GENERAL INTRODUCTION
According to Ozer and Reise (1994),
`personality assessment ,as a scientific endeavor, seeks to determine those characteristics that
constitute important individual differences in personality, to develop accurate measures of such
attributes and to explore fully the consequential meanings of these identified and measured
characteristics.
History of Personality Assessments
Early events
A seminal event in the history of applied personality assessment was the 1917 entry of the
United States into World War I and the concerns it generated about the susceptibility of front-
line soldiers to traumatic stress reactions (known then as “shell shock”). For help in identifying
psychologically fragile draftees, the War Department turned to Robert Woodworth, a prominent
experimental psychologist who had studied with Cattell . In response, Woodworth started
working on a checklist of probable symptoms of psychological disturbance, to be answered
“Yes” or “No” (e.g., “Are you happy most of the time?”). The intent was to use this checklist as
a screening device to deselect emotionally unstable draftees.
A second significant event in the early history of formalized personality assessment was
Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist working in a mental hospital, became interested in
using reports of what patients saw in inkblots as indicators of their mental state and personal
dispositions. Rorschach’s experimental testing of several hundred non-patients and patients with
various disorders resulted in the 1921 publication of Psycho-diagnostics (Rorschach, 1921/1942).
Emergence of Personality Psychology
Personality assessment received its next important impetus from the emergence in the 1930s of
personality psychology as a discrete field of study. Prior to this time, as recounted by Barenbaum
and Winter (2003; see also Winter & Barenbaum, 1999), numerous articles and books referring
to “personality” had been published. However, just as the early methods of personality
assessment stressed disorder and diagnosis rather than personality description, the early
personality literature was more concerned with deviant traits and abnormal conditions than with
the nature of people
Years of Growth
A shrinkage in the prominence of personality assessment among the activities of clinical
psychologists since the post-World War II era was accompanied by a substantial increase in the
number of clinical psychologists. These increasing numbers, combined with expanded
applications of personality assessment in diverse settings, generated consistent growth in the
field beginning in the 1980s. As reflections of this growth, the membership of the Society for
Personality Assessment doubled in size between 1980 and 2000, and a stable cadre of persons in
both academic and practice positions identify themselves as assessment psychologists. The
growth and current vigor of assessment psychology is reflected as well in a burgeoning literature.
In a review of published research articles on personality assessment measures over a 20-year
period from 1974 to 1994, Butcher and Rouse (1996) found a c01 JWPR038-Weiner September
17, 2007 13:20 12 Basic Considerations higher annual rate of publication in the 1980s and 1990s
than in the 1970s and concluded, “Research in clinical personality assessment continues to be
carried out at a high rate” (p. 103).
Purpose of Personality Assessments
Personality assessment derives its purposes from the relevance of personality characteristics to
making decisions in clinical, health care, forensic, educational, and organizational settings.
Personality assessment in clinical settings is undertaken mainly to address questions of
differential diagnosis and treatment planning. By clarifying the nature and extent of
psychological disorder in persons being evaluated, personality assessment facilitates decisions
about how best to provide treatment for them and monitor their progress in it.
Personality assessment also contributes to treatment planning and outcome evaluation by
identifying individuals’ personality strengths and weaknesses, their adaptive capacities and
limitations, their preferred coping style, their underlying needs and concerns, and their attitudes
toward themselves and other people.
In forensic settings, personality test indications of mental impairment can contribute in criminal
cases to determinations of competence and sanity. In civil cases, personality assessment findings
related to psychological dysfunction or incapacity are often relevant in adjudicating personal
injury and disability claims. In family law, personality test information about the personal
qualities and psychological adjustment of children and their parents is commonly considered in
mediating child custody and visitation rights.
In educational settings, the results of personality assessments can identify the need to provide
counseling or special educational services for students with conduct or learning problems.
In organizational settings, personality assessment can prove useful in evaluating candidates for
employment or promotion, and test findings can help determine the fitnessfor-duty of persons
who have become psychologically impaired or who have behaved in ways that raised concern
about their potential for violence.
PREPARING FOR PERSONALITY ASSESSMENTS
In preparing to conduct a personality assessment, examiners should have clearly in mind the
referral questions that are being asked and the kinds of conclusions and recommendations that
will be responsive to these questions. Clarity about referral questions guide examiners in
collecting appropriate assessment data and interpreting these data in a useful way. Adequate
preparation for conducting a personality assessment thus consists of clarifying the referral
questions and selecting a test battery, and it must include obtaining informed consent from the
person who is to be examined.
