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Variability: Grouped Data” has been deleted. In the past, this particular section focused on
methodologies for the hand calculation of statistics on grouped data that few statisticians,
researchers, and analysts still do. However, the concepts of grouped data and the
construction of frequency distributions are still presented in Chapter 2. In Chapter 18,
“Statistical Quality Control,” three of the more current quality topics—Value Stream
Mapping, Kaizen Event, and Quality and Business Analytics—have replaced two of the older
quality topics—Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) and Quality Circles and Six Sigma
Teams.

Decision Dilemma and the Decision Dilemma Solved

Each chapter of the tenth edition begins with a Decision Dilemma. Decision Dilemmas are
real business vignettes that set the tone for each chapter by presenting a business dilemma
and asking a number of managerial or statistical questions, the solutions to which require the
use of techniques presented in the chapter. At the end of each chapter, a Decision Dilemma
Solved feature discusses and answers the managerial and statistical questions posed in the
Decision Dilemma using techniques from the chapter, thus bringing closure to the chapter. In
the tenth edition, all decision dilemmas have been revised and updated. Solutions given in
the Decision Dilemma Solved features have been revised for new data and for new versions of
computer output.
As examples, here is an overview of two Decision Dilemmas located in Chapters 6 and 7 of the
tenth edition. Chapter 6, which introduces the student to continuous distributions including
the normal curve, opens with a Decision Dilemma titled “CSX Corporation” This Decision
Dilemma introduces the student to the CSX Corporation, which is a leading rail
transportation company in the United States. Based in Jacksonville, Florida, the CSX
Transportation network has 21,000 miles of track across the eastern half of the United States
and two Canadian provinces. Analysis of this vignette focuses on average rail freight line-haul
speed, terminal dwell time, and freight train arrival time. Students have to analyze data about
these variables using probability distributions presented in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7, “Sampling and Sampling Distributions,” contains the Decision Dilemma, “Toro,”
which discusses the Toro Company’s 100 years of providing business solutions for the
outdoor environment including turf, snow, and ground-engaging equipment along with
irrigation and outdoor lighting solutions. The associated managerial, statistical, and
analytical questions tackle issues related to consumer and household spending on landscape
services both in terms of dollars spent and population percentages.

Thinking Critically About Statistics in Business Today

Every chapter in the tenth edition contains at least one or two Thinking Critically About
Statistics in Business Today features that give real-life examples of how the statistics
presented in the chapter apply in the business world today. Each of these contains thought-
provoking questions called Things to Ponder in which the objective is to effect critical
thinking on behalf of the student and generate discussion involving critical thinking in the
classroom. This approach to learning is in sync with various accreditation organizations and
their current emphasis on developing critical thinking in our students. Some of these include
“Recycling Statistics,” “Warehousing,” “Canadian Grocery Shopping Statistics,” “Beverage
Consumption: America vs. Europe,” “Are Facial Characteristics Correlated with CEO Traits?”
“Assessing Property Values Using Multiple Regression,” “Can Scrap Metal Prices Forecast the
Economy?” “City Images of Cruise Destinations in the Taiwan Strait,” and “Does an Iranian
Auto Parts Manufacturer’s Orientation Impact Innovation?” As an example, from “Beverage
Consumption: America vs. Europe,” Americans drink nearly five times as much soda as do
Europeans and almost twice as much beer. On the other hand, Europeans drink more than
twice as much tea (hot or cold), more than three times as much wine, and over four times as
much tap water as Americans. Statistics show that the average American consumes forty-
eight 12 oz. containers of carbonated soda per month compared to only 10 for Europeans.
Europeans consume an average of sixteen 4 oz. containers of wine per month compared to an
average of only five for Americans. One of the Things to Ponder questions is, “Can you think
of some reasons why Americans consume more carbonated soda pop and beer than
Europeans, but less wine, hot or iced tea, or tap water? Do you think that these outcomes may
change in time?”

Chapter Cases
Every chapter in this text contains a unique business case. These business cases are more
than just long problems; and in the discussion that follows the business scenario, several
issues and questions are posed that can be addressed using techniques presented in the
chapter. Following are a few examples of these cases. The Southwest Airlines case in Chapter
2 discusses the company’s rise from incorporation in 1967 to an operation with more than
3600 flights a day, serving 94 destinations across the United States and six other countries.
In Chapter 6, the reader is introduced to USAA, the United Services Automobile Association,
which was founded in 1922 by 25 army officers who came together in San Antonio and
decided to insure each other’s automobiles. Offering banking, investment, and insurance to
people and families that serve, or served, in the U.S. military, USAA currently has 10.7
million members, 42.6 million products, and 26,300 employees, and it is ranked 57th in net
worth ($25 billion) in Fortune 500 companies. Chapter 7 contains a case on the 3M
Company. Born as a small-scale mining company in 1902 and best known for its adhesive
products, 3M is a global innovation company with over 100,000 patents, $31 billion in sales,
and 90,000 employees. Five Guys, a hamburger restaurant chain whose philosophy is to
serve fresh, hand-cooked burgers with “all the toppings you could stuff between fresh-baked
buns” along with fresh-cut fries cooked in peanut oil, is the case in Chapter 10. A family
operation which opened its first restaurant in Arlington, Virginia in 1987 on $70,000 has
grown to 1163 U.S. restaurants with U.S. systemwide sales of $1.21 billion and units now
existing in other countries. Chapter 12 contains a case on Caterpillar, Inc. Caterpillar,
headquartered in Peoria, Illinois, is an American corporation with a worldwide dealer
network that sells machinery, engines, financial products, and insurance. Caterpillar is the
world’s leading manufacturer of construction and mining equipment, diesel and natural gas
engines, industrial gas turbines, and diesel-electric locomotives.
While all cases in the tenth edition have been updated and edited for today’s market, one new
case has been added in the tenth edition, the Standard Motor Products company in Chapter
18.
Standard Motor Products, Inc. (SMP), headquartered in Long Island City, New York,
manufactures and distributes replacement parts in the automotive aftermarket industry.
Among its products sold under various brand names and private labels are fuel injectors,
ignition wires, coils, switches, relays, sensors, distributor caps and rotors, and many other
engine components.
SMP, founded in 1919 as a partnership specializing in ignition and electrical parts, was listed
on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) in 1977. As of 2018, SMP had an annual sales
revenue of $1.09 billion. The Standard Motor Products Corporation has utilized a number of
quality efforts to improve its manufacturing processes. As an example, the Independence,
Kansas, facility completed a Kaizen improvement event in its World Valve PCV
manufacturing cell utilizing such Lean techniques as value stream mapping, the 7 Wastes,
Level Loading, and material and information flows. Overall, the improvements made
increased cell output from 3000 units per day to 3600 units per day. As a result, this
additional volume was absorbed without increasing hours run.

