CHAPTER FOUR and FIVE

By: Abdulakim E. (PhD Candidate)

Nov, 2022
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 CHAPTER FOUR
MOTIVATION
CONCEPTS AND
THEIR
APPLICATION
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4.1 What Is Motivation?
• Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal.
• Motivation represents the forces acting on or within a person
that cause the person to behave
in a specific, goal-directed manner.
• When we see in an organization context,
motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort
toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s
ability to satisfy some individual need.

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• 4.1.1Motivation process

Unsatisfied Need Tension

Drives

Reduction Satisfied need Search

of Tension Behavior

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4.2. Features of Motivations
• There are several characteristics of
motivation.
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon.
 Motivation is a continuous process.
Motivation is the result of the person’s thoughts
and expectations.

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 Motivation can be of two types
intrinsic motivation
extrinsic motivation

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4.3 Importance of Motivation
• The following are among the importance’s of
motivation:
High level of performance
 Low employee turnover and absenteeism.
Acceptance of organization change
Organizational image

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4.4 Theories of Motivation
These are theories explaining how employees
will be motivated.
• Two categorizations theories of motivation:
early theories
 contemporary

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4.4.1 Early Theories of Motivation
These motivational theories relatively old
• Knowing these theories is important at least for
two reasons:
They represent a foundation from which contemporary
theories have grown.
 Practicing managers still regularly use these theories and
their terminology in explaining employee motivation.
• These are
 Carrot and Stick Approach
the hierarchy of needs theory,
Theories X and Y, and
the motivation-hygiene theory

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1. Carrot and Stick Approach
• This approach relates the use of rewards and
penalties in order to induce desired human
behavior.
• It comes from the old story that to make a donkey
move one must put a carrot in front of it and if it
does not move beat it with stick from behind.
• Carrot - money in the form of pay or bonuses.
• Stick – fear such as fear of loss of job, loss of
income, reduction of bonuses, demotion or some
other penalty.
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2. Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Abraham Maslow developed this theory in the
1940s, based on four major assumptions.
First, only unmet needs motivate.
 Second, people’s needs are arranged in order of
importance (hierarchy) going from basic to
complex.
Third, people will not be motivated to satisfy a
higher-level need unless the lower-level need(s)
has been at least minimally satisfied.
Finally, Maslow assumed that people have five
classifications of needs.

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 Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow defined human needs as:

Physiological: the need for food, drink,

shelter, and relief from pain.
Safety and security: the need for freedom
from threat; the security from threatening
events or surroundings.
Belongingness, social, and love: the need for
friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.
Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for
respect from others.
Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself
by maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and
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3. Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas
McGregor)
• Theory X – pessimistic and negative
• Theory Y- adopts a developmental approach/
modern/positive set of assumptions, optimistic
• McGregor grouped the physiological and
safety needs as „lower-order needs and the
social, esteem, and self-actualization needs
as higher-order needs.

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 Theory X Theory Y
1) Employees dislike work and 1) Employees do not inherently
will avoid work if they can dislike work; working is as natural
2) As employees dislike work, as resting and playing.
they must be coerced to achieve 2) Employees are capable of self-
objectives. direction and self-control if they
3) Employees have little are committed to objectives.
ambition; they prefer to be 3) The typical employee can learn
directed and to avoid to accept and seek responsibility.
responsibility. 4) Most employees are able to
4) Employees primarily want use creativity to solve problems.
security.

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• Douglas McGregor believed that theory X
assumptions are appropriate for employees
motivated by lower-order needs.
• Theory Y assumptions, in contrast, are
appropriate for employees motivated by
higher-order needs, and theory X are then
inappropriate.

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• 4. The Two-Factor Theory (motivation-
hygiene theory)
• Developed by Hertzberg
• two-factor theory also called motivation-hygiene
theory
• proposed that motivators rather than hygiene factors
motivate employees.
• Herzberg concluded that job dissatisfaction and job
satisfaction arise from two separate sets of factors.

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Dissatisfiers/ maintenance/ Hygiene Factors: are
features of the work environment rather than the work
itself.
• The word „hygiene‟ indicates that they stop
dissatisfaction from occurring, and work could be
very dissatisfying if they are absent.
Motivators/ Satisfiers:
• Are factors leading to job satisfaction
• all related to the job context and the rewards of work
performance seem to be related to job-satisfaction.