CONDUCTING PERSONALITY ASSESSMENTS
Personality assessments should be conducted in a manner that helps people feel comfortable
during the evaluation, promotes their cooperation with the testing procedures, and elicits from
them data that can be interpreted according to standard guidelines. To foster comfort and
cooperation in a testing session, examiners must display a supportive demeanor that minimizes
anxiety and encourages openness. To obtain interpretable data, examiners need to communicate
clearly and adhere closely to standardized procedures for test administration. Examiners must
also decide whether and how to use computerized methods of recording and scoring test
responses.
INTERPRETING PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT DATA
The interpretation of personality assessment data consists of drawing inferences about an
individual’s current mental and emotional state and about the person’s dispositions to think, feel,
and act in certain ways. When organized into clear and coherent descriptions of personality
functioning, accurate interpretations provide a basis for formulating conclusions and
recommendations that are responsive to whatever referral questions have been raised.
Three general considerations in interpreting personality assessment data: (1) the basis on which
inferences should be drawn, (2) the possible effect of impression management on test findings,
and (3) the relevance of cultural and experiential contexts in formulating conclusions and
recommendations.
Both empirical and conceptual grounds for interpretation bring distinct benefits to the personality
assessment process. Empirical perspectives are valuable because they provide a psychometric
foundation for reasonable certainty in arriving at conclusions. Quantitative data concerning the
normative distribution, adequate reliability, and valid correlates of test variables allow assessors
to interpret them with confidence. Conceptual perspectives are valuable in the assessment
process because they explain why certain findings are associated with certain personality
characteristics. In addition to helping assessors understand why their measures work as they do,
constructs that link test findings with inferences drawn from them identify which findings are
most relevant to answering referral questions.
Statistical Rules and Clinical Judgment
Effects of Impression Management
In drawing conclusions from their test data, personality assessors must be alert to possible effects
of impression management, which consists of conscious and deliberate attempts by examinees to
paint a misleading picture of themselves. In one form of impression management, often referred
to as malingering, faking bad, or overreporting, people try to appear more disturbed or
psychologically dysfunctional than they really are. In an opposite from of impression
management, known as deception, faking good, or underreporting, people try to conceal their
difficulties and limitations in order to appear better adjusted and more psychologically capable
than they are.
Twelve minimum competencies for proper use of personality tests
1. Avoiding errors in scoring and recording
2. Refraining from labeling people with personally derogatory terms like dishonest on the basis
of a test score that lacks perfect validity
3. Keeping scoring keys and test materials secure
4. Seeing that every examinee follows directions so that test scores are accurate
5. Using settings for testing that allow for optimum performance by persons (e.g., adequate
room)
6. Refraining from coaching or training individuals or groups on test items, which results in
misrepresentation of the person’s abilities and competencies
7. Willingness to give interpretation and guidance to persons in counseling situations
8. Not making photocopies of copyrighted materials
9. Refraining from using homemade answer sheets that do not align properly with scoring keys
10. Establishing rapport with examinees to obtain accurate scores
11. Refraining from answering questions from persons in greater detail than the test manual
permits
12. Not assuming that a norm for one job applies to a different job (and not assuming that norms
for one group automatically apply to other groups)
Types of personality assessments
OBJECTIVE TESTS
Objective Personality Tests: - The objective approach to personality assessment is
characterized by the reliance on structured,
standardized measurement Devices, which are typically of a self-report nature.
"Structured" reflects the tendency to use straight-
forward test stimuli, such as direct questions regarding
the person's opinion of themselves, and unambiguous instructions regarding the completion of
the test.
Many objective tests use a [true/false or
yes/no response format; others pro-; vide a dimensional scale
(for example, 0 = strong \ disagree; 1 = disagree; 2 = neutral; 3 = agree; 4
= [strongly agree). Objective
tests have both advantages and disadvantages, discussed below.
1. Self-Report Questionnaires
Self-report questionnaires are one of the most common and widely used forms of objective
personality testing. These assessments ask individuals to answer a series of standardized
questions regarding their behaviors, thoughts, emotions, and attitudes. The responses are
typically scored based on established criteria, and they allow for the efficient collection of data
on various aspects of personality. An example of a widely used self-report questionnaire is the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), which includes hundreds of items
designed to assess mental health symptoms and personality traits. Another example is the NEO
Personality Inventory (NEO-PI), which measures the Big Five personality traits—openness,
conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism—allowing clinicians to assess a
person’s broad personality profile.