Problems
There are 958 practice problems in the text. About 35 of these problems have been updated
to include the latest data and information available. Twelve of the problems have been
replaced with new problems.
Included in virtually every section of every chapter of the text is a demonstration problem
that is an extra example containing both a problem and its solution and is used as an
additional pedagogical tool to supplement explanations and examples in the chapters.
Virtually all example and demonstration problems in the tenth edition are business oriented
and contain the most current data available.
As with the previous edition, problems are located at the end of most sections in the chapters.
A significant number of additional problems are provided at the end of each chapter in the
Supplementary Problems. The Supplementary Problems are “scrambled”—problems using
the various techniques in the chapter are mixed—so that students can test themselves on
their ability to discriminate and differentiate ideas and concepts.

Databases
Available with the tenth edition are 20 databases that provide additional opportunities for
students to apply the analytics presented in this text. These 20 databases represent a wide
variety of business areas, such as agribusiness, banking, consumer spending, energy, the
environment, finance, healthcare, international labor, manufacturing, market research,
retailing, stocks, and others. Altogether, these databases contain 128 variables and 71,498
observations. The data are gathered from such reliable sources as the U.S. government’s
Bureau of Labor, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
American Hospital Association, Energy Information Administration, Moody’s Handbook of
Common Stocks, American Marketing Association, EMSI, Inc., and the U.S. Census Bureau.
Fourteen of the databases are used with in-text activities. Eight of the 20 databases contain
time-series data. The databases are
12-Year Gasoline
Agribusiness Time-Series
AMA Top 50 (market research firms)
American Hospital Association (AHA)
Consumer Food
EMSI United Kingdom Job Change
 Energy
EPA Data Average Annual Emissions
Fifty Largest Banks in the World
Financial Database
Furniture and Household Furnishings Stores
Inc.5000 2014
International Labor
Manufacturing
Multi-Family Metrics
Personal Savings Rate
Student Survey
Top 100 Retailers in the U.S.
U.S. and International Stock Market
World’s Largest Companies

Video Tutorials by Ken Black

An exciting feature of the tenth edition package that can impact the effectiveness of student
learning in business statistics and significantly enhance the presentation of course material is
the series of videotape tutorials by Ken Black. With the advent of online business statistics
courses, increasingly large class sizes, and the number of commuter students who have very
limited access to educational resources on business statistics, it is often difficult for students
to get the learning assistance they need to bridge the gap between theory and application on
their own. There are now 21 videotaped tutorial sessions on key difficult topics in business
statistics delivered by Ken Black and available for all adopters on WileyPLUS. In addition,
these tutorials can easily be uploaded for classroom usage to augment lectures and enrich
classroom presentations. Because there is at least one video for each of the first 12 chapters,
the instructor has the option to include at least one video in the template of each chapter’s
plan for most, if not all, of the course. While the video tutorials vary in length, a typical video
is about 10 minutes in length. The 21 video tutorials are:
1. Chapter 1: Levels of Data Measurement
2. Chapter 2: Stem-and-Leaf Plot
3. Chapter 3: Computing Variance and Standard Deviation
4. Chapter 3: Understanding and Using the Empirical Rule
5. Chapter 4: Constructing and Solving Probability Tables
6. Chapter 4: Solving Probability Word Problems
7. Chapter 5: Solving Binomial Distribution Problems, Part I
8. Chapter 5: Solving Binomial Distribution Problems, Part II
9. Chapter 6: Solving Problems Using the Normal Curve
10. Chapter 7: Solving for Probabilities of Sample Means Using the z Statistic
11. Chapter 8: Confidence Intervals
12. Chapter 8: Determining Which Inferential Technique to Use: Confidence Intervals
13. Chapter 9: Hypothesis Testing Using the z Statistic
14. Chapter 9: Establishing Hypotheses
15. Chapter 9: Understanding p-Values
16. Chapter 9: Type I and Type II errors
17. Chapter 9: Two-Tailed Tests
18. Chapter 10: Hypothesis Tests of the Difference in Means of Two Independent
Populations Using the t Statistic
19. Chapter 11: Computing and Interpreting a One-Way ANOVA
20. Chapter 12: Testing the Regression Model I—Predicted Values, Residuals, and Sum of
Squares of Error
21. Chapter 12: Testing the Regression Model II—Standard Error of the Estimate and r2

