Mechanical Technology

ENGG ZC243
BITS Pilani Dr. Saket Verma
Department of Mechanical Enginerring
Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Module: 3
Second Law of Thermodynamics
and Entropy Principle
 Reversible Process
• A reversible process is defined as a process that can be
reversed without leaving any trace on the surroundings. That is,
both the system and the surroundings are returned to their
initial states at the end of the reverse process.
• When the process is reversed, the system shall follow the same
succession of states as it followed in the forward direction.
• Reversible processes actually do not occur in nature. They are
merely idealizations of actual processes.
• Reversible processes can be viewed as theoretical limits for the
corresponding irreversible (actual) ones.
Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -
An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 3 BITS-Pilani

 Internal l y & External l y R eversi bl e Processes
• A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries
of the system during the process.
• A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibilities occur outside the system
boundaries during the process.
• A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it involves no irreversibilities
within the system or its surroundings.

Totally reversible Totally reversible Internally reversible

Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -
An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 4 BITS-Pilani

 reversi bl e and i rreversi bl e processes
• All quasi-static processes are reversible but the opposite is not true.

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 5 BITS-Pilani

 C arnot C ycl e
• If the efficiency of all heat engines is less than
100%, what is the most efficient heat engine?
• This question can be answered through a
heat engine that receives heat from a high-
temperature reservoir and rejects heat to a
low-temperature reservoir.
• If this heat engine operates in a cycle having
every process reversible, the cycle become
reversible. And if the cycle is reversed, the
heat engine becomes a refrigerator.
• This is the most efficient cycle that can
operate between two constant-temperature
reservoirs, the Carnot cycle, named after a
French engineer. Source: Borgnakke & Sonntag, Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 6 BITS-Pilani

 Carnot C ycl e (C ontd .)
• Carnot cycle can, in principle, be executed in many different ways,
using (i) different working substances (gas or phase change
substance), (ii) various possible arrangements of machinery (within
a single cylinder, CM or with several equipment in series, CV).
• Regardless of what the working substance may be, the Carnot cycle
is composed of four reversible processes—two isothermal and two
adiabatic.

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = =1−
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻

Source: YA Cengel & MA Boles,

Thermodynamics - An Engineering
Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 7 BITS-Pilani

 Reverse C arnot C ycl e
• If all the processes that comprise Carnot cycle is reversed it
becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle.
• The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat (QL) from the
refrigerated space, for which it requires a work input of (Wnet,in).
• The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in terms of the
coefficient of performance (COP), denoted by COPR.
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 = = =
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
• The same cycle with desired output as the heat rejected at high
temperature heat sink is called a Heat Pump, for with COP is
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 = = =
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -
An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 8 BITS-Pilani

 THE CAR N OT PR IN C IPLES
• From the statements of 2nd Law of of thermodynamics, we can draw valuable conclusions
pertain to the thermal efficiency of reversible and irreversible (i.e., actual) heat engines,
and they are known as the Carnot principles:
1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible
one operating between the same two reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two reservoirs are
the same.

– These two statements can be proved by demonstrating that the violation of either
statement results in the violation of the second law of thermodynamics. (Self-
assessment problem)

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 9 BITS-Pilani

 Temperature Scal es
• All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the freezing
and boiling points of water.
• The temperature scales used in the SI and in the English system today are the Celsius scale
(formerly called the centigrade scale); and the Fahrenheit scale respectively.
• In thermodynamics, it is very desirable to have a temperature scale that is independent of the
properties of any substance or substances. Such a temperature scale is called a thermodynamic
temperature scale.
• The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI is the Kelvin scale
• The thermodynamic temperature scale in the English system is the Rankine scale. The
temperature unit on this scale is the rankine, which is designated by R.

