression.
ANSWER: least-squares problem (or least-squares regression; accept normal equations before mention; prompt
on Ax=b; prompt on linear regression; prompt on optimization or minimization; prompt on maximum likelihood
estimation or MLE with “with what loss function?” and accept squared loss or L2-norm afterwards)

39. Evans, Mitchell, and Ninham devised a model for a form of this non-solvation process in which the degree
of counterion dissociation is calculated by analytically solving the nonlinear Poisson-Boltzmann equation.
The logarithm of a quantity describing this process is plotted against the alkyl tail length in a Stauff-Klevens
plot. A form of this process occurs more readily when the subjects come in cylinder shapes, which occurs at
(*) packing parameters greater than ½. The Gibbs free energy of a form of this process is R-T times the logarithm
of the CMC. Above a critical concentration, surfactants undergo this process to form micelles. This process occurs
when monolayers adsorb onto a gold surface. For 10 points, name this process in which molecular units
spontaneously aggregate to form complex structures.
ANSWER: molecular self-assembly (accept micellization or answers indicating the formation of micelles before
“micelles” and prompt afterwards; prompt on aggregation) (The leadin refers to the dressed micelle model)

40. P-names are defined by recursively appending elements of constructs named for this technique. A Laver
tree was used in a form of this technique to establish the consistency of Borel’s conjecture. Theorems first
proven using this technique include the low basis theorem and Easton’s theorem. A form of this technique
appends an (**) order with a measure 1 set of random reals. If every antichain of an order is countable, then
performing this technique preserves cofinalities and cardinalities. This technique’s namesake (*) posets are
defined by atomless preorders. This technique was first used by its devisor to prove the independence of the
continuum hypothesis and ZFC theory. For 10 points, name this technique devised by Paul Cohen to prove many
problems in set theory.
ANSWER: forcing (accept Laver forcing or Easton forcing or Amoeba forcing or forcing posets)

41. An algorithm for detecting these objects modifies the Vasilevskis-Sanders algorithm by nonparametrically
comparing the spatial distribution to a uniform distribution. In 2022, a team led by Zhihong He used that
algorithm, UPMASK, to detect over 500 candidates for these objects from Gaia’s EDR3 dataset. They’re not
exoplanets, but in one technique, the distance to these objects is proportional to the radial velocity divided by
the proper motion. The (*) embedded type of these structures are areas of active star formation, and are common
in molecular clouds. Analogs of these objects which are less gravitationally bound are called stellar associations.
For 10 points, name these groupings of stars which come in open and globular types.
ANSWER: star clusters (or stellar clusters; accept open clusters or globular clusters; accept stellar associations
before mention) (The third sentence refers to the moving cluster method)

42. The Grassmanian type of these entities is the set of these entities over an n-dimensional vector space. The
closed sets of the Zariski topology are equal to the algebraic subsets of these entities. The definitions of these
entities are loosened in the definition of (**) schemes. Projective types of these entities are uniquely
determined by a prime ideal. Unlike (*) manifolds, these entities are allowed to contain singular points. By the
Hilbert basis theorem, a finite number of polynomials are sufficient to determine one of these entities. These entities
are defined by the solutions of a system of polynomial equations. For 10 points, name these generalizations of
curves and surfaces to higher dimensions, central to the study of algebraic geometry.
ANSWER: algebraic varieties (prompt on schemes before mention; antiprompt on manifolds or curves or surfaces
before mention)

43. Dependencies are incorporated into this algorithm by the QD variant. A simplified implementation of this
algorithm is equivalent to using power iteration on the normalized adjacency matrix, which computes its (**)
dominant eigenvector. The output of this algorithm exists and is unique by the Perron-Frobenius theorem.
The full version of this algorithm takes the output of a simplified version and weighs a vector of ones by the
damping factor. This algorithm treats a (*) graph as a random walk, finds the stationary state, and chooses the
nodes with the highest stationary probability. Personalized variants of this algorithm assign preferences based on
search histories. For 10 points, name this algorithm which is used by the Google search engine to find the most
popular websites.
ANSWER: PageRank

44. Matrices with this property are permuted by the Cuthill-McKee algorithm. For input vectors with this
property, the Winnow algorithm is computationally more efficient than the perceptron. Systems with this
property can be solved efficiently by an incomplete LU decomposition in Stone’s method, as well as by the
conjugate gradient method. A constraint involving this property can be enforced by bounding the L0-norm
of a vector, which is more strict than (*) Lasso. Matrices with this property can be stored in the CSR format, and
band matrices are defined by possessing this property. A vector with this property is inferred after downsampling a
signal in compressed sensing. For 10 points, give this term referring to vectors and matrices most of whose entries
are zero.
ANSWER: sparsity (or word forms, such as sparse)