Features and Benefits

Each chapter of the tenth edition contains sections called Learning Objectives, Decision
Dilemma, Demonstration Problems, Section Problems, Thinking Critically About Statistics in
Business Today, Decision Dilemma Solved, Chapter Summary, Key Terms, Formulas, Ethical
Considerations, Supplementary Problems, Exploring the Databases with Business Analytics,
Chapter Case, and Big Data Case.
Learning Objectives. Each chapter begins with a statement of the chapter’s main
learning objectives. This statement gives the reader a list of key topics that will be
discussed and the goals to be achieved from studying the chapter.
Decision Dilemma. At the beginning of each chapter, a short case describes a real
company or business situation in which managerial and statistical questions are raised.
In most Decision Dilemmas, actual data are given and the student is asked to consider
how the data can be analyzed to answer the questions.
Demonstration Problems. Virtually every section of every chapter in the tenth
edition contains demonstration problems. A demonstration problem contains both an
example problem and its solution and is used as an additional pedagogical tool to
supplement explanations and examples.
Section Problems. There are approximately 950 problems in the text. Problems for
practice are found at the end of almost every section of the text. Most problems utilize
real data gathered from a plethora of sources. Included here are a few brief excerpts from
some of the real-life problems in the text: “The Wall Street Journal reported that 40% of
all workers say they would change jobs for ‘slightly higher pay.’ In addition, 88% of
companies say that there is a shortage of qualified job candidates.” “In a study by Peter
D. Hart Research Associates for the Nasdaq Stock Market, it was determined that 20% of
all stock investors are retired people. In addition, 40% of all U.S. adults have invested in
mutual funds.” “A survey conducted for the Northwestern National Life Insurance
Company revealed that 70% of American workers say job stress caused frequent health
problems.” “According to Padgett Business Services, 20% of all small-business owners
say the most important advice for starting a business is to prepare for long hours and
hard work.” “According to Nielsen Media Research, approximately 86% of all U.S.
households have High-definition television (HDTV). In addition, 49% of all U.S.
households own Digital Video Recorders (DVR).”
Thinking Critically About Statistics in Business Today. Every chapter in the
tenth edition contains at least one Thinking Critically About Statistics in Business Today
feature. These focus boxes contain an interesting application of how techniques of that
particular chapter are used in the business world today and ask probing questions of the
student. They are usually based on real companies, surveys, or published research.
Decision Dilemma Solved. Situated at the end of the chapter, the Decision Dilemma
Solved feature addresses the managerial and statistical questions raised in the Decision
Dilemma. Data given in the Decision Dilemma are analyzed computationally and by
computer using techniques presented in the chapter. Answers to the managerial and
statistical questions raised in the Decision Dilemma are arrived at by applying chapter
concepts, thus bringing closure to the chapter.
Chapter Summary. Each chapter concludes with a summary of the important
concepts, ideas, and techniques of the chapter. This feature can serve as a preview of the
chapter as well as a chapter review.
Key Terms. Important terms are bolded and their definitions italicized throughout the
text as they are discussed. At the end of the chapter, a list of the key terms from the
chapter is presented. In addition, these terms appear with their definitions in the end-of-
book glossary.
Formulas. Important formulas in the text are highlighted to make it easy for a reader to
locate them. At the end of the chapter, most of the chapter’s formulas are listed together
as a handy reference.
Ethical Considerations. Each chapter contains an Ethical Considerations feature that
is very timely, given the serious breach of ethics and lack of moral leadership of some
business executives in recent years. With the abundance of statistical data and analysis,
there is considerable potential for the misuse of statistics in business dealings. The
important Ethical Considerations feature underscores this potential misuse by
discussing such topics as lying with statistics, failing to meet statistical assumptions, and
failing to include pertinent information for decision makers. Through this feature,
instructors can begin to integrate the topic of ethics with applications of business
statistics. Here are a few excerpts from Ethical Considerations features: “It is
unprofessional and unethical to draw cause-and-effect conclusions just because two
variables are correlated.” “The business analyst needs to conduct the experiment in an
environment such that as many concomitant variables are controlled as possible. To the
extent that this is not done, the researcher has an ethical responsibility to report that fact
in the findings.” “The reader is warned that the value lambda is assumed to be constant
in a Poisson distribution experiment. Business analysts may produce spurious results if
the value of lambda is used throughout a study, but because the study is conducted
during different time periods, the value of lambda is actually changing.” “In describing a
 body of data to an audience, it is best to use whatever statistical measures it takes to
present a ‘full’ picture of the data. By limiting the descriptive measures used, the
business analyst may give the audience only part of the picture and skew the way the
receiver understands the data.”
Supplementary Problems. At the end of each chapter is an extensive set of additional
problems. The Supplementary Problems are divided into three groups: Calculating the
Statistics, which are strictly computational problems; Testing Your Understanding,
which are problems for application and understanding; and Interpreting the Output,
which are problems that require the interpretation and analysis of software output.
Exploring the Databases with Business Analytics. There are 20 major databases
located on the student companion website that accompanies the tenth edition and in
WileyPLUS. The end-of-chapter Exploring the Databases with Business Analytics section
contains several questions/problems that require the application of techniques from the
chapter to data in the variables of the databases. It is assumed that most of these
questions/problems will be solved using a computer.
Chapter Case. Each chapter has an end-of-chapter case based on a real company.
These cases give the student an opportunity to use statistical concepts and techniques
presented in the chapter to solve a business dilemma. Some cases feature very large
companies—such as Southwest Airlines, Coca-Cola, or Colgate Palmolive. Others pertain
to smaller businesses—such as Virginia Semiconductor, The Clarkson Company, or
DeBourgh—that have overcome obstacles to survive and thrive. Most cases include raw
data for analysis and questions that encourage the student to use several of the
techniques presented in the chapter. In many cases, the student must analyze software
output in order to reach conclusions or make decisions.
Big Data Case. At the very end of each chapter there is a Big Data Case feature. The Big
Data Case focuses on one large database throughout the text. This database, entitled the
AHA database, contains data on 12 variables on over 2000 U.S. hospitals drawn from the
American Hospital Association’s (AHA) compilation of information about more than
6000 U.S. hospitals in a recent year. In this feature, the student is asked to perform
several tasks related to the material from the chapter of study using variables, samples,
and data from this large database.

WileyPLUS
WileyPLUS with adaptive practice is a research-based, online environment for effective
teaching and learning. WileyPLUS builds students’ confidence because it takes the guesswork
out of studying by providing students with a clear roadmap: what to do, how to do it, if they
did it right. This interactive approach focuses on:

Design
Research-based design is based on proven instructional methods. Content is organized into
small, more accessible amounts of information, helping students build better time
management skills.

Engagement
Students can visually track their progress as they move through the material at a pace that is
right for them. Engaging in individualized self-quizzes followed by immediate feedback helps
to sustain their motivation to learn.

Outcomes
Self-assessment lets students know the exact outcome of their effort at any time. Advanced
reporting allows instructors to easily spot trends in the usage and performance data of their
class in order to make more informed decisions.
With WileyPLUS, students will always know:
What to do: Features, such as the course calendar, help students stay on track and
manage their time more effectively.
How to do it: Instant feedback and personalized learning plans are available 24/7.
If they’re doing it right: Self-evaluation tools take the guesswork out of studying and help
students focus on the right materials.
WileyPLUS for Business Statistics, Tenth Edition includes numerous valuable
resources, among them:
Ebook. The complete Vitalsource eBook is available on WileyPLUS with highlighting,
search, and note-taking capabilities.
Videos. There are 21 videos of the author explaining concepts and demonstrating how
to work problems for some of the more difficult topics.
Data Analytics & Business Module. With the emergence of data analytics
transforming the business environment, Wiley has partnered with business leaders in
the Business-Higher Education Forum (BHEF) to identify the competencies graduates
need to be successful in their careers. As a result, WileyPLUS includes a new data
analytics module with industry-validated content that prepares operations management
students for a changing workforce.
Learning Activities. There are numerous learning activities to help the student better
understand concepts and key terms. These activities have been developed to make
learning fun, enjoyable, and challenging.
Data Sets. Virtually all problems in the text along with the case problems and the
databases are available to students in both Excel and Minitab format.
Real-World Video Activities. A new feature in WileyPLUS offers chapter-level
graded analysis activities on cutting-edge business video content from Bloomberg.
Flash Cards. Key terms will be available to students in flash card format along with
their definition.
Student Study Manual. Complete solutions to all odd-numbered questions.
Demo Problems. Step-by-step solved problems for each chapter.
Adaptive Practice. This adaptive, personalized learning experience delivers easy-to-
use analytics so you can see exactly where your students excel and where they need help.
Diagnose Early. Simply by assigning adaptive practice, you can diagnose the real-
time proficiency of each student and see the areas that need reinforcement.
Facilitate Engagement. Students can interact with each other as they think more
 deeply about concepts at hand.
Measure Outcomes. Measure students’ engagement and proficiency throughout
the course so that you can easily assess how things are going at any point in time.

Ancillary Teaching and Learning Materials

www.wiley.com/college/black

Students’ Companion Site

The student companion website contains:
All databases in both Excel and Minitab formats for easy access and use.
Excel and Minitab files of data from all text problems and all cases. Instructors and
students now have the option of analyzing any of the data sets using the computer.
A section on Advanced Exponential Smoothing Techniques (from Chapter 15) that offers
the instructor an opportunity to delve deeper into exponential smoothing if so desired,
and derivation of the slope and intercept formulas from Chapter 12.
A tutorial on summation theory.

Instructor’s Resource Kit

All instructor ancillaries are provided on the Instructor Resource Site. Included in this
convenient format are:
Instructor’s Manual. Prepared by Ken Black, this manual contains the worked-out
solutions to virtually all problems in the text. In addition, this manual contains chapter
objectives, chapter outlines, chapter teaching strategies, and solutions to the cases.
PowerPoint Presentation Slides. The presentation slides contain graphics to help
instructors create stimulating lectures. The PowerPoint slides may be adapted using
PowerPoint software to facilitate classroom use.
Test Bank. The Test Bank includes multiple-choice questions for each chapter. The Test
Bank is provided in Microsoft Word format as well as in a Computerized Test Bank.