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 10 BITS-Pilani

 THE THERMOD YN AMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE
• From the Carnot principle, the thermal efficiency of reversible heat engines is a function
of the reservoir temperatures only:
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑔 𝑇𝐻 , 𝑇𝐿 or = 𝑔 𝑇𝐻 , 𝑇𝐿 , because 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐻

𝑄𝐻 Φ(𝑇𝐻 )
• We can also prove that =
𝑄𝐿 Φ(𝑇𝐿 )
• Several functions f(T) satisfy this equation, and the choice is completely arbitrary. Lord
Kelvin first proposed taking f(T) = T to define a thermodynamic temperature scale as:
𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻
=
𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿
• This temperature scale is called the Kelvin scale, and the temperatures on this scale are
called absolute temperatures.
• Since it gives us only a ratio of absolute temperatures. We also need to know the
magnitude of a kelvin.
ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 11 BITS-Pilani
Compari son of Temperature Scal es

The magnitude of a kelvin is defined as

1/273.16 of the temperature interval
between absolute zero and the triple-point
temperature of water.

𝑇 𝐾 = 𝑇 °𝐶 + 273.15

𝑇 °𝑅 = 𝑇 °𝐹 + 459.67

𝑇 °𝐹 = 1.8 𝑇 °𝐶 + 32

Source: Moran et al., Fundamentals of

Engineering Thermodynamics, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 12 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
Q1. A laboratory heat engine rejects 300 kJ at 290 K whereas it receives 700 kJ of heat from
a source at some temperature. If the engine is reversible, then determine the temperature of
the heat source and the thermal efficiency of the heat engine.

Solution:
C.V. heat engine, reversible
𝑇𝐻 𝑄𝐻
=
𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿
𝑄𝐻 700
𝑇𝐻 = × 𝑇𝐿 = × 290 = 676.67𝐾
𝑄𝐿 300

𝑇𝐿 290
Thermal efficiency, 𝜂 = 1 − =1− = 0.5714 or 57.14%
𝑇𝐻 676.67

Source: Borgnakke & Sonntag, Fundamentals of

Thermodynamics, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 13 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
Q2. In a thermal power plant operating on Rankine cycle, 0.9 MW is rejected by the
condenser, 0.66 MW is taken out from the turbine, and the pump work is 0.36 MW. Find the
plant’s thermal efficiency. If everything could be reversed, find the COP as a refrigerator.

Source: Borgnakke & Sonntag, Fundamentals of

Thermodynamics, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 14 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
Solution:
C.V. Total plant, then energy balance:

𝑄𝐻 + 𝑊𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝐿 + 𝑊𝑇
𝑄𝐻 = 𝑄𝐿 + 𝑤𝑇 − 𝑤𝑃𝑖𝑛

𝑄𝐻 =0.66+0.9-0.36
𝑄𝐻 =1.2MW

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊𝑝𝑖𝑛 0.66 − 0.36

𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = = 0.25
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 1.2

𝑄𝐿 0.9
𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑟𝑒𝑓 = = =3
𝑊𝑖𝑛 0.66 − 0.36
Source: Borgnakke & Sonntag, Fundamentals of
Thermodynamics, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 15 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
Q3. An air conditioner discards 6.2 kW to the ambient surroundings with a power input of
1.8 kW. Find the rate of cooling and the COP.

Source: Borgnakke & Sonntag, Fundamentals of

Thermodynamics, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 16 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠

Solution:

C.V. air conditioner

𝑄𝐻 = 6.2 kW goes to ambient so

Energy equation: 𝑄𝐿 = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑊 = 6.2 - 1.8 = 4.4 kW

𝑄𝐿
(COP)Ref = = 4.4/1.8 = 2.44
𝑊𝑖𝑛

Source: Borgnakke & Sonntag, Fundamentals of

Thermodynamics, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 17 BITS-Pilani

 Cl ausi us Inequal i ty
• The SLOT often leads to expressions that involve inequalities.
• An irreversible (i.e., actual) heat engine, for example, is less efficient than a reversible
one operating between the same two thermal energy reservoirs.
• Likewise, an irreversible refrigerator or a heat pump has a lower coefficient of
performance (COP) than a reversible one operating between the same temperature
limits.
• Another important inequality that has major consequences in thermodynamics is the
𝛿𝑄
Clausius inequality, ≤0
𝑇
𝛿𝑄 𝛿𝑄
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 & < 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑇 𝑇
• This inequality is valid for all cycles, reversible or irreversible. The symbol is used to
indicate that the integration is to be performed over the entire cycle.