2. Likert-Type Scales
Likert-type scales involve asking individuals to rate their agreement with statements on a scale,
typically ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." This type of objective test is used
to measure the intensity of traits or behaviors and provides a more nuanced understanding of an
individual’s personality. For example, the Big Five Inventory (BFI) uses a Likert-scale format
to assess the Five-Factor Model of personality. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) also
employs this type of scale to differentiate between state anxiety (temporary feelings of
nervousness) and trait anxiety (general anxiety tendencies), providing insights into how a person
experiences anxiety in different contexts.
3. True-False Personality Inventories
True-false inventories are objective personality tests where individuals are presented with
statements and asked to respond with "true" or "false" based on whether the statement accurately
describes them. This binary format simplifies scoring and is easy to administer, though it may
limit the depth of insight provided. A well-known example is the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), which includes numerous true-false items to assess a range
of psychological conditions, from depression to psychopathy. The California Psychological
Inventory (CPI) is another example, focusing on social and personal adjustment, and using a
true-false format to evaluate behaviors and traits that influence a person’s interactions and
emotional stability.
4. Forced-Choice Questionnaires
Forced-choice questionnaires require individuals to select the most relevant response from two or
more options, often designed to be equally appealing or relevant, which reduces the potential for
response bias such as social desirability. By forcing a choice, these tests attempt to capture more
authentic responses, especially regarding traits that are harder to measure, like introversion
versus extraversion. An example is the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), which uses
forced-choice items to assess core personality dimensions like extraversion and neuroticism.
Another widely used forced-choice instrument is the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule
(EPPS), which helps in evaluating personal preferences and motivation-driven behaviors across
various social and psychological contexts.
5. Situational Judgment Tests (SJTs)
Situational Judgment Tests (SJTs) assess how individuals respond to hypothetical, realistic
scenarios or situations, often reflecting the type of judgments and decisions they would make in
real life. These tests measure not just cognitive abilities, but also personality traits, social
judgment, and emotional responses. In personality assessment, SJTs are often used to evaluate
traits such as agreeableness, conscientiousness, and interpersonal skills. While these tests are
more commonly applied in organizational settings, they are also used in clinical contexts to
evaluate how a person might react under stress or social pressure. For instance, workplace-
based SJTs may be used to assess leadership, conflict resolution, or ethical decision-making,
offering valuable insights into personality through behavior-oriented scenarios.
6. Behavioral Rating Scales
Behavioral rating scales are typically used by observers (such as clinicians, teachers, or parents)
to assess the frequency or intensity of certain behaviors displayed by the individual being
assessed. These scales are often used in clinical settings to rate behaviors in relation to
personality traits or psychological disorders. For example, the Conners' Rating Scales (CRS)
are commonly used to assess behavioral and emotional issues in children, such as hyperactivity,
impulsivity, and anxiety. The scales can help clinicians gauge the extent of problematic
behaviors and their impact on personality and functioning, thereby assisting in diagnosis and
treatment planning. Behavioral ratings are often combined with other tools to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of personality, especially in cases where direct self-reporting may
not be reliable or feasible.
7. Projective-Specific Objective Tests
While projective techniques are often associated with subjective interpretations, some tests
combine elements of both projective and objective assessments. For instance, the Rotter
Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) presents individuals with incomplete sentences and asks
them to finish them, revealing personal thoughts and attitudes. While this format is traditionally
considered projective, the RISB and similar tests now use structured scoring systems to quantify
responses in a way that makes them more objective. These hybrid tests are designed to reduce
the subjectivity typically associated with projective techniques while still capturing deeper, more
nuanced personality information, often related to internal conflicts or emotional states.
Projective tests
Projective test represents the second broad approach to the assessment of personality, one that is
radically different from the methods used in objective personality tests. The format, items,
administration, andscoringof projective personality tests are all distinct from that of objective test
s,
whereas objective tests require responses to explicit verbal questions
or statements, projective tests ask
for responses to ambiguous and unstructured stimuli. Indeed, a major distinguishing feature of
projective techniques is the use of a relatively unstructured task that permits an almost unlimited
number of responses.
Nature of Projective Tests
Projective techniques involve examining individuals to impose their own structure on an
unstructured or ambiguous stimulus, revealing their needs, wishes, or conflicts. The test's
projective nature depends on the types of responses and how they are used. The instructions are
crucial, as the test becomes ambiguous when asked about the participants' needs. The test is
indirect, allowing patients to be more aware of the purpose and the significance of their
responses. Projective methods also allow for freedom of response, allowing clinicians to interpret
responses along multiple dimensions, unlike objective tests that provide a single score or scores
on a fixed number of dimensions.