Acknowledgments
John Wiley & Sons and I would like to thank the reviewers and advisors who cared enough
and took the time to provide us with their excellent insights and advice, which was used to
reshape and mold the text into the tenth edition. These colleagues include Lihui Bai,
Valparaiso University; Wendy Bailey Martin, University of Colorado Boulder; Justin Bateh,
Florida State College at Jacksonville; Pam Boger, Ohio University; Linda Dawson, University
of Washington; Parag Dhumal, Winona State University; Jennifer Harris, DeVry University;
Mariah Jeffery, University of Maryland; Jennifer Gerow, Virginia Military Institute,
Department of Economics & Business; Robert Girtz, Dakota State University College of
Business & Information Systems; Eric Howington, Valdosta State University; Lloyd Jaisingh,
Morehead State University; Bruce Ketler, Grove City College; Peter Lenk, University of
Michigan—Ann Arbor; Robert Montague, Southern Adventist University; Robert Patterson,
Penn State University—Behrend; Courtney Pham, Missouri State University; Michael Posner,
Villanova University; Victor Prybutok, University of North Texas; Nikolai Pulchritudoff,
California State University—Los Angeles; Lee Revere, University of Texas School of Public
Health; Bob Sandman, University of Southern Maine; Ahmad Saranjam, Northeastern
University; Vijay Shah, West Virginia University; Daniel Shimshak, University of
Massachusetts—Boston; Charu Sinha, Chapman University; Cheryl Staley, Lake Land College
—Mattoon; Debbie Stiver, University of Nevada—Reno; Osnat Stramer, University of Iowa;
Minghe Sun, University of Texas—San Antonio; Caroline Swift, The Pennsylvania State
University, Smeal College of Business; Rick Szal, Northern Arizona University; Thomas
Vadakkeveetil, George Washington University & Johns Hopkins University; Sara Willox,
Grantham University.
As always, I wish to recognize my colleagues at the University of Houston–Clear Lake for
their continued interest and support of this project. In particular, I want to thank Ira K.
Blake, president; Steven Berberich, provost; and Edward Waller, dean of the School of
Business for their personal interest in the book and their administrative support.
There are several people within the John Wiley & Sons publishing group whom I would like
to thank for their invaluable assistance on this project. These include Lise Johnson, Alden
Farrar, Lindsey Myers, Wendy Ashenberg, Cecilia Morales, Rachel Conrad, and Caycee Black.
I want to express a special appreciation to my wife of 51 years, Carolyn, who is the love of my
life and continues to provide both professional and personal support in my writing. Thanks
also to my daughters, Caycee and Wendi, and my son-in-law, Tony, for their patience, love,
and support. In addition, I would like to give special recognition to Caycee for designing the
front cover of the tenth edition. Lastly, a special appreciation of and thankfulness for our new
grandson, Antoine.
—KEN BLACK
About the Author
KEN BLACK is currently professor of quantitative management in the College of Business
at the University of Houston–Clear Lake. Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and raised in
Missouri, he earned a bachelor’s degree in mathematics from Graceland University, a
master’s degree in math education from the University of Texas at El Paso, a Ph.D. in
business administration (management science), and a Ph.D. in educational research from the
University of North Texas.
Since joining the faculty of UHCL in 1979, Professor Black has taught all levels of statistics
courses, business analytics, forecasting, management science, market research, and
production/operations management. He received the 2014 Outstanding Professor Alumni
Award from UHCL. In 2005, he was awarded the President’s Distinguished Teaching Award
for the university. He has published over 20 journal articles and 20 professional papers, as
well as two textbooks: Business Statistics: An Introductory Course and Business Statistics
for Contemporary Decision Making. Black has consulted for many different companies,
including Aetna, the city of Houston, NYLCare, AT&T, Johnson Space Center, Southwest
Information Resources, UTMB, and Doctors Hospital at Renaissance. Black is active in the
quality movement and is a certified Master Black Belt in Lean Six Sigma.
Ken Black and his wife, Carolyn, have two daughters, Caycee and Wendi, and a grandson,
Antoine. His hobbies include playing the guitar, reading, and traveling.
Contents
Cover
IFC
Dedication
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
About the Author
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Statistics and Business Analytics
1.1 Basic Statistical Concepts
1.2 Data Measurement
1.3 Introduction to Business Analytics
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
Exploring the Databases with Business Analytics
Big Data Case
References
CHAPTER 2: Visualizing Data with Charts and Graphs
2.1 Frequency Distributions
2.2 Quantitative Data Graphs
2.3 Qualitative Data Graphs
2.4 Charts and Graphs for Two Variables
2.5 Visualizing Time-Series Data
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
Exploring the Databases with Business Analytics
Big Data Case
CHAPTER 3: Descriptive Statistics
3.1 Measures of Central Tendency
3.2 Measures of Variability
3.3 Measures of Shape
3.4 Business Analytics Using Descriptive Statistics
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
 Exploring the Databases with Business Analytics
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CHAPTER 4: Probability
4.1 Introduction to Probability
4.2 Structure of Probability
4.3 Marginal, Union, Joint, and Conditional Probabilities
4.4 Addition Laws
4.5 Multiplication Laws
4.6 Conditional Probability
4.7 Revision of Probabilities: Bayes’ Rule
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 5: Discrete Distributions
5.1 Discrete Versus Continuous Distributions
5.2 Describing a Discrete Distribution
5.3 Binomial Distribution
5.4 Poisson Distribution
5.5 Hypergeometric Distribution
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 6: Continuous Distributions
6.1 The Uniform Distribution
6.2 Normal Distribution
6.3 Using the Normal Curve to Approximate Binomial Distribution Problems
6.4 Exponential Distribution
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 7: Sampling and Sampling Distributions
7.1 Sampling
 7.2 Sampling Distribution of X
7.3 Sampling Distribution of p
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 8: Statistical Inference: Estimation for Single Populations
8.1 Estimating the Population Mean Using the z Statistic (σ Known)
8.2 Estimating the Population Mean Using the t Statistic (σ Unknown)
8.3 Estimating the Population Proportion
8.4 Estimating the Population Variance
8.5 Estimating Sample Size
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 9: Statistical Inference: Hypothesis Testing for Single Populations
9.1 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing
9.2 Testing Hypotheses About a Population Mean Using the z Statistic (σ Known)
9.3 Testing Hypotheses About a Population Mean Using the t Statistic (σ Unknown)
9.4 Testing Hypotheses About a Proportion
9.5 Testing Hypotheses About a Variance
9.6 Solving for Type II Errors
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 10: Statistical Inferences About Two Populations
10.1 Hypothesis Testing and Confidence Intervals About the Difference in Two
Means Using the z Statistic (Population Variances Known)
10.2 Hypothesis Testing and Confidence Intervals About the Difference in Two
Means: Independent Samples and Population Variances Unknown
10.3 Statistical Inferences for Two Related Populations
10.4 Statistical Inferences About Two Population Proportions, p1 − p2
10.5 Testing Hypotheses About Two Population Variances
 Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 11: Analysis of Variance and Design of Experiments
11.1 Introduction to Design of Experiments
11.2 The Completely Randomized Design (One-Way ANOVA)
11.3 Multiple Comparison Tests
11.4 The Randomized Block Design
11.5 A Factorial Design (Two-Way ANOVA)
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 12: Simple Regression Analysis and Correlation
12.1 Correlation
12.2 Introduction to Simple Regression Analysis
12.3 Determining the Equation of the Regression Line
12.4 Residual Analysis
12.5 Standard Error of the Estimate
12.6 Coefficient of Determination
12.7 Hypothesis Tests for the Slope of the Regression Model and Testing the Overall
Model
12.8 Estimation
12.9 Using Regression to Develop a Forecasting Trend Line
12.10 Interpreting the Output
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 13: Multiple Regression Analysis
13.1 The Multiple Regression Model
13.2 Significance Tests of the Regression Model and Its Coefficients
13.3 Residuals, Standard Error of the Estimate, and R2
13.4 Interpreting Multiple Regression Computer Output
 Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 14: Building Multiple Regression Models
14.1 Nonlinear Models: Mathematical Transformation
14.2 Indicator (Dummy) Variables
14.3 Model-Building: Search Procedures
14.4 Multicollinearity
14.5 Logistic Regression
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 15: Time-Series Forecasting and Index Numbers
15.1 Introduction to Forecasting
15.2 Smoothing Techniques
15.3 Trend Analysis
15.4 Seasonal Effects
15.5 Autocorrelation and Autoregression
15.6 Index Numbers
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 16: Analysis of Categorical Data
16.1 Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test
16.2 Contingency Analysis: Chi-Square Test of Independence
Summary
Key Terms
Formulas
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 17: Nonparametric Statistics
 17.1 Runs Test
17.2 Mann-Whitney U Test
17.3 Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Rank Test
17.4 Kruskal-Wallis Test
17.5 Friedman Test
17.6 Spearman’s Rank Correlation
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 18: Statistical Quality Control
18.1 Introduction to Quality Control
18.2 Process Analysis
18.3 Control Charts
Summary
Key Terms
Supplementary Problems
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CHAPTER 19: Decision Analysis
19.1 The Decision Table and Decision-making Under Certainty
19.2 Decision-making Under Uncertainty
19.3 Decision-making Under Risk
19.4 Revising Probabilities in Light of Sample Information
Summary
Key Terms
Formulas
Supplementary Problems
Exploring the Databases with Business Analytics
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Appendix A: Tables
Appendix B: Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Quantitative Problems
Glossary
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables
CHAPTER 1
TABLE 1.1 Top Five Government Contractors to the U.S. Treasury
CHAPTER 2
TABLE 2.1 60 Years of Canadian Unemployment Rates (ungrouped data)
TABLE 2.2 Frequency Distribution of 60 Years of Unemployment Data for Canada
(grouped data…
TABLE 2.3 Class Midpoints, Relative Frequencies, and Cumulative Frequencies for
Unemployme…
TABLE 2.4 Safety Examination Scores for Plant Trainees
TABLE 2.5 Stem-and-Leaf Plot for Plant Safety Examination Data
TABLE 2.6 Top Five U.S. Petroleum Refining Companies by Revenue
TABLE 2.7 How Much is Spent on Back-to-College Shopping by the Average
Student
TABLE 2.8 Banker Data Observations by Job Satisfaction and Age
TABLE 2.9 Cross Tabulation Table of Banker Data
TABLE 2.10 Value of New Construction Over a 35-Year Period
TABLE 2.11 Motor Vehicles Produced From 2003 Through 2016 in the United
States
TABLE 2.12 Motor Vehicles Produced From 2003 Through 2016 for Both the
United States and Ja…
CHAPTER 3
TABLE 3.1 Offer Prices for the 20 Largest U.S. Initial Public Offerings in a Recent
Year
TABLE 3.2 Deviations from the Mean for Computer Production
TABLE 3.3 Computing a Variance and a Standard Deviation from the Computer
Production Data
TABLE 3.4 Data for Box-and-Whisker Plot
TABLE 3.5 Data in Ordered Array with Quartiles and Median
TABLE 3.6 U.S. Production of Finished Motor Gasoline from 1997 through 2018
(1000 Barrels …
CHAPTER 4
TABLE 4.1 All Possible Elementary Events in the Roll of a Pair of Dice (Sample
Space)
TABLE 4.2 Joint Probability Table for the Office Design Problem
TABLE 4.3 Joint Probability Table for the Office Design Problem
TABLE 4.4 Yes Row and Yes Column for the Joint Probability Table of the Office
Design Prob…
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Fig. 25. Charcoal sketch of native spearing kangaroo, Pigeon Hole, Victoria River
(× 2/5). Tracing.

