GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

JOHN LOCKE
o Knowledge is acquired through
experience (nurture)
o Tabula rasa - Blank state, where our
minds are originally empty and our
INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL ideas are created through
experience and senses.
PSYCHOLOGY
 19TH CENTURY
PSYCHOLOGY
WILHEM WUNDT
 It is the scientific study of behavior and mental
o In 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, he
processes.
established 1st psychological
- SCIENTIFIC
laboratory
o Follows the scientific method
o Use of research/evidenced-based
GRANVILLE STANLEY HALL
strategies for gathering data
o student of Wundt
o 1st American to finish PhD Psych
- HUMAN BEHAVIOR
o established 1st psychological
o Covert (Not obvious) and Overt
laboratory in US at Johns Hopkins
(Obvious)
University
o Voluntary and Involuntary
o founded the American Journal of
o Conscious and Unconscious
Psychology
o Purpose is to adapt and survive
JAMES MCKEEN CATTELL
- MENTAL PROCESSES
o student of Wundt
o perception, memory, thinking (such
o 1st psych professor in US
as ideation, imagination, belief,
reasoning, etc.),
SIR FRANCIS GALTON
o based in England
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
o studied Ind. Diff
o developed the first use of IQ tests
1. To describe how people behave (WHAT)
2. To explain human behavior (WHY)
 HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS PHILIPPINES
3. To predict what people will do under certain
PSYCHOLOGY
conditions (WHEN)
- 17TH century = UST (Manila) & USC (Cebu)
4. To control/influence behavior through
- 1926 University of the Philippines
manipulation of its causes (HOW)
o School of Education - 1st Depatment
of Psychology
HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS
o Agustin Alonzo - Chair (finished his
 ETYMOLOGY
PhD in Experimental Psych from
- Psyche (soul) + logos (study) = study of the
University of Chicago)
soul
- University of Sto. Tomas
o First offer undergrad, masters, and
 PREHISTORIC TIMES
PhD degrees in Psychology
- Anchored on animism
o Belief that all animate and
PIONEERS OF PHILIPPINE PSYCHOLOGY
inanimate objects have a
spirit/essence
1. SINFOROSA PADILLA
- From UM in 1928
 MEDIEVAL TIMES
- 1st to major psych from undergrad to PhD
- behavior is influenced heavily by the sense of
- 1st to establish psych clinic at UP in 1931
morals/standards offered by the church
- One of the first 4 presidents of Psychological
teachings (belief in life after death, right &
Association of the Philippines (PAP)
wrong)
2. JESUS PERPINAN
 GREEK TIMES
- PhD from Iowa State University in 1933
- Monism & Dualism views of personality
- Set up the FEU psych clinic
o Monism – believes in only one unified
reality that explains everything
3. ELIAS BUMATAY
o Dualism – believes that the mind and
- PhD in Educational Psych from University of
body are fundamentally different
Texas in 1940
entities
- Dean of College of Education at NU
- Nativist vs Empiricist views of knowledge
4. ESTEFANIA ALDABA-LIM
(nature vs nurture)
- 2nd to receive PhD in clinical psych from
o Nativist – believes that skills, abilities,
University of Michigan
and characters are innate rather
- Started psych program at PWU in 1948
than acquired through experience
- She set up the PhilPsyCor in 1962
or learning (nature)
- One of the first 4 presidents of Psychological
o Empiricist – believes that knowledge
Association of the Philippines (PAP)
comes primarily from sensory
experience (nurture)
5. ALFREDO LAGMAY
- PhD in Experimental Psych from Harvard
RENE DESCARTES
University in 1955
o Knowledge is innate (nature)
- Headed the psych dept of UP
- One of the first 4 presidents of Psychological
Association of the Philippines (PAP)
 6. MARIANO OBIAS - Our minds tend to perceive objects as part
- PhD in Comparative & Psychological Psych of a greater whole and as elements of ore
from Stanford University in 1955 complex systems
- Led the Personnel dept of Caltex, Phil - Configuration
- The behavior is best understood as a whole
7. JAIME BULATAO - “The whole is greater than the sum of its
- PhD in Clinical Psych from Fordham University parts”
- Established dept of psych at ADMU in 1961 o Look into the overall aspect of a
- One of the first 4 presidents of Psychological subject rather than its parts
Association of the Philippines (PAP)
- Laws of Organization
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT o Similarity
o Proximity
1. STRUCTURALISM
- Edward B. Titchener BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
- First major school of thought in Psychology
- Maintains that complex conscious 1. BASIC PSYCHOLOGY
experiences can be broken down into - Focuses on theory and building basic
elemental structures or parts of sensations knowledge
and feelings o Behavioral
- Explain human behavior by looking at the o Cognitive
elements of behavior o Biological
- “What makes up/composes behavior?” o Developmental
- Example: “What is anger? Anger is the o Evolutionary
reddening of face, increase in blood o Personality
pressure, tightening of jaw, etc.” o Social

2. FUNCTIONALISM 2. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

- William James - Focuses on solving real-world problems
- Studying the purpose of behaviors and o Clinical
mental experiences o Counseling
- Cognitive processes develop over time to o Educational
help humans adapt and survive in their o Forensic
environment o Health
- “What is behavior for?” o I/O
- Example: What purpose does anger have? o School
o Sports
3. BEHAVIORISM
- John B. Watson PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY
- To discover the fundamental principles of
learning—how behavior is acquired and 1. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
modified in response to environmental - Freud, Jung, & Adler
influences. - Behavior stems from:
- All behavior should be studied through its o Unconscious processes
observability o Conflict bet, instincts, and society’s
- There is always a reason behind behaviors demands
- S-R o Early childhood experiences
o For every stimulus, there is a response
o Response will not happen without a
stimulus