Projective techniques offer advantages such as rich, accurate information, frequent use in
interviews, and open discussions on socially sensitive issues. They encourage freedom and
spontaneity of expression, but also require high-skilled interpreters and high administration costs
due to the complexity of data and the need for highly trained staff.
Types Include:
1. Rorschach Inkblot Test
The Rorschach Inkblot Test is one of the most famous projective personality tests. It consists of
a series of 10 inkblots that are presented to the individual, who is then asked to describe what
they see in each image. The responses are thought to reveal unconscious aspects of the
individual's thoughts, emotions, and personality. The test is based on the premise that people
project their own subjective experiences, desires, and conflicts onto ambiguous stimuli.
Psychologists analyze the content, themes, and structure of the responses to gain insights into the
person’s emotional functioning, thought processes, and interpersonal dynamics. The Rorschach
is often used in clinical settings to assess personality disorders, emotional functioning, and to
explore underlying psychological conflicts.
2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is another well-known projective test that involves a
series of ambiguous pictures depicting various scenes, often involving people in social situations.
The individual is asked to tell a story about each image, including what led up to the scene, what
is happening, and what the outcome might be. The goal of the TAT is to assess the individual’s
underlying drives, emotions, and interpersonal relationships by examining the themes and
narratives they create around the images. The test is based on the idea that people project their
own inner thoughts and feelings onto the characters and situations in the pictures. TAT is often
used to explore personality characteristics, motivations, emotional conflicts, and interpersonal
issues.
3. Draw-A-Person Test
The Draw-A-Person Test is a projective test where individuals are asked to draw a picture of a
person (or several people). The idea is that the way in which an individual draws the figure
reflects their self-image, emotional state, and unconscious conflicts. The drawing is then
analyzed based on factors such as size, proportions, detail, and the positioning of the figure. This
test can be particularly useful in assessing children, as drawing is a natural form of self-
expression for them. While it is often used as a screening tool in combination with other
assessments, it can provide insights into the individual’s self-concept, anxiety levels, and
relationship patterns.
4. House-Tree-Person (HTP) Test
The House-Tree-Person (HTP) Test is a projective test that asks individuals to draw a house, a
tree, and a person. Each of these elements is interpreted symbolically to reveal aspects of the
individual's personality and psychological state. The house is thought to represent the self and
the family environment, the tree represents growth and development, and the person is seen as a
depiction of the individual's view of themselves and their relationships with others. Psychologists
analyze various elements of the drawings, such as the size, shape, and placement of each figure,
to understand emotional issues, self-esteem, and personality traits. Like other projective tests, the
HTP relies on the assumption that individuals project their own unconscious thoughts and
feelings into their drawings.
5. Sentence Completion Test
The Sentence Completion Test asks individuals to complete a series of unfinished sentences,
such as "I feel…" or "I wish…" The idea is that the way the individual finishes these sentences
can offer insights into their unconscious thoughts, emotions, and attitudes. This test is used to
explore personality traits, interpersonal issues, and emotional conflicts by evaluating how a
person completes the prompts. Responses are often analyzed for underlying themes, such as fear,
desires, or unresolved conflicts. The Sentence Completion Test can be helpful in uncovering
deep-seated psychological issues that might not be easily accessed through more direct
questioning or self-report techniques.
6. Human Figure Drawing Test
Similar to the Draw-A-Person Test, the Human Figure Drawing Test involves asking
individuals to draw a person, but with less specific instructions. It’s a simplified version where
the focus is on how the individual draws the human figure. Analysts look at specific elements
such as the positioning of the arms and legs, the size of the head relative to the body, and the use
of detail (or lack thereof) to gain insight into an individual’s mental state, self-image, and
emotional concerns. This test is particularly helpful in understanding the individual’s
psychological development and interpersonal dynamics. It is commonly used in clinical and
child psychology for evaluating issues like self-esteem and emotional disturbances.
7. Word Association Test
The Word Association Test is a projective test in which individuals are presented with a series
of words and asked to respond with the first word that comes to mind. The response time, as well
as the content of the individual’s associations, can provide information about their thought
processes, emotional responses, and unconscious conflicts. The test is based on the idea that
people's associations reveal underlying psychological states or preoccupations. For example, if
an individual consistently associates negative words with neutral stimuli, this may indicate
underlying emotional issues such as anxiety or depression. This test is less commonly used today
but can still provide valuable insight into an individual’s mental state.
8. Katina's Animal Test
In the Katina's Animal Test, the individual is shown a set of animal pictures and asked to
describe each one in terms of personality traits. The test assesses how people relate to or project
human characteristics onto animals, which is believed to reflect their own traits and emotions.