Another method is to apply the paint in the form of a water mixture,

similar to that described when discussing the ochre drawings. For
this purpose, especially when an important event is pending, a
number of men are chosen to attend to the “make up” of the
performers. The assistants kneel beside those who are to act, and
apply the paste with their fingers. The most delicate parts to handle
are the eyelids. The actor is required to close his eyes whilst the
artist carefully applies the paste to the lids; but it occasionally
happens that some of the material slips on to the eyeball and is
rubbed against it before the sufferer can give the alarm. Vide Plate
XLV, 2.
We have already referred to the coloured down decorations which
are attached with human blood to the bodies of the performers taking
part in sacred and other ceremonies, and we have also mentioned a
ground drawing known as “Etominja” (Plate XXXVII), which is
constructed in a similar way. Some of the latter (e.g. the “walk-about”
of the “Tjilba Purra Altjerra Knaninja”) are very large; others, as for
instance that connected with the “Erriakutta” or yelka ceremony, are
constructed over the entire surface of mounds which cover many
square feet of ground.
 Having briefly reviewed the different methods of art production in
vogue in Australia, we shall proceed to consider a number of the
designs in greater detail, deduce their origin, trace their evolution,
and, where possible, give their interpretation. It will be realized at the
outset that some of the designs are crude in the extreme, whilst
others are undeniably shapely and quite up to the standard of an
average European’s artistic proficiency. The latter remarks apply
best to actual representations of natural forms. It must be
remembered that the artistic reproductions an aboriginal makes are
invariably from memory; the primitive artist never draws with a model
in front of him. If we were to ask a number of Europeans to draw, say
a horse from memory, there is no doubt we should receive a great
variety of results in response to our request. So, among the
aboriginal artists, there is a great diversity of talent which is more
individual than tribal.
If, for instance, we study the different attempts at representing the
form of one of the most familiar subjects we could ask an aboriginal
to experiment upon—the ubiquitous kangaroo —we should find by
comparison of the productions placed before us, a very marked
difference in quality. Compare, for instance, the two pictures of
kangaroo on Plate XLVII. They are the works of men of the same
tribe, are all similarly drawn, and come from the same locality. Yet, in
the upper picture, the outline and proportions of the two animals are
so incorrect that it is very doubtful whether many people not
acquainted with the locality would guess what animal the pictures
are intended to represent. In the lower picture, however, anybody
acquainted with the shape of a kangaroo would have no hesitation in
pronouncing his diagnosis. The characteristic attitude, the large tail,
the disproportion between the front and hind limbs, and the shape of
the head are quite true enough to nature to permit of correct
identification.
Fig. 26. Carving depicting a quarrel between a man and his gin. Arunndta tribe (×
1/2). Tracing.