4. PSYCHOANALYSIS
- Sigmund Freud
- Unconscious motivations (usually originating
in childhood) shape personality and
behavior through dreams, memory blocks,
and slips of the tongue and humor.
- To analyze behaviors and know what is within
- “The Child is the Father of the Man”

o Psychotherapy
CONSCIOUS
 Therapeutic sessions
- Visible/obvious
- Aware
o Projective Techniques
 Unconscious
PRECONSCIOUS
 Repressed emotions
- Sometimes covered
 Slow objective way of
- Forces that stimulate us to go beyond
interpreting results
 Showing pictures to
UNCONSCIOUS
understand mental
- Innermost desires
processes
- Motivations
5. GESTALT
- Biggest part of who we are
- Max Wertheimer, Fritz Perls, Wolfgang Kohler,
Kurt Koffka
SUBCONSCIOUS
- Looks at the human mind and behavior as a
- What we know about ourselves that other
whole
people do not
 EGO - Learning based on how a behavior is
- Awareness rewarded or punished
- Everything about your personality that makes o Rewards & Punishment
you believe you are worthy o Observation & Modelling of Behavior

SUPEREGO 3. COGNITIVIE APPROACH

- Super + Ego = Morals/Conscience - Focuses on mental processes
- Only by studying the mental processes can
ID we fully understand what people do
- Sensual impulses - Ex: Fundamental Attribution Error
- Cravings o People tend to attribute an event to
- Desires the trait of a person instead of the
- Carnal = Pleasure situation
o Place undue emphasis on
SUPEREGO VS ID dispositional factors to explain
- Dilemma someone else’s negative behavior in
- Defense mechanisms arise to protect the a given situation rather than external
ego factors
o For example, when you saw
DEFENSE MECHANISMS someone hitting another person
- To protect the ego (aggression) and when you’re asked
- Always wants to be good what could have caused such
behavior, you’re likely to say that it’s
A. DENIAL because “He is aggressive!!!”
o Failing to put awareness
4. NEUROBIOLOGICAL APPROACH
B. DISPLACEMENT - Concerned with how the brain or nervous
o Putting unacceptable impulses to system influences behavior and mental
objects as they are less threatening processes
- Example: Depression has been associated
C. REACTION FORMATION with a deficiency in norepinephrine and
o You get to do the opposite of what is serotonin, these are neurotransmitters
real because the truth will make you produced in the brain believed to have
uncomfortable effects in the person’s moods.

D. SUPPRESSION (CONSCIOUS)
o Making an effort to block the truth
ETHICS IN THE PRACTICE OF
due to pain PSYCHOLOGY
E. REPRESSION (UNCONSCIOUS) As psychologists, we are faced with these questions that
o The implanted trauma is too deep to need to be answered:
not remember anymore 1. In research, are we putting our participants at
risk?
F. SUBLIMATION 2. In clinical practice, are our interventions
o Unacceptable impulse is diverted to potentially harmful for the client?
socially acceptable actions 3. In teaching, do we share explicit accounts of
personal case histories in lieu of learning?
G. PROJECTION 4. In counseling, do we have biases towards clients
o Project unwanted thoughts, feelings, who have morals and values that are
or impulses onto someone else incompatible with the counselor?

H. REGRESSION 4 INSTANCES IN THE PAST THAT MADE ETHICS IMPORTANT

o Instead of dealing with things  The 4 projects discussed earlier paved the way
maturely, they might act out in ways for the development of Ethical Guidelines by the
that are characteristics of childhood APA.
or adolescence  The APA adopted and published the original
code of ethics in 1953, was revised in 1982 and
I. RATIONALIZATION again in 2002, which is still in use up to this day.
o Use of rationalization to make
something acceptable 1. MEDICAL ATROCITIES OF THE WORLD WAR II
o A person justifies or explains their - Many Nazis who committed medical
thoughts, feelings, or behaviors in a research during WWII were prosecuted at
seemingly logical or rational way to Nuremberg War Tribunal .
avoid facing the true underlying - The Nuremberg code emphasized the ff:
reasons or emotions o There should be consent
o Pax need to be fully informed
J. IDENTIFICATION o Risks avoided at all cost
o If you cannot beat them, join them o Protected against risks
o Adopting characteristics, behaviors, o Projects should be conducted by
or traits of another person, often qualified personnel
someone they admire, far, or view as o Participants have the right to
powerful discontinue at any time