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 18 BITS-Pilani

 Entropy
• Entropy, a new thermodynamic property was introduced by Clausius.
𝛿𝑄
• It is designated S and is defined as 𝑑𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑣 =
𝑇 int rev
• The entropy change of a system during a reversible process can be determined by
integrating the above equation between the initial and the final states.
2
𝛿𝑄
∆𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 =
1 𝑇 int rev

• The entropy change between two specified states is the

same whether the process is reversible or irreversible.
2 𝛿𝑄 2 𝛿𝑄
• However, 1
≠ 1
𝑇 int rev 𝑇 irrev

2 𝛿𝑄
• It means, ∆𝑆𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 1
+ 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑇 int rev
Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -
An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition
ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 19 BITS-Pilani
 Entropy
• That is, some entropy is generated or created during an
irreversible process, and this generation is due entirely to the
presence of irreversibilities. The entropy generated during a
process is called entropy generation and is denoted by 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 .
• It can also be expressed in differential form as:
𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑆 ≥
𝑇
• In other words, it entropy never decreases. This is known as the
increase of entropy principle.
• A system and its surroundings together forms the universe, and
hence:
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 ≥ 0
Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -
An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition
ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 20 BITS-Pilani
 Entropy (C ontd. )
• Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular randomness.
• As a system becomes more disordered, the positions of the molecules become less
predictable and the entropy increases.
• Therefore, the level of molecular disorder (entropy) of a substance increases as it melts
or evaporates.
• Entropy can be viewed as a measure of thermal randomness or molecular disorder,
which increases anytime an isolated system undergoes a process.
• The molecules of a substance in solid phase continually oscillate, creating an uncertainty
about their position. These oscillations, however, fade as the temperature is decreased,
and the molecules supposedly become motionless at absolute zero.
• A pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is in perfect order, and its
entropy is zero (Third Law of Thermodynamics).

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 21 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
Q4. A piston–cylinder device contains a liquid–vapor mixture of water at 300 K. During a
constant-pressure process, 750 kJ of heat is transferred to the water. As a result, part of the
liquid in the cylinder vaporizes. Determine the entropy change of the water during this
process.
Solution:
Assumptions No irreversibilities occur within the system boundaries during the process.
• We take the entire water (liquid -vapor) in the cylinder as the system.
• We note that the temperature of the system remains constant at 300 K during this
process since the temperature of a pure substance remains constant at the saturation
value during a phase-change process at constant pressure.
• The system undergoes an internally reversible, isothermal process, and thus its
entropy change can be determined directly from
𝛿𝑄 750
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 = = = 2.5 𝑘𝐽/𝐾
𝑇 300
Note that the entropy change of the system is positive, as
expected, since heat transfer is to the system. Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -
An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 22 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
Q5. A heat source at 800 K loses 2000 kJ of heat to a sink at (a) 500 K and (b) 750 K.
Determine which heat transfer process is more irreversible.

Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -

An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 23 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
• Solution: Heat is transferred from a heat source to two heat sinks at different
temperatures.

(a) For the heat transfer process to a sink at 500 K:

𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 −2000𝐾𝐽
∆𝑆𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = = = −2.5𝐾𝐽/𝐾
𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 800 𝐾
𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 2000 𝐾𝐽
∆𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 = = = +4.0 𝐾𝐽/𝐾
𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 500 𝐾
And
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = ∆𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 = −2.5 + 4.0 KJ/K = 1.5 KJ/K

Therefore, 1.5 kJ/K of entropy is generated during this process. Noting

that both reservoirs have undergone internally reversible processes, the
entire entropy generation took place in the partition.
Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -
An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 24 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
• Solution: Heat is transferred from a heat source to two heat sinks at different
temperatures.

