Hygia Group of Institutions

D.Pharm I Yr
Human Anatomy and Physiology
HAP by Anurag Singh Assistant Professor (Department of Pharmacology)

Chapter-3
In simple terms, tissue can be defined as a group of cells with similar shape and function are termed
as tissues. They form a cellular organizational level, intermediate between the cells and organ system.
Organs are then created by combining the functional groups of tissues.
or
Human tissue refers to groups of specialized cells in the human body that perform specific functions.
Like in animals, human tissues are classified into four main types based on their structure and
function.
 Study of tissue is called Histology.
 The word Histology was given by Mayr in 1891.
 Father of Histology is Marcello Malpighi.
 The term tissue was coined by the Bichat.

There are four types of animal tissues:

1. Epithelial tissues
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscular tissue
4. Nervous tissue

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue is a type of tissue composed of closely packed cells that form continuous sheets. It
serves as a protective covering and performs various functions such as secretion, absorption, filtration,
and excretion. This tissue is avascular (lacking blood vessels) but is often innervated (has nerve
supply) and regenerates quickly due to its proximity to connective tissue.

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

 Closely Packed Cells: Cells are tightly packed with minimal intercellular space.
 Polarity:
 Apical Surface: Exposed to the body surface or an internal cavity.
 Basal Surface: Attached to the basement membrane.
 Basement Membrane: A thin layer that anchors epithelial tissue to underlying connective
tissue.
 Lack of Blood Vessels: Relies on diffusion from capillaries in the underlying connective
tissue for nutrients and oxygen.
 Rapid Regeneration: High turnover rate to replace cells lost due to wear and tear.

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

 Protection: Shields underlying tissues from mechanical damage, pathogens, and dehydration
(e.g., skin).
 Absorption: Facilitates the uptake of substances like nutrients (e.g., lining of the small
intestine).
 Secretion: Produces substances like mucus, enzymes, and hormones (e.g., glands).
 Hygia Group of Institutions
D.Pharm I Yr
Human Anatomy and Physiology
HAP by Anurag Singh Assistant Professor (Department of Pharmacology)
 Excretion: Helps in waste elimination (e.g., kidney tubules).
 Filtration: Filters substances passing through (e.g., glomeruli in the kidney).
 Sensation: Contains sensory nerve endings for detecting stimuli.

Types of Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue is categorized based on cell layers and cell shape. This classification leads to various
types of epithelial tissue, each adapted to specific functions in the body.

Classification Based on Layers

1. Simple Epithelium: Single layer of cells.
2. Stratified Epithelium: Multiple layers of cells.
3. Pseudostratified Epithelium: Appears to have multiple layers but is a single layer with cells
of varying heights.

Classification Based on Cell Shape

1. Squamous: Flat, scale-like cells.
2. Cuboidal: Cube-shaped cells, with equal height and width.
3. Columnar: Tall, column-like cells.

Types of Epithelial Tissue

1. Simple Epithelium (Single layer)
 Simple Squamous Epithelium:
 Description: Thin, flat cells for efficient diffusion and filtration.
 Location: Alveoli (lungs), lining of blood vessels (endothelium), Bowman's capsule
(kidneys).
 Function: Allows diffusion of gases, filtration, and reduces friction.
 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium:
 Description: Cube-shaped cells specialized in secretion and absorption.
 Location: Kidney tubules, glands (e.g., thyroid gland), ducts.
 Function: Secretion, absorption, and transportation.
 Simple Columnar Epithelium:
 Description: Tall cells, often with microvilli or cilia.
 Location: Digestive tract lining (stomach, intestines), uterine tubes.
 Function: Absorption, secretion, and propulsion (if ciliated).
 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium:
 Description: Appears stratified but is a single layer; often ciliated with goblet cells.
 Location: Respiratory tract (trachea, bronchi), male reproductive ducts.
 Function: Secretion (mucus) and movement of mucus by cilia.