2. BEHAVIORAL APPROACH 2. TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS PROJECT

- S-R Psychology - 1926: Syphilis is seen as major health
- Behavior is a product of stimulation from the problem. Prevalence of 35 percent observed
environment that elicits a response from the in reproductive age population.
individual
 - 1929: Aggressive treatment approach PRINCIPLES OF ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGY
initiated with mercury and bismuth. Cure rate
is less than 30 percent; treatment requires 1. PRINCIPLE A: BENEFICENCE AND
months and side effects are toxic, sometimes NONMALEFICENCE
fatal. - Psychologists strive to benefit those with
- The study initially involved 600 black men – whom they work and take care to Do No
399 with syphilis, 201 who did not have the Harm.
disease. - Psychologists seek to safeguard the welfare
- The study was conducted without the benefit and rights of those with whom they interact
of patients’ informed consent. professionally and other affected persons,
- Researchers told the men they were being and the welfare of animal subjects of
treated for “bad blood,” a local term used to research.
describe several ailments, including syphilis, - When conflicts occur among psychologists'
anemia, and fatigue. obligations or concerns, they attempt to
- In truth, they did not receive the proper resolve these conflicts in a responsible
treatment needed to cure their illness. fashion that avoids or minimizes harm.
- In exchange for taking part in the study, the - Psychologists are alert to and guard against
men received free medical exams, free personal, financial, social, organizational, or
meals, and burial insurance. political factors that might lead to misuse of
- Although originally projected to last 6 their influence.
months, the study actually went on for 40 - Psychologists strive to be aware of the
years. possible effect of their own physical and
mental health on their ability to help those
3. THE WILLOWBROOK HEPATITS PROJECT with whom they work
- Mentally retarded children housed at the
Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, BENEFICENCE
New York, were intentionally given hepatitis o act of charity, mercy, and kindness
in an attempt to track the development of with a strong connotation of doing
the viral infection. good to others
- The study began in 1956 and lasted for 14
years. MALEFICENCE
o “primum non nocere” = to do no
4. MILGRAM’S OBEDIENCE EXPERIMENTS harm
- 1963: Stanley Milgram created an
experiment to see if participants would follow 2. PRINCIPLE B: FIDELITY AND RESPONSIBILITY
orders even when the requested behavior - Psychologists establish relationships of TRUST
went against their moral beliefs or good with those with whom they work.
judgment. - They are aware of their professional and
- A researcher asks the participant to scientific responsibilities to society and to the
administer electric shocks to a test subject specific communities in which they work.
when he answers questions incorrectly. The - Psychologists uphold professional standards
test subject is an actor, who makes noises of of conduct, clarify their professional roles and
pain when he receives the shocks. The obligations, accept appropriate responsibility
participant is made to believe that each for their behavior, and seek to manage
shock is stronger than the last one. conflicts of interest that could lead to
- Milgram (1963) was interested in researching exploitation or harm.
how far people would go in obeying an - Psychologists consult with, refer to, or
instruction if it involved harming another cooperate with other professionals and
person. institutions to the extent needed to serve the
- Stanley Milgram was interested in how easily best interests of those with whom they work
ordinary people could be influenced into
committing atrocities, for example, Germans 3. PRINCIPLE C: INTEGRITY
in WWII. - Psychologists seek to promote accuracy,
ETHICS honesty, and truthfulness in the science,
 Express the professional values foundational to teaching, and practice of psychology.
the profession. - In these activities, psychologists do not steal,
 In psychology, APA’s Ethical Principles of cheat, or engage in fraud, subterfuge, or
Psychologists and Code of Conduct includes intentional misrepresentation of fact.
sections on clinical practice, education, research - Psychologists strive to keep their promises
and publication. and to avoid unwise or unclear
 A system of moral principles. commitments.
 They affect how people make decisions and - In situations in which deception may be
lead their lives. ethically justifiable to maximize benefits and
 Concerned with what is good for individuals and minimize harm, psychologists have a serious
society and is also described as moral obligation to consider the need for, the
philosophy. possible consequences of, and their
 The term is derived from the Greek word ethos responsibility to correct any resulting mistrust
which can mean custom, habit, character or or other harmful effects that arise from the
disposition. use of such techniques.
 Knowing the difference between what you have
the right to do and what is the right thing to do. DECEPTION
o explicit and intentional provision of
false or misleading information about
facts or people involved in a study.
o occur mainly in two ways: (1)
actively lying or concealing essential
information through omission and (2)
partial disclosure.
 o Researchers can use deception disability, language, and socioeconomic
under certain conditions: status and consider these factors when
 Participants must be working with members of such groups.
provided with enough
information to consent
voluntarily
BIOLOGICAL & ENVIRONMENTAL
 Researchers must convince FOUNDATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT
the IRB that deception is
necessary to collect data FERTILIZATION
and that it will cause little to  Epic story of a single sperm facing incredible
no harm odds to unite with an egg and form a new
 Researchers must arrange to human life.
fully inform the patients of
the true nature of the study PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION
in a timely manner  During sexual intercourse, about 300m sperm
enter the vagina
WHEN IS DECEPTION IN RESEARCH  Millions of them will either flow out of the vagina
ACCEPTABLE AND NOT? or die in its acidic environment
o Broder (1998) argued that deciding  Many survive because of the protective elements
on deception relies on the following provided in the fluid surrounding them
arguments:  The sperm will pass through the cervix and
 acceptability of an opening into the uterus
experimental treatment and  The cervix is open for a few days while the
acceptability of deception woman ovulates
must be kept separate,  The sperm swim through the cervical mucus,
 deception is necessary in which is thinned to a more watery consistency for
research on certain topics, easier passage
and  Once inside the cervix, the sperm continues
 participants understand and swimming toward the uterus where millions will
even accept deception die trying to make it through the mucus
when they are carefully  Some remain behind, caught in the folds of the
debriefed. cervix but later continue the journey as back up
to the first group
o Pittenger (2002) noted these  Inside the uterus, muscular uterine contractions
recommendations on deciding assist the sperm on their journey toward the egg
about deception in research:  However, resident cells from the woman’s
 researchers who use immune system, mistaking the sperm for foreign
deception provide detailed invaders, destroy thousands more
accounts of the procedures  Half of the sperm head for the empty fallopian
they used to minimize the tube while the others swim toward the tube
harm created by deception containing the unfertilized eggs
in their research reports.  Inside the fallopian tube, tiny cilia push the egg
 the American Psychological toward the uterus