The three designs are all drawn in charcoal, the figures in the first
two cases being outlined with a white pipe-clay line, and in the
second case with one of yellow ochre. If we wish to go one better
still, we need only study the pipe-clay drawing on bark by a native of
the Katherine River district shown on Plate XLIX, 1—a very
creditable picture of a dead kangaroo.
Some of the designs one meets with are so accurately drawn that
a scientific determination of the species becomes possible. Look for
a moment at the fish, portrayed in pipe-clay, shown in Plate XLVIII.
The piscine nature of the form, here depicted on rocks, is not only
apparent, but it is possible to say with some certainty that the two
shown swimming belong to the Toxotes, which are commonly called
Archer Fish. The form shown in Plate XLIX, 4, is unquestionably
meant to be one of the Therapon species. Both kinds of fish are
known to be living in the Katherine River, not far from the site at
which these pictures were drawn.
 But if, on the other hand, some of the designs are so poor as to be
barely recognizable or even quite unrecognizable by us, how does
the aboriginal manage? When the artist is present, he can explain.
But he is not always available!
If, by way of illustration, we were asked to say definitely what the
meaning of the central figure on Plate L, 1, was we should in all
probability want to know more about it before committing ourselves.
But an aboriginal can give us a correct reply immediately. The
locality at which the photograph was obtained is north of the
Musgrave Ranges in central Australia. But that does not give us any
clue. After studying the picture more closely, we might be able to
distinguish the outline of a quadruped, the four legs being shown,
one behind the other, in a row, and a big head on the right-hand side,
in a position suggesting that the animal is feeding. But these are
characteristics common to many animals!
So far, therefore, we have seen nothing to suggest the class of
animal we are dealing with. When we look again, we might note that
there is a crude image of a human being shown on the back of the
animal; and behind this is a structure which might stand for a saddle.
We guess the answer and claim that the group is a very poor
drawing of a man on horseback.
But there are other animals a man could ride! And when we look
again, we observe that the second leg of the animal, counting from
the right, has a peculiar enlargement attached to its lower end. That
structure is the key to the riddle; it represents the track of the animal!
Those familiar with the great beast of burden, now used extensively
in central Australia, will recognize the two-toed spoor of a camel.
This method of pictorial elucidation is by no means exceptional.
We have already noticed something similar in the ancient carvings at
Port Hedland, where the human foot-print is added to disperse any
doubt which may be entertained in so far as the correct interpretation
of the figure is concerned. A similar device is well exemplified in the
accompanying sketch of an ochre drawing of a human form from the
Glenelg River district in the northern Kimberleys of Western Australia
(Fig. 15). In the carving of an emu from the King Sound district,
which is reproduced in Plate XLII, 2, we noticed the same sort of
thing.

Fig. 27. Ochre-drawing of spear-boomerang duel, Arunndta tribe (× 1/2). Tracing.

The cases before us are not accidental, but we have acquainted

ourselves with the recognized determinative system of Australian
pictographs which is quite analogous to that known to have been
practised by the ancient Egyptians. Consider, for instance, the
character signifying “to love”—a human figure in profile with one
hand lifted to the level of the mouth. The same figure, with a few
parallel wavy lines, signifying water, drawn against it, means no
longer “to love,” but “to drink.” The wavy lines in this instance are the
determinative. In the Australian illustrations given above, we have
selected samples which are easily followed, but there are many
cases where the reading would be quite impossible if it were not for
the presence of the little, subsidiary, determinative sketch.
In his endeavour to make the meaning of some of his designs
clear, a native often embodies as many features as possible, quite
regardless as to whether in reality they would all be visible in the one
plane he is drawing. In the picture of a crocodile appearing on a
boabab-nut from the Derby district in Western Australia, shown in
Fig. 16, it will be observed that the reptile, in spite of having its dorsal
surface represented, has its vent indicated. The long, slender muzzle
of this figure, by the way, makes it clear that the smaller species of
the two northern Australian crocodiles (C. Johnstoni) is intended.
The human figure, too, very often appears half in full and half in
profile.
The aboriginal is a keen observer, and takes careful note of many
things besides a kangaroo, a snake track, or other similar natural
objects which may lead him to his daily bread. When travelling in the
Buccaneer Archipelago in the far north-west I remember one of the
natives drawing my attention to a peculiar formation in the clouds,
and saying, in the Sunday Island dialect: “Arrar ninmiddi,” which
means, literally: “Cloud knee.” My instructor proceeded to draw the
extraordinary shape he could see with his finger upon the hatchway
of the pearling lugger we were sailing in, after which he completed
the figure of a man. I was struck with this man’s faculty of
observation, because the cloud effect he referred to was rather out
of the common and projected from a cirro-cumulus like the bent limb
of a swastica.
It is in this way that many inspirations come to the cave artist.
Repeatedly one has occasion to notice how a pre-existing feature or
defect in the rock face—a crevice, a floor, a concretion—becomes
the centre piece of a design drawn to suit it. The feature one finds
most commonly embodied in a cave drawing is a small hole. This
often figures in the place of an animal’s eye, or a hole into which a
snake is disappearing. A local bulge in the rock may also be taken in
as part of a design and represent portion of a head or body.
Not only does the artist embody suitable natural features in his
designs, but, conversely, he also applies his knowledge of form to
explain already existing phenomena in the world about him. The
embodiment of his artistic ideas in his poetical explanations of
Nature’s wonders plays, as might be expected, an important role in
his mythology. These remarks apply especially to any striking
characteristics in the sky. When among the tribes of the Musgrave
Ranges, I ascertained that the black-looking gap in the Milky Way,
close to the Southern Cross, which is commonly known as the Coal
Sack, was referred to as “Kaleya Pubanye,” that is, the “Resting
Emu.”

Fig. 28. Charcoal sketch of ceremonial dance, Pigeon Hole, Victoria River (× 1/6).
Tracing.

In the north of Australia, the Larrekiya, Wogait, and other tribes

have adopted a similar designation for a series of dark spaces along
the Milky Way. But they have extended the idea considerably in that
the Coal Sack represents only the head of a gigantic emu, the beak
of which is pointed towards the Musca constellation (i.e. towards the
south). A small star of the Southern Cross group very appropriately
stands for the eye of the bird; the nebulous effect usually
surrounding this star gives it an extra life-like appearance. The neck
is but faintly discernible near the head, but becomes clearly visible in
the neighbourhood of the nearer Pointer; it passes between the two
Pointers and curves slightly towards the constellation of Lupus.
Within the constellation of Norma, the dark space widens
considerably and represents the body of the emu. The blunt tail turns
sharply towards, and into, the constellation of Scorpio. A nebulous
patch lying practically on the point of junction between the imaginary
areas of Ara, Scorpio, and Norma affords a good division between
the legs of the bird, whilst another lying between μ and ζ of the
Scorpion group separates the tail. The lower portions of the legs are
not very clear, but some of the more imaginative natives maintain
that they can distinguish three toes on each extremity. There is no
doubt the primitive eye has herein discovered a striking similarity
between an optical phenomenon in the southern sky and a living
creature, which is of great importance in the hunting field, and at the
same time plays a prominent role in tribal folk-lore. They refer to this
emu by the name of “Dangorra.” Vide Fig. 17.