2. Stratified Epithelium (Multiple layers)

 Stratified Squamous Epithelium:
 Description: Multiple layers; surface cells are flat.
 Types:
 Keratinized: Surface cells are dead and filled with keratin; found in the skin.
 Non-keratinized: Moist, non-keratinized cells; found in the mouth,
oesophagus, and vagina.
 Function: Protection against abrasion, dehydration, and pathogens.
 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium:
 Description: Two or more layers of cube-shaped cells.
 Location: Ducts of sweat glands, salivary glands, and mammary glands.
 Function: Protection and secretion.
 Hygia Group of Institutions
D.Pharm I Yr
Human Anatomy and Physiology
HAP by Anurag Singh Assistant Professor (Department of Pharmacology)
 Stratified Columnar Epithelium:
 Description: Rare; surface cells are columnar, underlying cells are cuboidal.
 Location: Male urethra, ducts of large glands.
 Function: Protection and secretion.

3. Transitional Epithelium
 Description: Specialized to stretch and change shape; surface cells are dome-shaped when
relaxed and flat when stretched.
 Location: Urinary bladder, ureters, and urethra.
 Function: Allows expansion and contraction.

4. Glandular Epithelium
 Description: Specialized epithelial cells that form glands for secretion.
 Exocrine Glands: Secrete substances onto epithelial surfaces (e.g., sweat, saliva).
 Endocrine Glands: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (e.g., pituitary,
thyroid).
 Function: Production and secretion of substances.

Summary Table
Type Shape Function Location
Simple Squamous Flat Diffusion, filtration Alveoli, blood vessels
Simple Cuboidal Cube Secretion, absorption Kidney tubules, glands
Simple Columnar Tall Absorption, secretion, propulsion Digestive tract, uterine tubes
Pseudostratified Columnar Tall (varying height) Secretion, movement Respiratory tract
Stratified Squamous Flat Protection Skin, oesophagus, mouth
Stratified Cuboidal Cube Protection, secretion Sweat glands, salivary glands
Stratified Columnar Tall Protection, secretion Male urethra, large ducts
Transitional Dome-shaped Stretching Urinary bladder
Each type of epithelial tissue is adapted for its role in protecting the body, facilitating exchange, or
enabling secretion.

Connective Tissues
Connective tissues are a diverse group of tissues that support, bind, protect, and connect other tissues
and organs in the body. They are characterized by an abundance of extracellular matrix (ECM), which
contains fibres and ground substances, with cells embedded within.
 Hygia Group of Institutions
D.Pharm I Yr
Human Anatomy and Physiology
HAP by Anurag Singh Assistant Professor (Department of Pharmacology)

Key Features of Connective Tissues

1. Components:

 Cells: Fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes, mast cells, and other specialized cells.
 Fibers: Collagen (strength), elastic (flexibility), and reticular (supportive framework).
 Ground Substance: Gel-like material that fills spaces between cells and fibers.
2. Functions:

 Provides structural support.

 Protects organs.
 Stores energy.
 Transports nutrients and waste.
 Defends against pathogens.

Types of Connective Tissues

Connective tissues are classified into three main categories based on their structure, composition, and
function:

1. Connective Tissue Proper

This category includes tissues with a soft matrix and a variety of fiber densities and arrangements.
A. Loose Connective Tissue
 Areolar Tissue:
 Structure: Loose arrangement of collagen, elastic fibers, and fibroblasts.
 Function: Provides support, elasticity, and cushioning.
 Location: Beneath epithelial tissue, around blood vessels and nerves.
 Adipose Tissue:
 Structure: Consists of fat-storing cells (adipocytes) with minimal matrix.
 Function: Energy storage, insulation, and organ cushioning.
 Location: Under skin, around kidneys, and in the abdomen.
 Reticular Tissue:
 Structure: Network of reticular fibers with reticular cells.
 Function: Provides a supportive framework for soft organs.
 Location: Lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow.
B. Dense Connective Tissue
 Dense Regular Connective Tissue:
 Structure: Parallel bundles of collagen fibers with fibroblasts.
 Function: Provides tensile strength in one direction.
 Location: Tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone).
 Dense Irregular Connective Tissue:
 Structure: Irregularly arranged collagen fibers.
 Function: Provides strength in multiple directions.
 Location: Dermis of the skin, organ capsules.
 Elastic Connective Tissue:
 Structure: Dense elastic fibers.
 Function: Allows stretching and recoil.
 Location: Walls of large arteries, bronchial tubes.