45. For cyclones, this quantity may be described by the RMW and ROCI. Regular patterns of convective
cells called MCCs are named for possessing intermediate values of this quantity. In the exosphere, two forms
of this quantity are compared to determine the threshold for Jeans escape of particles. This quantity for
simulated flows is usually reduced to deal with the turbulent cascade problem, and LES ignores low values of
this quantity. Pressure and density profiles of the atmosphere contain the (*) e-folding form of this quantity in
the denominator of the exponential. Cyclones and air masses are usually modeled using synoptic values of this
quantity. For 10 points, name this quantity which takes on values between meters and thousands of kilometers in
meteorological models.
ANSWER: scale (accept any of size, length, radius, diameter, distance, height, elevation, altitude, mesoscale,
synoptic scale, microscale, scale height, or mean free path; essentially accept anything measured in units of
meters; prompt on extent or dimension)

46. Lee et al. introduced the alginate method for calculating this quantity. Dividing the cardiac output by this
quantity gives the cardiac index. This quantity is set to 1.73 in its SI unit when determining a normalization
factor for the GFR. Using dimensional analysis, Lipscombe proposed using exponents of 4/9 and 2/3 in a
power law used by formulas to calculate this quantity, which include (*) Du Bois formula. That power law for
this quantity is of the form A times weight to the alpha times height to the beta. The dose of chemotherapy is
usually determined based on calculated values of this quantity. This quantity does not account for adipose tissue,
which is why it is commonly used as a proxy for metabolic weight. For 10 points, name this quantity whose average
is just under 2 square meters for adults.
ANSWER: body surface area (or BSA; prompt on vague answers such as body size; do not accept or prompt on
“body mass” or “BMI”)

47. Description acceptable.

The velocity kick of products of this process is usually modeled using a Rayleigh distribution. UT Austin’s
AstriaGraph database contains information about likely locations of this process. The characteristic lengths
of products of this process follows a power law distribution with an exponent of -1.71 according to the SSBM
model. The (**) Whipple bumper of one device is used to mitigate the effects of this process. The rate of this
process increases exponentially in (*) Kessler syndrome. When this process occurs at altitudes of less than 300
kilometers, its products quickly undergo orbital decay. For 10 points, ASAT tests are controversial because they
increase the rates of what process which produces space debris?
ANSWER: satellite collisions (accept satellite breakups or satellite fragmentation or satellite impacts or space
collisions; accept anti-satellite weapon tests or satellite shootdowns; accept ASAT weapon tests before “ASAT”;
accept spaceship or space debris for satellite; accept any answers referring to objects in space or low-earth orbit
colliding with any other object; accept answers referring to the production of space debris before mention; accept
Kessler syndrome before mention; prompt on collisions or similar vague answers with “What type of object is
undergoing the collision?”; do not accept or prompt on answers referring to objects within the atmosphere such as
airplanes or hot-air balloons)

48. A q-line with angle between 180 and 225 degrees on a McCabe-Thiele plot is used to represent a feed
under this condition. Thickening and this condition are inhibited when measuring crystalline thickness by
converting melting point data using the Thompson-Gibbs equation. Biomass is converted to oils using water
under this condition in thermochemical conversion. A front-end throttle can be used to create this condition.
The (*) Frasch process most commonly injects water under this condition to extract sulfur. This condition can be
obtained by heating a homogenous source in a container. The vapor pressure of liquids under this metastable
condition exceeds ambient pressure. For 10 points, give this condition in which a liquid exists above its normal
boiling point.
ANSWER: superheated (or word forms, such as superheating; accept boiling retardation or boiling delay; accept
descriptions like “above the boiling point” before mention; prompt on hot or high temperature or similar answers;
do not accept or prompt on “supercritical”)

49. On a Latin square, one of these structures can be visualized by placing n white and n black rooks such
that no two rooks of the same color attack each other. For a direct product H times K, H is one of these
structures for the cosets of K. The maximum size of one of these structures is the minimal value of the
cardinality of a family minus k plus the cardinality of the union. The (**) combinatorial Hall’s marriage
theorem determines when one of these structures exist. These structures are equivalent to vertex covers of
the hypergraph consisting of vertices as edges. These structures are usually assumed to be obtained from a
(*) disjoint family, in which case they are called SDRs, or systems of distinct representatives. For 10 points, name
these sets obtained by taking exactly one element from each of a collection of sets.
ANSWER: transversals (or cross-sections; accept systems of representatives or system(s) of distinct
representatives or SDRs before “SDRs”; accept vertex covers before mention)

50. A tree named for functions with this property proposed by Balenson et al. can be attacked using h
squared plus h keys for each eviction operation. A trapdoor permutation is a collection of functions with this
property. According to Håstad et al, a pseudorandom generator can be generated from any function with
this property. Lamport signatures are built from functions with this property. A (*) hash function is created
from a compression function with this property in the Merkle–Damgård construction. A so-called “universal”
function would have this property if any exist. Theoretically, the existence of these functions would prove that P
does not equal to NP, and candidates for these functions include discrete exponential and multiplication. For 10
points, name these functions that are easy to compute but hard to invert.
ANSWER: one-way functions (accept one-way function trees; prompt on cryptographic hash functions or collision-
resistant functions with “what property do those functions ideally have?”)