Association offer a definition  The sperm must surge against this motion to
of deception that describes reach the egg
techniques commonly used  Some sperm get trapped in the cilia and die
in research.  Chemicals in the reproductive tract cause the
 informed consent procedure membranes, covering the heads of the sperm to
be revised to indicate that change, which makes the sperm hyperactive—
the researcher may use swimming harder and faster toward the egg,
deception as a part of the thereby helping it reach it
study.  Only a few dozens of the original 300m sperm
remain
4. PRINCIPLE D: JUSTICE  The egg is covered with a layer of cells called the
- Psychologists recognize that fairness and corona radiata, which the sperm must push
justice entitle all persons to access to and through to reach the outer layer of the egg
benefit from the contributions of psychology called zona pellucida
and to equal quality in the processes,  When sperm reach the zona pellucida, they
procedures, and services being conducted attach to a specialized sperm receptor on the
by psychologists. surface, which triggers their acrosomes to release
- Psychologists exercise reasonable judgment digestive enzymes, enabling the sperm to burrow
and take precautions to ensure that their into the layer
potential biases, the boundaries of their  Inside the zona pellucida is a narrow fluid filled
competence, and the limitations of their space just outside the egg cell membrane
expertise do not lead to or condone unjust  The first sperm to make contact will fertilize the
practices. egg and attaches to the egg cell membrane
 Within a few minutes, their outer membranes fuse
5. PRINCIPLE E: RESPECT FOR PEOPLE’S RIGHTS AND and the egg pulls the sperm inside, which causes
DIGNITY changes in the egg membrane that prevent
- Psychologists respect the dignity and worth other sperm from attaching to it
of all people, and the rights of individuals to  The egg releases chemicals that push other
Privacy, Confidentiality, And Self- sperm away from the egg and create an
determination. impenetrable fertilization membrane
- Psychologists are aware of and respect  As the reaction spreads outward, the zona
cultural, individual, and role differences, pellucida hardens, trapping any sperm unlucky
including those based on age, gender, enough to be caught inside
gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture,
national origin, religion, sexual orientation,
  Outside the egg, sperm are no longer able to - The baby is fully formed; all the organs and
attach to the zona pellucida extremities are present and will continue to
 Inside the egg, the tightly packed male genetic mature in order to become functional
material spreads out, and a new membrane - The circulatory and urinary systems are
forms around the genetic material, creating the working and the liver produces bile
male pronucleus - The baby is about 4 inches long and about 1
 Inside the genetic material reforms into 23 ounce
chromosomes - Chance of miscarriage drops
 The female genetic material, awakened by the
fusion of the sperm with the egg, finished  MONTH 4
dividing, resulting in the female pronucleus, - Heartbeats are now audible through Doppler
which also contains 23 chromosomes - Fingers and toes are well-defined
 As the male and female pronuclei form, spider - Eyelids, eyebrows, eyelashes, nails, and hair
web-like threads called microtubules pull them are formed
toward each other - Teeth and bones become denser
 The two set of chromosomes joined together, - Can suck thumb, yawn, stretch, and make
completing the process of fertilization faces
 A unique genetic code arises, instantly - Nervous system starts to function
determining gender, hair, color, eye color, etc. - Reproductive organs and genitalia are now
 Zygote is the beginning of a new human being fully developed
 The cilia and fallopian tube gently sweep the - 6 inches long and about 4 ounces
zygote toward the uterus, where he/she will
implant in the richer uterine lining, growing and  MONTH 5
maturing for the next 9 months until ready for - Can feel the baby’s movement
birth - Develops muscles and exercises them
- Quickening – first movement
FETAL DEVELOPMENT - Hair begins to grow on baby’s head
 MONTH 1 - Shoulders, back, and temples are covered
- As the fertilized egg grows, a water-tight sac by a soft fine hair called lanugo, which
forms around it, gradually filling with fluid, protects the baby and is usually shed at the
which is called the amniotic sac that helps end of the baby’s 1st week of life
cushion the growing embryo - The skin is covered with whitish coating
- The placenta also develops, which is a round, called vernix caseosa, which is a “cheesy”
flat organ that transfers nutrients from the substance that protects the baby’s skin from
mother to the baby, and transfers wastes the long exposure to the amniotic fluid and is
from the baby shed just before birth
- A primitive face will take form with large dark - 10 inches long and about ½ - 1 pound
circles for eyes. The mouth, lower jaw, and
throat are developing. Blood cells are taking  MONTH 6
shape, and circulation will begin - Skin is wrinkled and reddish in color
- The tiny “heart” tube will beat 65 times a - Veins are visible
minute by the end of the 4th week. - Fingers and toe prints are visible
- By the end of the 1st month, the baby is - Eyelids begin to part and the eyes open
about ¼ inch long, smaller than a grain of - Baby responds to sounds by moving or
rice increasing the pulse
- Notice jerking motions if baby hiccups
 MONTH 2 - If born prematurely, the baby may survive
- Baby’s facial features continue to develop; after the 23rd week with intensive care
each ear begins as a little fold of skin, tiny - 12 inches long and weighs 2 pounds
buds eventually grow into arms and legs,
fingers, toes, and eyes are also forming  MONTH 7
- The neural tube (brain, spinal cord, and other - Continue to mature and develop reserves of
neural tissues pf the central nervous system) is body fat
well-formed - Hearing is fully developed
- The digestive tract and sensory organs begin - Changes in position frequently
to develop - Responds to stimuli, including sound, pain,
- Bone starts to replace cartilage and light
- The head is large in proportion - Amniotic fluid begins to diminish
- The baby is about 1inch long and weighs - If born prematurely, the baby would be likely
1/30 of an ounce to survive after the 7th month
- At about 6 weeks, the baby’s heartbeat can - 14 inches long and 2-4 pounds
usually be detected
- After the 8th week, the baby is called a fetus  MONTH 8
instead of an embryo - Continue to mature and develop reserves of
body fat
 MONTH 3 - Kicking more
- Arms, hands, fingers, feet, and toes are fully - Brain is developing rapidly
formed - The baby can see and hear
- The baby can open and close its fists and - Most internal systems are well-developed
mouth - Lungs may still be immature
- Fingernails and toenails are beginning to - 18 inches long and as much as 5 pounds
develop
- External ears are formed  MONTH 9
- Teeth are forming - Continues to grow and mature
- Reproductive organs also develop but the - Lungs are nearly developed
baby’s gender is difficult to distinguish on - Body reflexes are coordinated—can close
ultrasound the eyes, turn the head, grasp firmly, respond
to sound, light and touch
 - Ready for labor and delivery MULTIPLE BIRTHS (TWINS)
- 18-20 inches and about 7 pounds
1. FRATERNAL TWINS
3 STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT - Develop from 2 sets of egg and sperm
- Same sex or one of each
1. GERMINAL PERIOD
- Weeks 1 & 2 2. IDENTICAL TWINS
- Begins with conception - Develop from same egg and sperm
- The fertilized egg known as zygote is with 23 - Same sex
chromosomes from mother and 23 from
father
- After 1 week and many cell divisions, the
zygote is made up of 100 to 150 cells
- By the end of 2 weeks, the mass of cells has
been attached to the uterine wall.