2. Supporting Connective Tissue

 Hygia Group of Institutions
D.Pharm I Yr
Human Anatomy and Physiology
HAP by Anurag Singh Assistant Professor (Department of Pharmacology)
These tissues have a more rigid matrix for structural support.
A. Cartilage
 Hyaline Cartilage:
 Structure: Smooth matrix with fine collagen fibers.
 Function: Provides support and reduces friction at joints.
 Location: Ends of long bones, trachea, nose.
 Elastic Cartilage:
 Structure: Matrix contains abundant elastic fibers.
 Function: Provides flexibility.
 Location: External ear (pinna), epiglottis.
 Fibrocartilage:
 Structure: Matrix packed with thick collagen fibers.
 Function: Resists compression and absorbs shock.
 Location: Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis.
B. Bone (Osseous Tissue)
 Structure: Hard matrix of collagen fibers and calcium salts.
 Function: Provides structural support, protection, and mineral storage.
 Location: Skeletal system (compact and spongy bone).

3. Fluid Connective Tissue

This category includes tissues with a liquid matrix for transport and immune defense.
 Blood:
 Structure: Composed of plasma (fluid matrix), red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets.
 Function: Transports oxygen, nutrients, waste, and hormones; provides immunity.
 Location: Circulates through blood vessels and the heart.
 Lymph:
 Structure: Clear fluid with white blood cells (lymphocytes).
 Function: Maintains fluid balance and supports immune defense.
 Location: Lymphatic vessels.

Summary Table
Type Subtype Function Location
Connective Tissue Proper Areolar Binds tissues, cushions organs Beneath skin, around vessels
Adipose Energy storage, insulation Subcutaneous, around kidneys
Reticular Supportive framework Spleen, lymph nodes
Dense Regular Tensile strength Tendons, ligaments
Dense Irregular Multidirectional strength Dermis, organ capsules
Elastic Stretching and recoil Arteries, bronchial tubes
Supporting Tissue Hyaline Cartilage Reduces friction Nose, trachea, joints
Elastic Cartilage Flexibility Ear, epiglottis
Fibrocartilage Compression resistance Intervertebral discs
Bone Structural support Skeleton
Fluid Tissue Blood Transport, immune response Blood vessels
Lymph Immune defense, fluid balance Lymphatic vessels
These tissues play vital roles in structural support, protection, transport, and maintaining the body's
homeostasis.
 Hygia Group of Institutions
D.Pharm I Yr
Human Anatomy and Physiology
HAP by Anurag Singh Assistant Professor (Department of Pharmacology)

Muscular tissue
Muscular tissue is specialized for contraction and movement. It is composed of muscle fibers
(elongated cells) containing actin and myosin filaments, which interact to produce force. This tissue is
essential for bodily movements, posture maintenance, and heat production.
Characteristics of Muscular Tissue

 Excitability: Ability to respond to stimuli.

 Contractility: Ability to contract and generate force.
 Extensibility: Ability to stretch without damage.
 Elasticity: Ability to return to its original shape after contraction or stretching.
 Rich Blood Supply: Ensures a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients.

Types of Muscular Tissue

1. Skeletal Muscle
 Structure: Long, cylindrical, multinucleated fibers.
Striations (light and dark bands) are present due to the arrangement of actin and myosin
filaments.
 Function: Voluntary movements of the skeleton.
 Maintaining posture and producing heat.
 Location: Attached to bones via tendons.
 Control: Voluntary (controlled by the somatic nervous system).
2. Smooth Muscle
 Structure: Spindle-shaped cells with a single nucleus.
Non-striated (actin and myosin are not arranged in regular patterns).
 Function: Involuntary movements like peristalsis, blood vessel constriction, and bladder
emptying.
 Location: Walls of hollow organs (e.g., stomach, intestines, bladder, uterus), blood vessels,
and airways.
 Control: Involuntary (regulated by the autonomic nervous system).
3. Cardiac Muscle
 Structure: Branched, cylindrical cells with a single central nucleus.
 Striated and interconnected by intercalated discs, which facilitate synchronized contraction.
 Hygia Group of Institutions
D.Pharm I Yr
Human Anatomy and Physiology
HAP by Anurag Singh Assistant Professor (Department of Pharmacology)
 Function: Pumps blood throughout the body.
 Location: Found only in the walls of the heart.
 Control: Involuntary (regulated by the autonomic nervous system and intrinsic conduction
system).