(b) Repeating the calculations in part (a) for a sink temperature of 750 K,
we obtain

∆𝑆𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = −2.5 𝐾𝐽/𝐾

∆𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 = +2.7 𝐾𝐽/𝐾
And
𝐾𝐽
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = ∆𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = −2.5 + 2.7 = 0.2 𝐾𝐽/𝐾.
𝐾

The total entropy change for the process in part (b) is smaller, and therefore
it is less irreversible. This is expected since the process in (b) involves a
smaller temperature difference and thus a smaller irreversibility.

Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -

An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 25 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
Q6. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 5 MPa and 450C and leaves at a pressure of 1.4
MPa. Determine the work output of the turbine per unit mass of steam if the process is
reversible.

Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -

An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 26 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
• Solution: Steam is expanded in an adiabatic turbine to a specified pressure in a reversible
manner.

Assumptions:
(a) 1 This is a steady-flow process since there is no change with time at any
point and thus ∆m_cv=0,∆E_cv=0,and ∆S_cv=0 .
(b) 2 The process is reversible.
(c) 3 Kinetic and potential energies are negligible.
(d) 4 The turbine is adiabatic and thus there is no heat transfer.
there is only one inlet and one exit, and thus 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚
The power output of the turbine is determined from the rate form of the energy balance,
𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 /𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑚ℎ1 = 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑚ℎ2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑄 = 0, 𝑘𝑒 ≅ 𝑝𝑒 ≅ 0)
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚(ℎ1 −ℎ2 ) Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -
An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 27 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠

The inlet state is completely specified since two properties are given. But
only one property (pressure) is given at the final state, and we need one
more property to fix it. The second property comes from the observation
that the process is reversible and adiabatic, and thus isentropic .Therefore,
𝑆2 = 𝑆1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑

State 1: 𝑃1 = 5 𝑀𝑝𝑎 ℎ1 = 3317.2 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑇1 = 450̊ C 𝑆1 = 6.8210 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
State 2: TABLE B.1.3 𝑃2 = 1.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑆2 = 𝑆1 = 6.8210 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
The value will be between 250 and 300 °C, and hence interpolation is
300−250
needed. 𝑇2 = 267.98 °C = 6.8210 − 6.7467 × + 250
6.9533−6.7467
Similarly, at 𝑇2 = 267.98 °C from TABLE B.1.3 ℎ2 = 29678.4 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Then, the work output of the turbine per unit mass of the steam becomes Source: Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics -
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 3317.2 − 2967.4 = 349.8 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 28 BITS-Pilani

 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
Q7. One kg of ice at -5̊C is exposed to the atmosphere which is at 20̊ C. The ice melts and
comes into thermal equilibrium with the atmosphere. (a) Determine the entropy increase of
the universe. (b) What is the minimum amount of work necessary to convert the water back
into ice at -5̊ C ? Cp of ice is 2.093 kJ/kg K and the latent heat of fusion of ice is 333.3
kJ/kg.

Source: PK Nag, Basic & Applied

Thermodynamics, 9th Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill
ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 29 BITS-Pilani
 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠

Solution: (a)
Heat absorbed by ice Q from atmosphere:
= Heat absorbed in solid phase + latent heat +Heat absorbed in liquid phase
= 1 * 2.093 * [ 0 - (- 5) ] + 1 * 333.3+1 * 4.187 * (20-0) = 427.5 kJ

Entropy change of the atmosphere

𝑄 427.5
(∆𝑆)𝑎𝑡𝑚 = − = − = −1.46 𝑘𝐽/𝑘
𝑇 293
293
𝑑𝑇 273
(∆𝑆𝑡 )𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 = 1 ∗ 2.093 𝑙𝑛 = 2.093 ∗ 0.0186
268 𝑇 268
= 0.0389 kJ/K