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 Herzberg's Motivators and Hygiene's
Motivators leading to Hygiene's leading to no
Job satisfaction dissatisfaction

• Achievement • Organizational Policies

• Recognition • Supervision
• Work it self • Relations with peers
• Responsibility • Working Condition
• Advancement • Pay
• Personal growth • Job Security
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5. David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
• McClelland’s theory of needs was developed by
David McClelland and his associates.
• It looks at three needs:
• Need for achievement (nAch) is the drive to excel,
to achieve in relationship to a set of standards.
High need for achievement people:
Prefer individual responsibilities.
Prefer challenging goals.
Prefer performance feedback.

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• Need for power (nPow) • Need for affiliation
is the need to make (nAff) is the desire for
others behave in a way friendly and close
they would not have interpersonal
otherwise. relationships.
• High need for power • High need for affiliation
people: people:
Seek influence over  Are drawn to interpersonal
others. relationships.
Like attention.  Seek opportunities for
communication.
Like recognition.

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• 4.4.2 Contemporary Theories of Motivation
• We call them contemporary theories not because they
necessarily were developed recently, but because they
represent the current state of the art in explaining
employee motivation.
• It includes:
ERG theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Goal setting theory

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• 1) ERG Theory
• developed by Clayton Alderfer
• ERG theory is a well-known simplification of the
hierarchy of needs theory.
• Clayton Alderfer reorganized Maslow’s needs
hierarchy into three levels of needs:
Existence (physiological and safety needs),
Relatedness (social), and
Growth (esteem and self-actualization).

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• Existence needs: are • Growth needs: are
concerned with sustaining concerned with the
human existence and development of potential,
survival, and cover and cover self esteem and
physiological and safety self actualization.
needs of a material nature. • ERG theory differs from
• Relatedness needs: are Maslow’s theory in two
concerned with basic ways.
relationships to the social First, Alderfer broke needs
environment, and cover down into three categories
love or belongingness, Second, ERG theory also
contains a frustration-
affiliation, and regression dimension.
meaningful interpersonal
relationships of a safety or
esteem nature.

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• 2) Equity Theory
• Equity theory proposes that employees are motivated when
their perceived inputs equal outputs.

• Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly they

have been treated in comparison with the treatment received
by others.
• A relevant other could be a coworker or group of employees
from the same or different organizations, or even from a
hypothetical situation.
• Motivation is based on the perception of one’s own
outcome/input ratio compared to that of a similar individual or
group, called a referent.

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• Equity= when employees perceive that the ratios
of their inputs (efforts) to their
outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of
other similar employees. The referent that an
employee selects adds to the complexity of equity
theory.
• There are four referent comparisons we can use:
Self-inside: An employee’s experiences in a different
position inside his/her current organization.
Self-outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or
position outside his/her current organization.
Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals
inside the employee’s organization
Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals
outside the employee’s organization

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Ways to Restore Equity
• Once an individual experiences inequity, there
are several ways to restore equity:
Change inputs.
Change outcomes
Change referent’s inputs or outcomes.
Change perceptions of the situation.
Change the referent.
Leave the job or organization.

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• 3) Expectancy Theory
• It is based on Victor Vroom’s formula: Motivation =
Expectancy x Valence.
• It proposes that employees are motivated when they
believe they can accomplish the task and the rewards
for doing so are worth the effort.
• Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a
tendency to act in a certain way depends on the
strength of an expectation that they act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

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 Cont….

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• The theory, therefore, focuses on three
relationships
Efforts - Performance relationship: It is related to
the probability perceived by individual that exerting a
given amount of efforts will lead to performance
(Expectancy).
Performance- Reward Relationship: The degree to
which the individual believes that performing at a
particular level will lead to attainment of desired
outcome (Instrumentality).
Reward-personal goal relationship: The degree to
which an organizational reword will satisfy individual
needs and its attractiveness for the individual(Valence)

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• Expectancy Theory

Organizati
Individual onal Personal
Individual
effort rewards goals
performance

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• 5. Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal setting theory is proposed by Edwin Locke.
• The basic premise of goal theory is that people’s goals or
intentions play an important part in determining behavior.
• A goal is “what an individual is trying to accomplish
• The quality of performance is generally shaped by how
difficult and how specifically defined the goal is.
• General goal such as “do your best,” do not lend to accurate
performance appraisal and proportionate rewards.
• Specific goals are clear and tend to give a clear direction to the
worker, resulting in improved performance.
• Similarly, difficult goals, once accepted, lead to higher
performance.

