KNOWLEDGE AREA:

Life at Molecular, Cellular and

Tissue Level

TOPIC 1.2: Cells: The Basic

Unit of Life

Structure and Function of Cells

 Cells are made up of many of the organic
compounds we discussed earlier.
 They are made up of proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates.
 There are small structures within the cell that
carry out various functions.
 These structures are called organelles.
 Cells are organized in such a way that they form
very efficient and complex organisms.
 CELLS
These are the basic unit of life

TISSUES
Are a group of similar cells that work together to carry
a common function. Different tissues form organs

SYSTEMS
Various organs work together to carry out a single
function. All these organs together form a system

ORGANISM
Different systems function together to form an
organism
 Different cells
have different sizes.
 Some cells are microscopic while others are
macroscopic.
 Microscopic cells are so small they cannot be
seen with the naked eye.
 They can only be viewed under the microscope.
 Some examples of microscopic cells are plant cell,
animal cell and bacteria.
 Macroscopic cells are large enough to be seen
with the naked eye. This means that you do not
need the microscope.
 Examples of macroscopic cells are the human egg
which is as big as the full stop at the end of this
sentence and the ostrich egg cell.
 Since cells
are so small the normal units of
measurement are too large to use.
 Therefore different units of measurement are
used.
 These units are smaller than centimeters and
even millimeters.
 The units of measurement used here are
microns and nanometers.
 Inorder for us to understand how small these
units really are we compare it to a unit of
measurement that you are familiar with, that is
millimeters
A micron is represent by the symbol μm.
 A nanometer is represented by the symbol

nm.
 Cells have many different shapes and structures.
 For example some cells have a regular shape
while others have an irregular shape.
 A regular shape means that it as a shape that can
be named, circle, square or rectangle etc.
 An irregular shape is one that cannot be named
and maybe changing, like the amoeba.
 The shape of the cells has to do with the function
it performs.
 A generalized plant cell is
made up of a cell wall and
the protoplasm.
 The protoplasm is all the
living part of the cell.
 The cell wall surrounds the
protoplasm.
 The protoplasm is made up
of the cytoplasm and the Diagram showing the
nucleus as shown in the Protoplasm
diagram alongside.
 The cytoplasm is surrounded by the cell
membrane.
 The cell membrane may also be called the plasma
membrane.
 The cytoplasm contains many small structures.
 These structures maybe called organelles or
cytoplasmic inclusions.
 Examples of the organelles in the plant cells are
the mitochondria; plastids; ribosomes; vacuole;
dictyosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
 Examples of cytoplasmic inclusions are pigments
and lipids
 In the plant cell the nucleus has a nuclear
membrane, nuclearplasm, nucleoli and the
chromatin network.
 In the animal there is
no cell wall.
 Therefore there is only
a protoplasm.
 The protoplasm is
made up of the
cytoplasm and nucleus.

Animal Cell
 The cytoplasm contains the following organelles
cell membrane, mitochondria, ER, dictyosomes
and ribosome.
 The nucleus is the same as the one in the plant
cell.
 The most important thing about the nucleus is
that it is bound by the nuclear membrane.
Comparison between Plant and Animal Cell
 Look at the previous slide and tabulate 4 visible
differences between plant and animal cells.
 Differences between plant and animal cell(√)

Plant cell Animal Cell (√)

1. Outermost boundary is 1. Outermost boundary is
the cell wall the cell membrane (√)
2. Has a regular shape 2. Has an irregular shape
(√)
3. Chloroplast present 3. No chloroplast present
(√)
4. Has a single large 5. Small vacuole. (√)
vacuole
 The cell wall is made up of cellulose.
 Since it is found on the outside one of its most

important is protection. It provides all the

contents of the cell with protection.
 It encloses cell.
 Gives the cell shape.
 Provides a framework and support for the cell.
 The middle lamella binds the cells together.
 The cell wall is permeable, so it is involved in
transport, allow most substances to pass through.
 The protoplasm is all the
living parts of the cell.
 It is made up of the
cytoplasm and the
nucleus.
 Also includes all the
organelles and
inclusions found in the
cytoplasm.
 Parts of the protoplasm Protoplasm
is shown
in the diagram alongside.
 The cytoplasm includes the cell membrane,
the sol, the gel, inclusions and organelles.
 The organelles are membrane bound structures
that have specific functions.
 Some of these organelles are plastids,
mitochondria and ER.