2. EMBRYONIC PERIOD
- Weeks 3-8
- In week 3, the neural tube that eventually
becomes the spinal cord starts to form.
- At about 21 days eyes begin to appear
- In 24 days, the cells of the heart begin to
differentiate
- In 4th week, arms and leg buds emerge MATERNAL FACTORS LINKED TO FRATERNAL TWINNING
- In 5-8 weeks, heart begins to beat, face starts
to form and intestinal tract appears 1. ETHNICITY
- 4 per 1,000 births among Asians
3. FETAL PERIOD - 8 per 1,000 births among Whites
- 2 months – 9 months - 12-16 per 1,000 births among Blacks.
- Organs mature at which life can be
sustained outside the womb & muscles begin 2. FAMILY HISTORY OF TWINNING
their first exercises - Occurs more often among women whose
- mother feels movement mothers and sisters gave birth to fraternal
- At 6 months, eyes are fully formed with fine twins
layer of hair, grasping reflex appears &
irregular breathing 3. AGE
- At 7-9 months, fetus is longer and functioning - Rises with maternal age, peaking between
of various organs step up 35 and 39 years, and then rapidly falls

TERATOGENS 4. NUTRITION
 Hazard to prenatal term - Occurs less often among women with poor
 Refers to any environmental agent that causes diets
damage during the prenatal period - Occurs more often among women who are
 Comes from the Greek word “teras” meaning tall and overweight or of normal weight as
malformation or monstrosity opposed to slight body build
 Dose, Heredity, other negative influences (poor
nutrition, stress, medical & prenatal care, etc.) & 5. NUMBER OF BIRTHS
age are common factors - Is more likely with each additional birth

RISKS OF DRINKING WHILE PREGNANT 6. FERTILITY DRUGS AND IN VITRO FERTILIZATION

- Is more likely with fertility hormones and in
1. Low birth weight vitro fertilization, which also increase the
2. Preterm delivery chances of triples to quintuplets
3. Birth defects (facial deformities)
4. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) CHILDBIRTH: THE 3 STAGES
5. Developmental delays and long-term cognitive
disabilities 1. DILATION AND EFFACEMENT OF THE CERVIX
- Longest stage of labor ranging
SEX DETERMINATION - 12-14 hrs for 1st birth & around 4-6 hrs for later
 23rd PAIR OF CHROMOSOMES births
- determines sex of babies - Contractions of the uterus become frequent
- purely a matter of genetics (nature) and not causing cervix to widen & thin out forming a
of any other methods you might be familiar clear passage into birth canal/vagina
with
2. PUSHING AND DELIVERY OF THE BABY
- Shorter lasting only 50 minutes in a 1st birth &
around 20 minutes later births
- Strong contractions of the uterus continue
- Mother feels urge to squeeze & push with her
abdominal muscles until baby is out

3. DELIVERY OF THE PLACENTA

- Labor comes to an end with few final
contractions & pushes
- These final pushes cause the placenta to
separate from the uterine wall and is
delivered in about 5 to 10 minutes
APPROACHES TO CHILDBIRTH Meperidine (Avoid when
breastfeeding and
1. NATURAL OR PREPARED CHILDBIRTH lactating)
- Lamaze methods
o Classes 3. ANTIBIOTICS
o Relaxation & breathing - Most of it are safe but ones that are not
o Labor coach include:
o Clarithromycin – is in category C and
2. HOME DELIVERY must use with caution
- Hilot o Metronidazole – can be used during
pregnancy but cannot during
3. MEDICAL INTERVENTIONS breastfeeding
- Fetal monitoring o Tetracycline – can affect the
- Labor & delivery medication (epidural developing teeth and bone of the
analgesia) baby
- Cesarean delivery (surgical birth) o Ciprofloxacin – has adverse effects
on cartilage development
MEDICINES FOR PREGNANT WOMEN
4. ANTIFUNGALS
1. ANESTHESIA - Safe during pregnancy and breastfeeding
- For extraction, surgery, cleaning, restoration,
root canal treatment 5. SEDATIVES
- Safe for pregnant and breastfeeding women - For sleeping and calming the patients
(FDA Rank B - proven safe and won’t cause - Should be avoided during pregnancy and
harm to the fetus or baby) lactating period
o Lidocaine (With or without - Midazolam/Clonazepam – can be used as
epinephrine) an alternative as they have short half-lives
o Prilocaine and it will effect for a short period of time
o Lidocaine (Topical) - Nitrous Oxide – do not administer unless
absolutely necessary, do not use it in the 1st
2. ANALGESICS trimester, should be administered for less than
- Pain reliever 30 minutes in 2nd and 3rd trimester, use at
- Safety depends on the type: least 50% oxygen, and has no concern
o Acetaminophen during breastfeeding
 Safest pain reliever during - Examples: Benzodiazepines, Zaleplon,
pregnancy Zolpidem
 Used for mild pain
 Examples: Paracetamol, 6. EMERGENCY MEDICATIONS
Tylenol, Panadol - Varies from its effects