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• According to Locke, goal setting motivates in four ways:
Goals direct attention.
Goals regulate effort.
Goals increase persistence.
Goals encourage the development of strategies and
action plans.

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4.5 Implication of motivation for performance
and satisfaction
4.5.1Motivation Vs Satisfaction
• Motivation refers to the drive and effort to
satisfy a want or a goal.
• Satisfaction refers to the contentment
experienced when a want is satisfied.
• In other words, motivation implies a drive
toward an outcome, and satisfaction is the
outcome already experienced.
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 • 4.5.2 Motivation and Performance

• Thus, we see motivation is a necessary but insufficient

contributor to job performance. The multiplication sign is used
to emphasize how a weakness in one factor can negate the
other.
• The above relationship between performance and motivation
clearly shows us that managers should hire individuals who
have the ability to do what is required.
• Keeping other variables constant, motivation and performance
have neither positive nor negative relationship. As motivation
increases, job performance increases, reaches its maximum
and decreases.
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• 4.6 Managerial Approaches for Improving
Motivation
• To motivate employees the management uses
several important ways such as
rewards,
 job design,
self-leadership,
empowerment,
performance feedback
Alternative Work Arrangements:

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• 1. Reward Systems: Organizations can offer two types of
rewards:
Intrinsic rewards
Extrinsic rewards
• 2. Job Design: Job design is the process of assigning tasks to a
job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other
jobs.
• Contemporary job design strategies reverse job specialization
through job rotation, job enlargement, and job enrichment.
Job Rotation: It is the practice of moving employees
from one job to another typically for short periods.
Job Enlargement: It is the practice of increasing the
number of tasks employees performs within their job.
Job Enrichment: It occurs when employees are given
more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and
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• 3. Self-Leadership: It is the process of influencing oneself to
establish the self-direction, and self-motivation needed to
perform the task.
• It takes the view that individuals mostly regulate their own
actions through the behavioral and cognitive (thought)
activities.
• The five elements of self-leadership are:
personal goal setting,
constructive thought patterns,
designing natural rewards,
self-monitoring, and
self-reinforcement.
• Constructive thought patterns include self-talk and mental
Imaging.
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• Empowerment: Empowerment means creating conditions in
which employees perceive themselves as competent and in
control of performing meaningful tasks.
• Besides delegating responsibility, managers can empower
employees by sharing information freely and by minimizing
red tape and other roadblocks to effective performance.
• Performance Feedback: The degree to which carrying out the
work activities required by a job results in the individual
obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness
of his or her performance.
• Alternative Work Arrangements: Another approach to
motivation is to alter work arrangements with
flextime,
job sharing, or
telecommuting.
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• Telecommuting: Working from home at least two
days a week on a computer that is linked to the
employer’s office.
• Flextime: Flexible work hours. Employees must
work a specific number of hours per week but are
free to vary their hours of work within certain
limits.
• Job sharing: An arrangement that allows two or
more individuals to split a traditional 40-hour-a-
week job. One might perform the job from 8:00
a.m. to noon and the other from 1:00 p.m. to 5:00
p.m., or the two could work full but alternate
days.
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 CHAPTER FIVE:
MANAGEMENT OF
ORGANIZATIONAL
CONFLICT
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• 5.1 Definition and Nature of Conflict
• The word „conflict is defined here as: the behavior of
an individual or group which purposely sets out to
block or inhibit another individual or group from
achieving its goals.
• Conflict is processes that begin when one party
perceives that another party has negatively affected
or is about to negatively affect something that the first
party cares about.
• Conflict may be the pursuit by two different persons
or goals that are incompatible, so that gains by one
person must come about at the expense of the other.

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• 5.2. Types of conflict
• Conflict may be classified on the basis of its
sources
consequence
organizational levels (individual, group, etc.)