For example, an individual might describe a lion as aggressive, confident, or dominant, reflecting
their own sense of power or insecurity. This test is particularly useful in exploring aspects of
social functioning, self-esteem, and emotional dynamics. It allows for a less direct, more creative
projection of unconscious material and can be a good tool in therapy.
Behavioral observations are a method used in personality assessment to observe and record an
individual's behavior in various settings. They provide insight into an individual's actions,
reactions, and interpersonal interactions, helping to understand how personality traits manifest in
real-world situations. These observations are particularly useful for individuals who struggle to
articulate their inner experiences or those assessing traits like impulsivity or social withdrawal.
Therapeutic Approaches to intervention
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a widely used therapeutic approach that focuses on the
relationship between thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. The premise of CBT is that maladaptive
thought patterns and cognitive distortions lead to emotional distress and problematic behavior.
Through CBT, individuals learn to identify, challenge, and reframe negative or irrational
thoughts, and develop healthier coping mechanisms. Techniques used in CBT include cognitive
restructuring, behavioral activation, exposure therapy, and skills training. This therapeutic
approach is highly structured, goal-oriented, and typically short-term, making it particularly
effective for treating conditions like depression, anxiety, PTSD, and phobias. One of the
strengths of CBT is its evidence-based nature, with substantial research supporting its
effectiveness in addressing a wide range of mental health issues.
Psychodynamic Therapy
Psychodynamic therapy is a form of psychotherapy rooted in the theories of Freud and other
early psychoanalysts, focusing on exploring unconscious processes and past experiences that
influence current behavior and emotions. The central idea is that unresolved conflicts,
particularly from childhood, shape an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and relationships in
adulthood. In psychodynamic therapy, the therapist helps the individual become aware of these
unconscious patterns and gain insight into how past experiences, defense mechanisms, and
internal conflicts may contribute to present difficulties. The therapeutic relationship itself plays a
crucial role, with the therapist often acting as a mirror for the client’s unconscious material.
Psychodynamic therapy is typically a longer-term approach and can be particularly beneficial for
individuals with deep-rooted emotional issues, personality disorders, and complex relational
difficulties.
Humanistic Approaches
Humanistic therapy, including approaches like Person-Centered Therapy (developed by Carl
Rogers) and Gestalt Therapy (developed by Fritz Perls), emphasizes self-actualization, personal
growth, and the innate goodness of individuals. Humanistic therapists focus on helping clients
develop a greater sense of self-awareness, self-acceptance, and autonomy. The therapy is
grounded in the belief that people have the inherent capacity to make positive changes in their
lives. A key feature of humanistic therapy is the importance of the therapeutic relationship,
which is characterized by empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard. Humanistic
therapy encourages clients to explore their feelings and thoughts in a nonjudgmental
environment, facilitating personal insight and the development of healthier coping strategies.
This approach is particularly effective for individuals struggling with low self-esteem, existential
concerns, and difficulties in self-acceptance.
Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT)
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), developed by Marsha Linehan, is a specialized form of
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy designed to treat individuals with borderline personality disorder
(BPD) and other disorders involving intense emotional dysregulation. DBT focuses on helping
individuals develop skills in four key areas: mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotion regulation,
and interpersonal effectiveness. A key feature of DBT is the integration of dialectical thinking,
which encourages clients to accept the reality of their situations while simultaneously working
toward change. This therapy combines individual therapy with group skills training and is often
delivered in a structured, modular format. DBT is particularly effective for individuals who
engage in self-destructive behaviors, such as self-harm or suicidal tendencies, and those
struggling with emotional instability, relationship difficulties, and chronic feelings of emptiness.
It has strong evidence for its effectiveness in treating BPD and other mood disorders.
Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)
Interpersonal Therapy (IPT) is a time-limited, structured form of psychotherapy that focuses on
improving interpersonal relationships and social functioning, which are often linked to mental
health issues. IPT is based on the premise that difficulties in relationships can significantly
contribute to emotional distress, particularly in conditions like depression, anxiety, and eating
disorders. The therapy focuses on helping clients improve communication skills, resolve
interpersonal conflicts, and manage life transitions (such as grief, divorce, or role changes). It
also addresses social isolation and encourages clients to build a strong support network. IPT is
typically brief (lasting between 12 and 16 sessions) and is often used as a treatment for mood
disorders, especially depression. By improving interpersonal relationships and increasing social
support, IPT helps clients reduce symptoms and build healthier emotional connections.
REFERENCES
Handbook of personality assessment. (n.d.).
http://www.lasorsa.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Handbook-of-Personality-
Assessment.pdf