We shall look at some of the structures of the

cytoplasm.
 The cell membrane may also be called
the plasma membrane or the plasma lemma.
 Itis the outermost boundary of the
cytoplasm.
No one has seen the cell membrane!!!!
 Because it is so thin that it cannot be seen
even with the most powerful electron
microscope.
 Scientist however have studied the cell
membrane.
 studying its behavior under various conditions.

results were used to come up with

 These

theories or models on the structure of

the cell membrane.
 One such model or theory is called the fluid
mosaic model.
 This
model was put forward in 1972 by Singer and
Nicholson.
 According to this model the cell membrane is
made up of lipids and proteins.
 These lipids and
proteins are arranged in
the following way:
 There are two layers of
phospholipids that are
stuck together.
 The protein molecules
are arranged throughout
these two layers.

Fluid Mosaic Model

 Some the protein
molecules go right through
the two layers , while
some only go partly
through the two layers.
 There are small openings
found at regular intervals.
 These openings are called
pores and they are about
1 nm in size.
 They allow only some
substances to pass
through.

Fluid Mosaic Model

 In an animal cell the cell membrane functions to
protect the contents of the cell because it is
the outermost layer.
 The most important function of the cell

entry
membrane is that it controls the
and exit of certain substances
only.
 Unlike thecell wall it does not allow all
substances to enter or leave the cytoplasm. It
selects the substances that are allowed
to enter or leave the cell membrane.
Therefore the cell membrane can also be called
the selectively permeable
membrane.
 Substances need to enter and leave the cell in
order for the cell to carry out its functions.
 For example waste substances like carbon dioxide
need to leave the cell and glucose need to enter
the cell for cellular respiration.
 These substances need to move across the
membranes of the cell in order for them to enter
and leave a cell.
 There 3ways in which substances can enter and
leave the cell.

These 3 ways are:

1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Active transport.
 Diffusion is the movement of liquid or gas
particles from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration until equilibrium is
reached.
 These particles are able to move because of their
kinetic energy.
 Therefore the rate of diffusion can be altered by
increasing or decreasing the kinetic energy of
these particles.
Gases enter and leave the cells through
diffusion.
Oxygen enters the cells and alveoli of the
lung by diffusion and carbon dioxide leaves
the cells and the alveoli of the lung by
diffusion.
Glucose and amino acids leaves the
intestines and enters the cells by diffusion.
Osmosis is the movement of a liquid from
a region of high concentration to
a region of low concentration
across a differentially permeable
membrane until equilibrium is reached.
 Another way of say this is the movement of a
liquid from a dilute to a concentrated
solution across a differentially permeable
membrane until equilibrium has been reached.
 Water usually moves into and out of a cell by
osmosis.
 When water enters a cell by osmosis then
endosmosis has occurred.
 When water leaves a cell by osmosis then
exosmosis has occurred.
 Water enters and leaves plant and animal cells by
osmosis.
 This water carries useful substances such as
nutrients with it as it enters the cell.
 It also carries waste substances out with ,it as it
leaves a cell.
 Substances usually move or are moved from a
region of high concentration to
a region of low concentration.
 Sometimes it is necessary to move in the opposite
direction, that is from a low to high
concentration.
 When this occurs we say that they are moving or
being moved or absorbed against a
concentration gradient.
 This type of transport is called active
transport.
 This transport needs energy in order for it
to occur.
 Mitochondria are found in
the cytoplasm of both
plant and animal cells.
 Their numbers vary in the
different cells.
 The more active the cell
the larger the number of
mitochondria present.
 Therefore a muscle cell
will have many more
mitochondria than say for
example the skin cell or Mitochondria
the amoeba.
 The mitochondrion
has a cigar or
elongated shape.
 They can also be
spherical or thread-
like in shape.
 It is surrounded by a
double membrane.
 The double membrane
is made up of an outer
membrane and an
inner membrane.
 The inner
membrane is folded
into finger like
structures.
 These structures are
called the cristae.
 The inner membrane
encloses a ground
substance.
 The ground substance is called the matrix.
 The DNA, RNA and the ribosomes are found in
the matrix.
 The diagram on the next slide is of the
mitochondria.
 This diagram is called a micrograph.
 Tryto identify the different parts of the
mitochondria in the micrograph on the next slide
Micrograph of Mitochondrion
 The mitochondria is the site of cellular
respiration.
 Cellularrespiration is the process during which
energy is released.
 Since they are responsible for the release of
energy they are often called the
powerhouse of the cell.
 Plastids are found in
plant cells only.
 They are small in
size.
 They may be disc-
shaped, ovoid or
irregularly shaped
organelles.
 There are 3 types of
Plastids
plastids.
a) Chloroplast
 These are green
organelles.
 They are green in
colour because
they contain the
pigment
Chloroplast
chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll has two important functions:

1. Gives parts of the plant their green colour.

2. It traps sunlight for photosynthesis.
b) Chromoplast
 These are plastid have
an irregular shape
 They maybe coloured
red, orange or yellow.
 The pigments
carotenes and
xanthophylls are
responsible for this
colour.
 They give colour to
fruit, flowers and Chromoplast
leaves
c) Leucoplast
 These are colourless
plastids.
 These plastids are
found in the parts of
the plant not
exposed to sunlight.
 Their function is to
store foods in
different forms e.g.
starch, lipids and Leucoplast
proteins.
 The chloroplast is a
disc shaped
organelle.
 It is surrounded by a
double membrane,
an inner and outer
membrane
 A ground substance
is found within the
double membrane.
 The ground
substance is called
the stroma.
 Found in the stroma
are stacks of coin
likes structures.
 Each stack is called

the granum
  Each granum is
made up of many
coin like structures.
 Each coin like
structure is called
the thylakoid.
 Each thylakoid is
made up of
membranes called
Structure of Grana
lamella.
 The chlorophyll is
found within each
thylakoid.
 One granum is
joined to another by
the intergranal
lamella.
 Also found in the
stroma are starch
granules and Intergranal lamella
ribosome.
 The starch granules are used to store
starch.
 The ribosomes are used during the

manufacture of enzymes that are

used for the process of photosynthesis.
 These are
a system of tubes that are enclosed by
membranes.
 They are found in both plant and animal cells.
 They seem to be continuous with the cell
membranes and nuclear membrane.
 There are two types of ER.
 These are the
smooth ER and the
rough ER.
 The rough ER has
ribosomes attached
to it to give it the
rough appearance,
while the smooth ER
has no ribosomes.
 The Golgi apparatus is also called the
dictyosomes.
 Itwas first identified in 1898 in the brain cells by
Camillo Golgi.
 They occur in both plant and animal cells.
 They occur in larger numbers and are bigger in
size in secretory cells.
 They are well developed in the goblet cells in the
alimentary canal.
 Therefore it is thought that they have a secretory
function.
Micrograph showing Golgi
Apparatus
 These are small, grain-like substances.
 They are found in the cytoplasm, or on the ER, in
the plastids and even in the mitochondria.
 Each ribosome is made up of two parts, protein
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
 The ribosome is the site of protein synthesis.
 This means that it is the place on which proteins
are made.
 The vacuoles are fluid
filled organelles
 Each vacuole is
surrounded by a
membrane.
 This membrane is
called the tonoplast.
 The tonoplast
encloses a liquid.
 This liquid is called the
cell sap.
Vacuole
 The cell sap is a
solution of water
and
dissolved
substances.
 Some of these
dissolved substances
are
salts, sugar and
protein.
Vacuole
 They are mostly found in animal cells.
 They are surrounded by a single membrane.
 The lysosome contain digestive enzymes.
 Lysosmes fuse with the food vacuole and the
digestive enzymes are released into the food
vacuole.
 The nucleus is a large,
darkly stained body
found in both plant
and animal cells.
 In animal cells they
are found in the
centre of the cell in
plant cells they are not
found in the centre
because of
the large vacuole.
 The nucleus is bound by a
double membrane called
the nuclear membrane.
 The nuclear has pores on
it. These pores are called
nuclear pores. These
pores allow substances to
enter and leave
the nucleus.
 Within the nuclear
membrane
there is a ground
substance
called the nucleoplasm.
Micrograph of Nucleus
 Two important structures are embedded in the
nucleoplasm.
 These two substances are the nucleolus and
chromatin network.
 The chromatin network is a tangled mass of
thread like structures.
 These thread-like structures are called
chromosomes
 Each chromosome is made up of two parts.
 These two parts are the chromatids and
centromere.
 Each chromosome is
made up of two
parts.
 These two parts are
the chromatids and
centromere.
 The centromere
holds the 2 Structure of a Chromosome
chromatids together
 The nucleolus is a
darkly stained body
found at the centre
of the nucleoplasm.