o NSAIDS (Non-Steroidal Anti- GENETIC FOUNDATIONS

Inflammatory Drugs)  CHROMOSOMES
 Not safe during pregnancy, - Store and transmit genetic information
therefore should be avoided
 Can decrease amniotic fluid  GENES
during 3rd trimester - Segments of DNA located along the
 Can prolong labor, cause chromosomes
miscarriage, and cause birth
defects to babies  DNA
 Overuse, especially - Substance of which genes and
Ibuprofen, could cause chromosomes are made
closure of ductus arteriosus
in baby’s heart, which can HEREDITY
create problems in the flow  Passing of genetic traits from parent to offspring
of heart  Genetic materials are contained in alleles/genes
 Aspirin – causes bleeding that contain both physical & psychological traits
 Examples: Aspirin, Ibuprofen,  Expression of traits can be different due to:
Mefenamic acid, etc. - Dominant Expression
o Rule of dominance vs. recessive
o Opioids/Narcotics
 Used for severe pain - Intermediate Expression
 Second choice for pain o The recessive is expressed
 Pregnant women and
breastfeeding women can - Co-Dominance
intake but in low doses and o Both traits are expressed
short duration only
 Cannot be taken with GENOTYPE VS PHENOTYPE
antibiotics
 Codeine – causes  GENOTYPE
congenital defects in 1st - Refers to the genetic code of the individual
trimester, causes neonatal - All the information found inside the
respiratory depression when individual’s cells
overused in 3rd trimester, and - Everything that someone inherited from their
causes premature delivery parents
and fetal dependence - Depends on the hereditary information
when used chronically - Example: There is a person who has brown
 Examples: Oxycodone, hair but his cells contain one “brown hair”
Hydromorphone, and one “blonde hair” allele. The genotype
 includes all of this information, even though 3 MAIN DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES
this person doesn’t have blonde hair.
1. PHYSICAL PROCESSES
 PHENOTYPE - Changes in an individual’s biological nature
- Expression of the genotype that is visible for - Process of maturation (completion of
people and can be observed growth)
- Can be influenced by the environment
- Example: person’s eyes. 2. COGNITIVE PROCESSES
- Changes in an individual’s thought, IQ, and
DOMINANT VS RECESSIVE language

DOMINANT RECESSIVE 3. SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES

Brown Eyes Blue/Green Eyes - Changes in an individual’s relationships with
Dark/Curly Hair Blonde/Red & Straight other people
Hair - Changes in emotions
Normal Hair Baldness - Changes in one’s personality
Dark Skin Fair Skin
Tall Short CHANGES DURING DEVELOPMENT VARY IN

METHODS OF STUDYING GENE-ENVIRONMENT 1. PACING

INTERACTIONS - How fast & slow

1. HERITABILITY THROUGH ADOPTION OR KINSHIP 2. DIRECTION

STUDIES - Progression, plateau & decline
A. All similarities bet. Adopted child & adoptive
parents = environment 3. QUALITY
B. All similarities bet. Adopted child & biological - Positive and negative
parents = genes
4. QUANTITY
2. CONCORDANCE THROUGH TWIN STUDIES - Many or small
A. Similar traits of monozygotic twins = genes
B. Different traits of monozygotic twin = SIGNIFICANT FACTS OF DEVELOPMENT
environment
C. Monozygotic twins reared apart & with 1. EARLY FOUNDATIONS ARE CRITICAL
differences = environment - foundations laid in the first two years are the
D. Monozygotic twins reared apart & with most critical
similarities = genes - Between 8-18 months, the human
competencies begin to be formed
PATTERNS OF HOW GENES INFLUENCE THE ENVIRONMENT - Classic developmental theories also argue
that Early Foundations pose significant
1. ACTIVE GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION impact
(ACTIVE GXE)
- individual seeks out or create the PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
environment that matches with their genetic - For example, on weight in early childhood
predisposition (Lifecourse Perspective)
- Example:
o Genes: Extraversion is high PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
o Environment: Seek people who are - For example, personality is formed in early
extrovert like you childhood (Freud & Jung Psychology)

2. EVOCATIVE GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

(EVOCATIVE GXE) - For example, trust is developed in early
- Individual evokes certain reactions from the childhood (Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory)
environment based on their genetic COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
predispositions - For example, language is developed in the
- The environment adapts/changes to the first 7 years of life (Kuhl’s theory of Language
individual Development)
- Example:
o Genes: Child born with Fragile X CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH CHANGE IS LIKELY TO
Syndrome (High Aggression) OCCUR
o Environment: People around the - Receives help and guidance
child are likely to hate him for being - Significant people treat the person in new &
an angry child/bully different ways
- Strong motivation to change

DEVELOPMENT IN THE LIFE SPAN

DEVELOPMENT
 Pattern of change in human capabilities that
begins at conception and continues throughout
the life span
 Progressive series of changes of an orderly and
coherent type toward the goal of maturity
 Typically involves GROWTH & DECLINE
 Changes can involve both positive and negative
experiences
2. THE ROLES OF MATURATION AND LEARNING IN
DEVELOPMENT

LEARNING
- is a relatively permanent change in behavior
as a result of experience

MATURATION
- certain behaviors are not possible until a
specific developmental stage has been
reached

3. DEVELOPMENT FOLLOWS A DEFINITE &

PREDICTABLE PATTERN

CEPHALOCAUDAL LAW (VERTICAL)

- Gross motor skills & length

PROXIMODISTAL LAW (HORIZONTAL)

- Fine motor skills & width

4. EACH PHASE OF DEVELOPMENT HAS A

CHARACTERISTIC PATTERN OF BEHAVIOR

5. ALL INDIVIDUALS ARE DIFFERENT

6. EACH PHASE HAS HAZARDS & RISKS

HAZARD
- Something that has the potential to harm
you

RISK
- Likelihood of a hazard causing harm

7. DEVELOPMENT IS AIDED BY STIMULATION

- Early brain stimulation helps unlock the
brain’s full potential and resilience.
- Through play, children develop intellectual,
social, and emotional skills, which are
important in career development and self-
growth.

8. DEVELOPMENT IS AFFECTED BY CULTURAL

CHANGES

9. THERE ARE SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS FOR EVERY

STAGE
 BERNICE NEUGARTEN 5. DEVELOPMENT TAKES PLACE IN A DYNAMIC,
- Social psychologist MULTIPLE CONTEXTS
- proposed the idea of the social clock to
help explain aging DO EARLY EXPERIENCES RULE US FOR LIFE?
- Life events in society happened in a  Unless children experience warm, nurturant
predictable manner caregiving in the first year of life, they will not
- suggested that all societies have develop to their full potential (Bowlby, 1989; Berlin
a social clock, a conscious or unconscious & Cassidy, 2000)
consensus that dictates when events should  This early-experience doctrine suggests that after
occur a period of early development, we become
relatively fixed and permanent in our makeup
(Kagan, 2003)
 In contrast, some psychologists emphasize the
power of later-experience and argue that
children are malleable and that sensitive
caregiving is just as important later as it is earlier
(Lewis, 1997)
 There have been too little studies set for later
stages of development (Baltes, 2000; Lachman,
2004, Fung, 2010), and psychologists believe that
although they are not necessarily more important
that later experiences.