PLATE XLII
 1. Rock carvings, Flinders Ranges.

2. Emu design carved into the butt of a boabab tree, King Sound.

Fig. 29. Remarkable cave drawing, Glenelg River, N.W. Australia

As affording a means of comparison, a hunting scene is

reproduced carved upon the surface of a club by aborigines of
Victoria. The little group is composed of an aboriginal hunter who in
one hand is poising a spear and in the other is carrying a
boomerang; behind him are two emus standing in much the same
position as that assumed to be the case in the heavenly image just
described.
The Minning at Eucla recognize only the long neck of the emu in
the sky, and refer to it as “Yirrerri”; on the Nullarbor Plains the same
portion is looked upon as the heavenly tjuringa of the emu.

Fig. 30. Pictograph of lizard, natural and conventional form.

Speaking generally, there is perhaps no other creature living which

figures so frequently in aboriginal art, both on the cave wall and in
the dance, as the great struthious bird of Australia. This is no doubt
due in the first place to the admirable way in which it lends itself for
the purposes mentioned; its antics in the field suggest many tricks
for mimicry at a corrobboree, and its distinctive form supplies the
artist with a model which never fails to attract the attention of the
artistically inclined among his people. In Plate XLIX, 2, we have a
pipeclay drawing of an emu from the Katherine River which is rather
exceptional in that it shows the bird more en face than is usual; the
proportions are, on the whole, good, except that the head is screwed
upwards in a rather strange way. On a boomerang from Broome
(Fig. 18), we have a series of engraved emu pictures, all in profile,
and in different attitudes.
On the whole, an aboriginal’s pictures are flat and without
perspective. He takes the inspiration direct from nature and
reproduces the subject singly, and as a separate entity; a number of
such designs are drawn side by side with or without pictographic
sequence. But there are countless occasions upon which artists,
especially the more gifted, prefer to draw a real scene from life,
combining subject with action. Environment or surroundings rarely, if
ever, receive attention.
Take as a very simple illustration the lizard shown in the pipeclay
rock drawing from the Katherine River (Plate XLIX, 3). The general
shape of the body, together with the large and well-differentiated
head, strongly suggests a species of the large monitor which is
common throughout the district. The interesting feature about the
picture is, however, the life which is indicated by the fact that the
reptile is drawn in the act of shooting out a long, split tongue.

Fig. 31. Normal, conventional, and emblematic representations of turtle.

 Fig. 32. Normal, conventional, and emblematic representations of frog.

Again, in the charcoal sketch of two crows from the Pigeon Hole
district (Fig. 19), one bird is represented in an attentive attitude, as
though on the point of flying away, while the other is very
characteristically shown in the act of cawing.
One could produce an almost endless variety of decorated figures,
representing men and women performing at ceremonial dances and
corrobborees to illustrate the life and action which is embodied in
aboriginal art. In Fig. 20 a selected number of pipe-clay drawings
from the Humbert River, Northern Territory, have been grouped
together to serve this purpose.

Fig. 33. Normal, conventional, and emblematic representations of echidna.

The most interesting effects, however, are those brought about by

a combination of two or more figures. How different, for instance, the
two kangaroo shown together in Fig. 21 seem to those previously
discussed (Plate XLVII). These are charcoal drawings from Pigeon
Hole on the Victoria River, and in them the hopping movement of the
animals is indicated very clearly. The animal in the rear is in full
flight, as the erect position of the tail and the general holding of the
body betray; but the one in the lead is on the point of drawing up and
is turning its head back towards its mate.
How realistic, too, the little bark drawing is from east of Port
Darwin (Fig. 22), in which a bird of prey is shown mounted upon a
wallaby or kangaroo, with its claws and beak embedded in the flesh
of its victim.
 PLATE XLIII

1. Carved boabab nut, King Sound.

2. “Wanningi” from north-western Australia.

3. Slate scrapers used by the extinct Adelaide tribe for trimming skins.
 A neat pipe-clay drawing from the remote Humbert River district is
presented in Fig. 23. The group, which is three feet in length, is
composed of a central figure of a man who is holding one arm on
each side towards a dog, as if offering them something to eat or for
the purpose of patting them. The dogs seem to be giving their
attention to the man.

Fig. 34. Conventionalized “Ladjia” or yam Tjuringa pattern.

Two more charcoal drawings from Pigeon Hole, though roughly

sketched by the artist, depict very graphically scenes from the hunt.
In one (Fig. 24), the hunter is in the act of stalking a buffalo or
bullock with his spear held in readiness to throw, while in the other
the attitude of the hunter indicates that the spear has just been
thrown and is entering the body of the prey, a kangaroo (Fig. 25).
The carving of an Arunndta man, reproduced in Fig. 26, is most
effective. An angry husband has been caught by the artist in the act
of punishing his wife with a waddy. The placement of the legs of the
two persons indicates stability on the part of the man engaged in the
flagellation, and a swinging movement on the part of the woman who
is being held back by her hand.
 Fig. 35. A dog-track.

We have already seen the carved representations of two stages in

a stone-knife duel by an Arunndta tribesman (Fig. 4), and here, in
Fig. 27, an ochre drawing is reproduced which is, if anything, more
animated than any previously discussed. A spear-boomerang duel is
being fought, during which each of the combatants is protecting
himself with a shield. The artist has evinced considerable talent in
portraying the men just at the moment when both are bounding
through the air towards each other, the one on the left parrying his
opponent’s spear, while the other, on the right, is preparing to
receive the blow from the boomerang.

Fig. 36. A kangaroo-track.

One might now go a step further in analyzing aboriginal art. The

productions we have studied so far embody the ideas of form, life,
and action; and, it might be added, occasionally one finds a very fair
sense of composition as well. Such, indeed, might already be said to
be true of several of the pictures discussed above, but a finer
specimen lies before us in the charcoal drawing from Pigeon Hole
(Fig. 28). This faithfully portrays a scene from a gala ceremony, in
which the body of performers, fully “dressed” for the occasion, are
acting before the leader, who, in his turn, is being supported by two
others in the foreground. It must be admitted that the composition of
this group of figures is remarkably good, and, what is quite
exceptional, a very successful attempt has been made at
perspective. All figures are shown in different attitudes of dancing.
The impression this charcoal drawing gives one, at first glance, is
that of a rough sketch in crayon resembling the outline a European
artist might make on his canvas prior to starting upon the actual
painting.

Fig. 37. A rabbit track.