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1. according to Sources of Conflict
• The classification of conflict is often made on the basis
of the antecedent conditions that lead to conflict.
Affective Conflict: This occurs when two interacting social
entities, while trying to solve a problem together, become
aware that their feelings and emotions regarding some or
all the issues are incompatible.
Substantive Conflict: This occurs when two or more
organizational members disagree on their task or content
issues.
Conflict of Interest: This is defined as an inconsistency
between two parties in their preferences for the allocation
of a scarce resource.
Conflict of Values: This occurs when two social entities
differ in their values or ideologies on certain issue.
Goal Conflict: This occurs when a preferred outcome or an
end-state of two social entities is inconsistent.

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 Source of Conflict

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• 2. According to level
• On this basis intra-organizational conflict may
be classified as
intrapersonal,
interpersonal,
intra-group,
intergroup.

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I. Intra-personal conflict
• Intra-personal conflicts arise within individuals due to
frustration, goals, and roles.
Types of intrapersonal conflict
• There are three types of intrapersonal conflict.
Following is a discussion of these three types:
A. Approach–approach conflict=both positive
alternatives
B. Avoidance–avoidance conflict=Both negative
alternatives
C. Approach–avoidance conflict =positive and
negative alternatives
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• II. Inter-personal conflict: occurs between
two individuals or between an individual and a
group.
• III. Intra-group conflict: is the conflicts that
occur between group members.
• IV. Inter-group conflict: occurs between two
or more groups in an organization - work
groups, social groups, etc.

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 Cont…..

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3. According to Consequences of Conflict
Conflict outcomes may be either
functional
dysfunctional
A. Functional outcomes
Generally, conflict is constructive when it:
Stimulates creativity and innovation,
improves the quality of decisions,
encourages interest among group members,
provides the medium through which problems can
aired and tensions released,
Fosters environment of self-evaluation and change.

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B. Dysfunctional out comes:
Uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve
commonalities, and eventually leads to the destruction of the
group.
Among the more undesirable consequence are:
Reduction in group cohesiveness
Delay in decision making which need to be done
urgently
Hostility and aggression development,
increase employee turnover,
Decrease employee satisfaction,
Increases inefficiencies of work units.

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5.3. Nature of conflict in an organization
5.3.1 Perspectives on conflict
• Three perspectives:
traditional view.
human relations view,
interactionist view.

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1. The Traditional/Unitarist View
• The early approach to conflict assumed that
conflict was bad.
• Conflict, then, was to be avoided.
2. The Human Relations/Pluralist View
• argued that conflict was a natural occurrence in
all groups and organizations.
• the human relations school advocated acceptance
of conflict..
3. The Interactionist/Radicalist View
• the interactionist approach encourages conflict on
the grounds
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5.4 Cause of Conflict in Organizations
• Descriptions of some of the most common
organizational causes of conflict may be:
1. Competition for resources
2. Task interdependence
3. Jurisdictional ambiguity
4. Status struggles:
5. Organizational Change
6. Personality Clashes
7. Differences in Value Sets
8. Perceptual Differences
9. Work Flow Relationship

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5.5 The conflict process – stages of conflict
• The conflict process can be thought of as
progressing through five stages:
potential opposition,
cognition and personalization,
intention,
behavior,
outcomes.

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Stage I: Potential Opposition or
Incompatibility
• The first step in the conflict process is the
presence of conditions that create opportunities
for conflict to arise.
• They need not lead directly to conflict,
• but one of these conditions is necessary if
conflict is to arise.
• three general categories:
communication,
structure, and
personal variables.

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Stage II: Cognition and Personalization
• The antecedent conditions can lead to conflict only when one
or more of the parties are affected by, and cognizant of, the
conflict.
• However, because a conflict is perceived does not mean it is
personalized. You may be aware that you and a co-worker are
in disagreement.
• It is at the level where conflict is felt, when individuals
become emotionally involved, that parties experience anxiety,
tension, frustration, or hostility.
• Perceived conflict: is Awareness by one or more parties of the
existence of conditions that create opportunity for conflict to
arise.
• Felt conflict: Emotional involvement in a conflict that creates
anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility.
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• Stage III: Intentions
• Intentions intervene between people’s perceptions and
emotions and their overt behavior.
• They are decisions to act in a given way.
• Using two dimensions cooperativeness (the degree to which
one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns) and
assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to
satisfy his or her own concerns) we can identify five conflict-
handling intentions:
competing (assertive and uncooperative),
collaborating (assertive and cooperative),
avoiding (unassertive and uncooperative),
accommodating (unassertive and cooperative), and
compromising (midrange on both assertiveness and
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Avoidance
• The avoiding style is uncooperative and unassertive. People exhibiting this style
seek to avoid conflict altogether by denying that it is there.
Accommodation
• The accommodating style is cooperative and unassertive. In this style, the
person gives in to what the other side wants, even if it means giving up one’s
personal goals.
Compromise
• is a middle-ground style, in which individuals have some desire to express their
own concerns and get their way but still respect the other person’s goals.
• In a compromise, each person sacrifices something valuable to them.
Competition
• People exhibiting a competing style want to reach their goal or get their solution
adopted regardless of what others say or how they feel.
Collaboration
• The collaborating style is high on both assertiveness and cooperation. The
objective is to find a win–win solution.