10. THERE ARE TRADITIONAL BELIEFS ABOUT PEOPLE OF

ALL AGES NERVOUS SYSTEM
AGEISM
- involves showing inaccurate perceptions or
developing stereotypes and discrimination
against older people
- Age bias and discrimination can have a
significant effect on one’s mental and
physical health, sense of self-worth, social life,
and even one’s finances.

5 SIGNIFICANT FACTS OF DEVELOPMENT

 Teh & Macapagal (2008)

1. DEVELOPMENT IS MULTI-DIMENSIONAL AND

INTEGRATED
2. DEVELOPMENT THROUGHOUT THE LIFE SPAN

LIFE SPAN STAGES (HAVIGHURST’S MODEL) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

A. Pre natal (conception to birth)  Brain and spinal cord
B. Infancy (birth – 2 weeks)
C. Babyhood (2 weeks - 2 years) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
D. Early childhood (2 – 6 years)  Part of your nervous system that lies outside your
E. Late childhood (6 -10/12 years) brain and spinal cord: smooth muscles
F. Adolescence (12-18 years)
G. Young adulthood (19-40 years) 1. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
H. Middle adulthood (40-50 years) o Voluntary control of body
I. Late adulthood (60 years and onwards) movements
o Moving our arms, legs, and other
3. STABILITY AND PLASTICITY IN DEVELOPMENT body parts

STABILITY 2. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

- Becomes stable at a certain point o Works without you thinking about it
- Example: number of permanent teeth, o Involuntary processes that keep you
height, etc. alive
 SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
RELATIVE PLASTICITY SYSTEM – carries signals that
- Changes in environment, relationships, etc. put your body’s systems on
- Example: attitudes, perceptions, etc. alert when it perceives
danger; adrenaline—fight or
4. NORMATIVE AND NON-NORMATIVE INFLUENCES flight.
IN DEVELOPMENT  PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM – carries signals that
NORMATIVE relax those systems, which is
- biological & environmental influences on an automatic response
development that occur in a similar manner “para” that means stop.
for most individuals in a given group.
- Example: age graded, history graded