Position of Nucleolus
The functions of the nucleus are as follows:

1. It controls all activities of the cell.

2. It controls the production of enzymes.

3. It is responsible for the transmission of

hereditary characteristics from parent to
offspring.
 Cells:These are the basic unit of life
 Tissues: Are a group of similar cells that work
together to carry a common function
 Microscopic cells: are so small they cannot be
seen with the naked eye.
 Macroscopic cells: are large enough to be seen
with the naked eye.
 Protoplasm: is all the living part of the cell.
 Diffusion: is the movement of liquid or gas
particles from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration until equilibrium is
reached
 Osmosis: is the movement of a liquid from a
region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration across a differentially permeable
membrane until equilibrium is reached.
 Endosmosis: is when water enters a cell by
osmosis.
 Exosmosis: is when water leaves a cell by osmosis.
 Active transport: is when a substance is moved or
absorbed against a concentration gradient and it
requires energy.
 Cellular respiration: is the process during which
energy is released.
 Intra: means within
 Intracellular: means within the cell.
 Inter: means between.
 Intercellular: means between the cells.
 Intracellular digestion: is digestion that occurs
within the cell.
1. The basic unit of life is a …
A. Cell
B. Tissue
C. Organ
D. System
2. Similar cells that work together to perform a
common function is the…
A. Cell
B. Tissue
C. Organ
D. System
3. Cells that are too small to be seen with the
naked eye are called…
A. Macroscopic
B. Microscopic
C. Nanometic
D. None of the above.
4. The protoplasm…
A. is all the living part of the cell.
B. includes the cytoplasm and nucleus.
C. A only
D. Both A and B.
5. The function of the cell wall is…
A. To enclose the cell
B. Control all activities of the cell.
C. Give the plant its green colour
D. To trap sunlight
6. The cell membrane is made up of …
A. Fatty acids and glycerol
B. Lipids and carbohydrates
C. Proteins and carbohydrates
D. Proteins and lipids
7. The middle lamella is a part of the…
A. Cell membrane
B. Cell wall
C. Nuclear membrane
D. Tonoplast
8. The cell component that is not involved in
osmosis is…
A. Chloroplast
B. Mitochondrion
C. Cell membrane
D. Cell wall
9. The semi-permeable membrane that encloses
the animal cell is…
A. Cell wall
B. Cell membrane
C. Tonoplast
D. Nuclear membrane
10. The micrograph below is of…

A. Chloroplast
B. Mitochondria
C. ER
D. Golgi apparatus
11. The micrograph below is of the…
A. Chloroplast
B. Mitochondria
C. ER
D. Golgi apparatus
12. The micrograph below shows the …
A. Chloroplast
B. Mitochondria
C. ER
D. Golgi apparatus
13. The organelle shown below is the…
A. Chloroplast
B. Mitochondria
C. ER
D. Golgi apparatus
14. Small disc shaped, pigment containing
organelles found in plant cells only are…
A. Plastids
B. Mitochondria
C. ER
D. Golgi apparatus
15. The powerhouse of the cell is the…
A. Chloroplast
B. Mitochondria
C. ER
D. Golgi apparatus
16. The darkly stained body in a cell is the…
A. Chloroplast
B. Mitochondria
C. Nucleus
D. Golgi apparatus
17. The projections on the inner membrane of the
mitochondria is the…
A. Golgi apparatus
B. Leucoplast
C. Cristae
D. Grana
18. The membranous vesicles which have a
secretory in function is…
A. Golgi apparatus
B. Leucoplast
C. Cristae
D. Grana
19. The colourless plastid…
A. Golgi apparatus
B. Leucoplast
C. Cristae
D. Grana
20. The following are characteristics of plant cells only.
A. Many small vacuoles, chloroplasts, no cell wall.
B. No vacuoles, cell membrane outer most
membrane, no plastids
C. Cell wall and cell membrane, large central
vacuole, plastids present.
D. Cell membrane only, large central vacuole,
plastids present
1. A 11. D
2. B 12. C
3. C 13. B
4. D 14. A
5. A 15. B
6. D 16. C
7. B 17. C
8. D 18. A
9. B 19. B
10. A 20. C