Comparison of Muscle Types

Feature Skeletal Muscle Smooth Muscle Cardiac Muscle

Appearance Striated, multinucleated Non-striated, single nucleus Striated, single nucleus

Control Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary

Location Attached to bones Walls of hollow organs Heart

Contraction Speed Fast Slow Intermediate

Regeneration Limited Moderate Very limited

Functions of Muscular Tissue

 Movement: Skeletal muscles allow voluntary movements like walking and lifting.
Smooth muscles enable involuntary movements like digestion and blood flow.
Cardiac muscles ensure the continuous beating of the heart.
 Posture and Stability: Skeletal muscles help maintain posture and stabilize joints.
 Heat Production: Muscles produce heat during contraction, which helps regulate body
temperature.
 Protection: Muscles protect internal organs by providing a cushion and absorbing impact.
Muscular tissue is vital for both voluntary and involuntary activities, making it indispensable
for survival and functionality in humans.

Nervous tissue
Nervous tissue is specialized for transmitting electrical signals throughout the body, enabling
communication, coordination, and control of body functions. It forms the foundation of the nervous
system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
 Hygia Group of Institutions
D.Pharm I Yr
Human Anatomy and Physiology
HAP by Anurag Singh Assistant Professor (Department of Pharmacology)
Characteristics of Nervous Tissue

 Excitability: Ability to respond to stimuli by generating electrical signals.

 Conductivity: Ability to transmit electrical impulses across cells.
 Specialized Cells:
Neurons (nerve cells): Responsible for signal transmission.
Neuroglia (glial cells): Support and protect neurons.
 Highly Specialized: Limited regenerative capacity, particularly in the central nervous system
(CNS).

Structure of Nervous Tissue

1. Neurons (Functional Units)
Structure:
 Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and organelles; processes information.
 Dendrites: Branched extensions that receive signals from other cells and relay them to the cell
body.
 Axon: Long, singular projection that transmits impulses away from the cell body to other
neurons, muscles, or glands.
 Synapse: Junction where a neuron communicates with another cell via neurotransmitters.
Function:
 Detect stimuli.
 Process information.
 Transmit electrical signals to effectors (muscles, glands).
2. Neuroglia (Supportive Cells)
Types:
 Astrocytes: Provide structural support and maintain the blood-brain barrier.
 Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann Cells (PNS): Produce the myelin sheath for faster
impulse transmission.
 Microglia: Act as immune cells, removing debris and pathogens.
 Ependymal Cells: Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord; involved in cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) production.
Function:
 Support and nourish neurons.
 Protect neurons from damage and pathogens.
 Regulate the extracellular environment.

Classification of Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is organized into two main systems:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
Composed of the brain and spinal cord.
Function:
 Processes and integrates information.
 Initiates responses.
 Coordinates higher functions like memory, learning, and emotions.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Composed of nerves and ganglia outside the CNS.
Function:
 Hygia Group of Institutions
D.Pharm I Yr
Human Anatomy and Physiology
HAP by Anurag Singh Assistant Professor (Department of Pharmacology)
Relays information between the CNS and the rest of the body.
Divided into:
1. Sensory Division: Transmits sensory input to the CNS.
2. Motor Division: Transmits motor output from the CNS to effectors.
 Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements.
 Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions (e.g., heartbeat, digestion).

Functions of Nervous Tissue

 Sensory Input: Detects stimuli from the environment (internal and external).
 Integration: Processes sensory information and determines appropriate responses.
 Motor Output: Sends signals to muscles and glands to carry out actions.
 Homeostasis: Regulates and maintains stable internal conditions through feedback
mechanisms.
 Mental Activity: Supports memory, thought, reasoning, and emotions.

Summary Table

Component Structure Function Location

Neurons Soma, dendrites, axon, synapse Transmit electrical signals Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Neuroglia Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, etc. Support, protect, and nourish neurons CNS and PNS

CNS Brain and spinal cord Process information, initiate responses Skull and vertebral column

Relay information between CNS and

PNS Nerves and ganglia body Throughout the body

Nervous tissue is crucial for sensing the environment, coordinating activities, and ensuring proper
functioning of the body. Its unique structure and function make it one of the most vital tissues in
humans.