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• Stage IV: Behavior
• when a member engages in action that frustrates the
attainment of another's goals or prevents the furthering of the
other's interests.
• Overt conflict covers a full range of behaviors, from subtle,
indirect, and highly controlled forms of interference to direct,
aggressive, violent, and uncontrolled struggle.
• Stage IV is also where most conflict-handling behaviors are
initiated.
• Stage V: Outcomes
• The interplay between the overt conflict behavior and conflict-
handling behaviors results in consequences.
 Functional Outcomes
 Dysfunctional Outcomes

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• 5.6 Conflict Management Strategies
• A viable strategy for conflict management begins with
 an analysis of the conflict situation
 strategy options.
• A) Analysis of Conflict Situation
• Managers can analyze a conflict situation by identifying the
following:
• Conflicting parties: The conflict may arise between individuals,
groups, or departments.
• Source of conflict: The conflict may arise from factors such as
differences in value sets, perception differences, scarcity of
resources, workflow relationship, etc. Analyzing this requires trying
to view each Situation through the eyes of the parties involved.
• Severity of conflict: The situation may be at a stage where the
manager must deal with it immediately; or the conflict may be at a
moderate level of intensity. If the goals of the workgroup are
threatened or sabotage is occurring, the manager must take action
immediately. If individuals or groups are simply in disagreement, a
less immediate response is required.

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• B) Conflict Resolution
• Conflict Resolution Techniques
• Problem solving: Interested parties confront the issue
and cooperatively identify the problem, generate and
weigh alternate solutions and select a solution.
• Super ordinate goal: It’s a technique used to create a
shared goal that cannot be attained without the
cooperation of each of the conflicting parties.
• Expansion of Resources: When a conflict is caused
by the scarcity of a resource – say, funding,
Promotions, and desirable work or working conditions,
etc- the expansion of resource can create a win-win
Situation. Unfortunately, it is often not possible in
practice.
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• Avoidance: This strategy calls for a party to withdraw or
ignore the conflict. The manager passively withdraws or
ignores the problem.
• Smoothing: an obliging person neglects his/her own concern
to satisfy the concern of the other party. This strategy involves
playing down differences while emphasizing commonalties
• Compromise: In this strategy, the parties‟ reach a mutually
acceptable solution in which each gets only part of what he or
she wanted.
• Altering the Human Variable: This strategy calls for using
the behavioral change techniques Such as human resources
training to alter attitudes and behaviors that cause conflict.
• Altering the Structural Variable: Conflict is resolved
through changing the formal organizational Structure and the
interaction patterns of conflicting parties through job redesign,
transfers, and the like…
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• Authoritative Command / Impose a Solution: Finally, if all
fails, it may be necessary to impose a solution.
• Resolving conflict through negotiation or third-party
intervention: Although the conflict handling styles just
discussed can be used for all types of conflict, they primarily
targets interpersonal conflict.
• Briefly, there are three types of third- party interventions.
Consultation-this is the process where mandated
representatives of group in a conflict situation meet
together in order to resolve their differences and to reach
agreement.
Mediation-A trusted third party facilitates the negotiating
process and suggests alternatives.
Arbitration: The arbitrator is delegated the authority to
render a judgment or otherwise resolve the dispute.
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 THANK YOU

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 Group assignment

• Select any governmental Organization

• Identify the type of conflict that exist in
selected organization
• Identify causes of conflict
• Explain the mechanism(conflict management
strategies ) that will be used to reduces
conflict
• What do you recommended for selected
organization to manage conflict
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