Leaving that section of aboriginal art which deals essentially with

designs copied directly from Nature in a sense more or less purely
artistic and æsthetic, we shall turn our attention to a few types which
are more specialized.

Fig. 38. Emu tracks.

From a study of his religious ideas, we have learned that the

aboriginal identifies himself with some mystic, natural creature or
object, which he adopts as his “totem.” It would only be reasonable
to expect, therefore, that some of the drawings represent these
objects; and that they are recognized by the natives as having
particular personal or family significance. Looked at from a modern
standpoint, these designs are really the equivalent of a family crest,
and are claimed only by those rightfully entitled to them. This
explanation must be given for many of the naturalistic designs
appearing on rocks, trees, grave posts, and personal belongings.
These “totemic” crests or symbols being hereditary, we have before
us a primitive form of heraldry, a conception we have already learned
to be covered by the word “Kobong,” originally introduced by Sir
George Grey from the north-west of Australia.
 Fig. 39. Pictographic
representation of nesting emu.

Fig. 40. A lizard track.

We have also ascertained that some of the central as well as

north-western tribes of Australia believe that the earliest tribal
ancestors originally were more animal than human in appearance,
and adopted the shape of a man only at a later period; that they can,
however, return to the animal form whenever they desire; and that
others remain semi-human. It is not surprising, therefore, to find
amongst their drawings and carvings representations which are
partly human and partly animal in outline; these are honest attempts
at perpetuating the traditional appearance of the ancestral beings of
the tribe. In the photograph attached hereto (Plate LI, 1), taken at
Forrest River, two pictures of such creatures are to be found which
are drawn in ochre. There were many others, from three to five feet
in length, reptilian in shape, some with human hands and feet, others
with hair shown upon the head, and in most of them the sex unduly
prominent. These remarkable designs are, therefore, not naturalistic,
but have been evolved on purely fictional or mythological lines,
based upon the tradition of the tribe and upon the imagination of the
artist.

Fig. 41. A snake or snake-track.

 From the consideration of these artistic effigies of their Demigods,
it is not a big step forwards which brings us face to face with the
sacred tribal drawings. During initiation ceremonies, especially of the
now practically extinct south-eastern tribes of Australia, gigantic
figures resembling a human being were moulded into the surface of
the ground and subsequently tinted with ochre, which were
supposed to conceal the Great Spirit or Deity, which, like the “Altjerra
Knaninja” of central Australia, watched over the proceedings as the
young men passed from a condition of adolescence to that of
permanent manhood; numerous carvings and ochre drawings were
also made upon the trunks of any trees nearby.
Not only during the initiation ceremonies are these practices
resorted to, but when a sacred observance is contemplated,
especially those having to do with the “totem,” elaborate designs are
painted in ochre upon the surrounding surfaces of rocks and trees
which depict an act connected with the traditional origin of the sacred
object.
A classical illustration is to be found in the MacDonnell Ranges, at
Emily Gap. According to Arunndta belief, it was at this spot that the
early semi-human ancestors of the witchedy grub or “Utnguringita”
alighted from Altjerringa. They brought with them large numbers of
the grub, which they cooked and ate. The territory dominated by
these ancient beings extended from Heavitree Gap to Emily Gap,
and across to Jessie Gap. On the western wall of the first-named
gap, known by the natives as “Ndariba,” an inclined slab of rock, not
high above the level of the sandy bed of the Todd River, contains a
series of peculiar concentric iron stains which are regarded as the
impressions of the stern of an Utnguringita Altjerra who sat there,
and, as he collected grubs, moved forwards. The Utnguringita came
into frequent conflict with the Dingo or “Knullia” people whose
country lay immediately west of Heavitree Gap, but, nevertheless,
they blessed the land with many eggs, which developed into larvæ
and supplied the tribe with food.
 Fig. 42. Human foot-prints and trail.

Eventually the Utnguringita ancestors returned to Altjerringa, but

they left a number of stone tjuringas in Emily Gap, which are
supposed to be occupied by the spirits whenever a sacred ceremony
is performed on the spot. On the eastern stony wall of this gap some
rather imposing designs are to be seen, which originally must have
occupied most of the area available. The drawings are very old; their
origin dating back long before the recollections of the present
generation. It is wonderful how well the work has withstood the
denuding action of the weather for so long. The natives tell you that
the old Altjerringa men applied the pigment to the rock and that they
mixed it with the “knudda” (fat) of the grubs. It is more likely that the
ochres were mixed with emu fat; in places the pigment seems as
though it were chemically combined with the rock, and it could only
be removed by chipping the surface. The designs in their present
condition (Plate LI, 2) consist of a series of parallel, vertical lines,
alternately coloured red and white, and capped by horizontal bands
of the same colours, the white of which containing three or four red
dots. What the original designs may have been like, it is now difficult
to say, but the natives maintain that they included the images of
some women they call “Aluggurra,” who were waiting at the foot of
the cliff while the men were concealing their tjuringas in the rocks
and nooks above. To the present day, the old men of the local
Arunndta group store their ceremonial objects in the same sanctuary,
thinking that the sacred figures on the wall will protect them from the
hands of inquisitive intruders.
There remains yet another class of ochre drawing which deserves
mention. I allude to the famous discovery of Sir George Grey in
1837. There is perhaps no other Australian drawing, old or modern,
which has been so freely discussed and criticized. During an
expedition in the northern Kimberleys of Western Australia, it was my
good fortune to re-discover several drawings of this type in
practically the same locality as that recorded by Sir George Grey,
near the Glenelg River. One figure was perfect, others were partly
obliterated or incomplete. The best design was in a cave near the
top of a prominent bluff the local Worora people call Berrial; it was
drawn in ochre upon a steep face of rock immediately under an
overhanging ledge of quartzite. The figure was unquestionably that
of a human being, although it measured fully nine feet in length. It lay
fully extended, upon its left side, with its arms placed straight against
its sides. It reminded one forcibly of a Buddha in a Ceylonese
temple. What made the figure seem un-Australian was that it was
clothed in a long, striped garment, resembling a priestly gown, from
which only the head, hands, and feet were excluded. A loosely-fitting
belt is also shown. As seems common to all these drawings, the
facial features are only indicated by the eyes and nose, the mouth
being omitted. Another characteristic, which is shared by all other
drawings, is that the head is surrounded by a number of peculiar,
concentric bands, through which, and from which, many lines
radiate, giving the structure the effect of a halo surrounding the head
of a saint. The picture bore an unmistakable likeness to the type
illustrated by Sir George Grey, and was drawn in red, brown, black,
and white. Vide Fig. 29 and Plate L, 2.

Fig. 43. “A man is tracking a rabbit.” Simple example of pictography.

There is no doubt about these curious drawings, now more or less

adopted by the local tribe, having originated under some exotic
influence. It is historically known that for centuries past excursions
have been made to the north of Australia by Macassans and other
eastern people, who may have been responsible for the first drawing
of a figure of so sacerdotal an appearance, which the aborigines
have since learned to copy so perfectly. It has also been speculated
that shipwrecked sailors might be responsible for the representation
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