Source: PK Nag, Basic & Applied

Thermodynamics, 9th Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill
ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 30 BITS-Pilani
 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
Entropy change of the system as ice melts at 0̊ C to become water
at 0̊ C
333.3
(∆𝑆𝐼𝐼 )𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑦𝑡𝑒𝑚 = = 1.22 𝑘𝐽/𝐾
273
Entropy change of water as it gets heated from 0̊ C to 20̊ C
293
𝑑𝑇 293
(∆𝑆𝐼𝐼𝐼 )𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 = 1 ∗ 4.187 𝑙𝑛 = 0.296 𝑘𝐽/𝐾
273 𝑇 273
Total entropy change of ice as it melts into water
(∆𝑆)𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝑆𝐼 + ∆𝑆𝐼𝐼 + ∆𝑆𝐼𝐼𝐼
= 0.0389 + 1.22 + 0.296 = 1.5549 kJ/K

The entropy-temperature diagram for the system as ice at -5̊ C

converts to water at 20̊ C is shown in fig.
∴ entropy increase of the universe
(∆𝑆)𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = (∆𝑆)𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 + (∆𝑆)𝑎𝑡𝑚
= 1.5549 – 1.46 = 0.0949 kJ/K
Source: PK Nag, Basic & Applied
Thermodynamics, 9th Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill
ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 31 BITS-Pilani
 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠

(b)
• To convert 1 kg of water at 20̊ C to ice at -5C, 427.5 kJ 0f heat
have to be removed from it, and the system has to be bought
from state 4 to state 1.
• A refrigerator cycle, as shown in fig, is assumed to accomplish
this.
• The entropy change of the system would be the same, i.e.,
𝑆4 −𝑆1 , with the only difference that its sign will be negative,
because heat is removed from the system
(∆𝑆)𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑆1 − 𝑆4
The entropy change of the working fluid in the refrigerator would
be zero, since it is operating in a cycle, i.e.,
(∆𝑆)𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0
The entropy change of the atmosphere(positive)
(𝑄 + 𝑊)
(∆𝑆)𝑎𝑡𝑚 =
𝑇 Source: PK Nag, Basic & Applied
Thermodynamics, 9th Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill
ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 32 BITS-Pilani
 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠

Entropy change of the universe

(∆𝑆)𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = (∆𝑆)𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 + (∆𝑆)𝑟𝑒𝑓 + (∆𝑆)𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑄+𝑊
= 𝑆1 −𝑆4 +
𝑇
By the principle of increase of entropy
(∆𝑆)𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 ≥ 0
𝑄+𝑊
[ 𝑆1 −𝑆4 + ]≥0
𝑇
𝑄+𝑊
≥ 𝑆1 −𝑆4
𝑇
𝑊 = 𝑇(𝑆4 −𝑆1 ) − 𝑄
𝑊(𝑚𝑖𝑛) ≥ 𝑇(𝑆4 −𝑆1 ) − 𝑄
𝑄 = 427.5 𝑘𝐽
𝑇 = 293 𝐾
𝑆4 −𝑆1 = 1.5549 𝑘𝐽/𝐾
𝑊(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 293 ∗ 1.5549 − 427.5 = 28.5 𝑘𝐽
Source: PK Nag, Basic & Applied
Thermodynamics, 9th Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill
ENGG ZC 241 M ECHAN I C AL T ECHNOLOG Y Instructor: Dr. Saket Verma 33 BITS-Pilani
 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑠
Q8. Calculate the change in entropy per kilogram as air is heated from 300 to 600 K while pressure drops from
400 to 300 kPa. Assume:
1. Constant specific heat.
2. Variable specific heat.
Solution
1. From Table A.5 for air at 300 K,
CP0= 1.004 kJ/kg K
𝑇2 𝑃2
Assuming, air as ideal gas: s2-s1=CP ln − 𝑅 ln
𝑇1 𝑃1
600 300
s2-s1=1.004 ln − 0.287 ln = 0.7785 kJ/kg K
300 400
1. From Table A.7,
0
𝑠𝑇1 =6.8693 kJ/kg K,
0
𝑠𝑇2 = 7.5764 kJ/kg K
Assuming, air as ideal gas:
300 Source: Borgnakke & Sonntag, Fundamentals of
s2-s1=7.5764 − 6.8693 − 0.287 ln = 0.7897 kJ/kg K Thermodynamics, 8th Edition
400
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