NON-NORMATIVE
- occurrences that are not common to most
people
- Example: major illness, teenager becoming a
parent, child labor, sexual trauma
 ACTION POTENTIAL IN NEURONS
 NERVE IMPULSES/ACTION POTENTIALS
- To achieve rapid communication over its
NEURONS long axon, the neuron sends electrical signals
 Nerve cells that handle information processing in from the cell’s body to the nerve terminal
the nervous system. along the axon
 Building block of the nervous system
 Communicate with each other through their  RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
dendrites and axon, wherein incoming signals - A brief reversal of electric polarity across the
are received at dendrites while outgoing signals cell membrane
travel along the axon to the nerve terminal - Cells are polarized = there is an electrical
voltage across the cell membrane
1. AFFERENT/SENSORY NEURONS - In a resting neuron
o carry information to the brain. - Typical voltage is about -70mV (the negative
value represents that the cell is more
2. EFFERENT/MOTOR NEURONS negative on the inside)
o carry information from the brain to - At this resting state, there are concentration
the different muscles and glands. gradients of sodium and potassium across
the cell membrane.
STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL NEURON o More sodium outside the cell and
more potassium inside the cell
1. DENDRITES o These gradients are maintained by
- Lengthy the sodium-potassium pump, which
- Extensive constantly brings potassium in and
- Where nerve impulses from different body pumps sodium out of the cell
parts enter
 DEPOLARIZATION
2. NUCLEUS - Neuron is typically stimulated at dendrites
- Processes information and the signals spread through the soma
- Excitory signals at dendrites open ligand-
3. CELL BODY gated sodium channels and allow sodium to
- Core section of the neuron flow into the cell
- Contains genetic information - This neutralizes some of the negative charge
- Maintain the neuron’s structure also known inside the cell and makes the membrane
as a soma voltage less negative
- Cell membrane becomes less polarized
4. AXON
- Long yellow line  The influx of sodium diffuses inside the neuron
- Elongated extension used for sending nerve and produces a current that travels toward the
impulse axon hillock, which is also known as the cell’s
“trigger zone,” as this is where action potentials
5. MYELIN SHEAT usually start.
- Fat structures that envelop the axon for
insulation: more heat = faster travel of nerve  VOLTAGE-GATED ION
impulse - Action potentials are produced by voltage-
gated ion channels that are most
6. SCHWANN’S CELL concentrated at the axon hillock
- Orange circles - Passageways for ions in and out of the cell
- Regulated by membrane voltage
7. AXON TERMINAL - They open at some values of the membrane
- More globular than dendrites potential and close at others
- Has sac-like ends that contains chemicals - For an action potential to be generated, the
called neurotransmitters signal must be strong enough to bring the
membrane voltage to a critical value called
8. NODES OF RANVIER the threshold, typically about -55mV
- Spaces between myelin sheat that are o Minimum required to open voltage-
important for salutatory movement or gated ion channels
jumping of nerve impulse for it to travel faster
 Sodium channels open quickly and potassium
channels open but more slowly
- The initial effect is due to sodium influx
o As sodium ions rush into the cell, the
inside of the cell becomes more
 positive and this further depolarizes NEUROTRANSMITTERS
the cell membrane  Are chemical substances that carry information
o The increasing voltage in turn causes across the synaptic gap to the next neuron.
even more sodium channels to open  Refers to chemicals manufactured and released
o This positive feedback continues until by neurons that alter activity in other neurons.
all the sodium channels are open
and corresponds to the rising phase 1. SEROTONIN
of the action potential o Affects mood, sleep, and appetite
- The polarity across the cell membrane is now o Naturally occurring
reversed o Normal amount = calm and good
o As the action potential nears its mood
peak, sodium channels begin to o High amount = disorganized &
close possibility of having diarrhea
o Potassium channels are fully open o Low amount = depression and
o Potassium ions rush out of the cell anxiety, which are present in
and the voltage quickly returns to its medications for depression and
resting value anxiety like SSRI – Selective Serotonin
o Corresponds to the falling phase of Reuptake Inhibitors
the action potential
o Sodium and potassium have now 2. ACETYLCHOLINE (ACH)
switched places across the cell o Cognitive functioning, memory, REM
membrane sleep, and it has a suspected role in
o As the potassium gates are also slow Alzheimer’s disease.
to close, potassium continues to o memory loss, cognitive procceses
leave the cell a little longer, resulting (learning, attention), and involuntary
in a negative overshoot called the muscle movement.
hyper-polarization
o cell degenration due to aging affects
o The resting membrane potential
slowly restores due to diffusion and axon terminals, that contains ACH,
sodium-potassium pump which leads to memory loss resulting
old people to act like a baby.
 REFRACTORY PERIOD o can root from biological component.
- Divided into:
3. DOPAMINE
1. ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD o Attention, hormone regulation,
o Lasts from the start of an action motor control and memory, and also
potential to the point the voltage first increases emotional response and
returns to the resting membrane sexual desire
value o increases emotional response and
o During this time, the sodium channels sexual desire/libido.
are open and subsequently o too much = Schizophrenia—have
inactivated while closing and thus disregulated attention spans.
unable to respond to any new o too little = Parkinson’s disease
stimulation
4. GABA (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid)
2. RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD o Neural inhibition in the central
o Lasts until the end of hyper- nervous system: tranquilizing effect,
polarization often termed as “nature’s valium”
o During this time, some of the o Form of neural inhibitor that slows
potassium channels are still open, down or stops neural mechanisms
making it difficult for the membrane o present in cancer medications pain
to depolarize and a much stronger
medication
signal is required to induce a new
o Too much = heart stops and death
response
5. ENDORPHINS
 During an action potential, the sodium influx at a
o similar in structure and action to
point on the axon spreads along the axon,
depolarizing the adjacent patch of the opiates and are involved in pain
control, pleasure and memory.
membrane, generating a similar action potential
 OPIATES – used to treat pain
in it
or cause sleep
 The sodium currents diffuse in both directions on
o muscle activies including exercises,
the axon, but the refractory properties of ion
channels ensure that action potential laughing, sexual activities help to
propagates only in 1 direction release endorphins.
 Only the unfired patch of the axon can respond
with an action potential; the part that has just EFFECTS OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
fired is unresponsive until the action potential is
safely out of range 1. INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS
 An action potential generated at the axon - Slows the chemical reaction
hillock usually travels down the axon to the nerve
terminal and not back to the cell body because 2. EXCITORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS
the concentrations of voltage-gated ion - Increases chemical reaction
channels are higher in the axon than in the cell
body.
AGONISTS - Helps you make plans, imagine possible
 mimic or enhance the action neurotransmitters futures, and control your emotions
o Poison of the black widow spider and - Does not finish developing until your mid-20s
the caffeine in coffee which mimics the
effects of acetylcholine. 2. PARIETAL LOBE
o Amphetamines that mimic the effects of - Integrates all the sensory information in your
norepinephrine. body
o Sense of space, navigation, touch,
ANTAGONIST etc.
 drugs work by opposing or blocking the effect of
the neurotransmitter. 3. OCCIPITAL LOBE
o Venoms of snakes and the poison called - Responsible for visual information
curare block the role of acetylcholine - Located in the back of your brain
which plays a vital role in heart
contraction. When these drugs oppose 4. TEMPORAL LOBE
the acetylcholine, it paralyzes the - Responsible for understanding sounds and
muscles which can lead to death. speech
- Important for talking
PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN

1. HINDBRAIN (REPTILLIAN BRAIN)

o Pons – governs sleep & arousal CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
o Medulla – governs respiration, digestion
and circulation
o Cerebellum – governs body balance
and coordination

2. MIDBRAIN
o Reticular Formation
o A diffuse collection of neurons involved
in walking and sleeping

3. FOREBRAIN
o Cerebral cortex – performs higher metal
functions like thinking, memory,
reasoning, etc.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
o Hypothalamus – feelings, feeding and
sexual behavior (3 F’s)
1. PITUITARY
o Pituitary – governs endocrine system
HORMONES FUNCTION
4. LIMBIC SYSTEM
Oxtocine Contraction of the uterus
o plays an important role in memory and
Vassopresin Water absorption
emotion.
o Amygdala - involved in emotion and Growth Growth
discrimination of objects which are hormones
important for the organism’s survival. Dwarfism (Too little)
Example of this include choosing of Giantism (Too much)
appropriate food, mates and social rival.
o Hippocampus – responsible for learning 2. THYROID
and memory - Thyroxine
o Contains iodine as a main
component
o Regulates metabolism in the body
- Hypothyroidism or Goiter (Too Little)
- Cretinism (In childhood)
- Hyperthyroidism (Too much)

3. PARATHYROID
- Parathyroid hormones
o Responsible for calcium &
phosphorus absorption
PARTS OF THE CEREBRUM - Hyperparathyroidism (Too much)
o Lazy & dull
1. FRONTAL LOBE o Tetany
- Responsible for complex and abstract - Hypoparathyroidism (Too little)
abilities o Porous & weak bones and nails
- Sits right behind your forehead
- Most advanced part of the brain
4. PANCREAS
- Insulin
o Metabolises sugar/carbohydrates
- Glucagon
o Metabolises fats/glycogen
- Diabetes (Too much)
- Hypoglycemia (Too little)

5. ADRENALS
- Adrenaline
o Provides extra energy in times of
arousal states or stress

6. GONADS

MALES FEMALES
Testes Ovaries
Testosterone Estrogen &
Progesterone
Sexual Characteristics Sexual Characteristics