Advances in Science and Technology
Research Journal
Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal 2022, 16(3), 12–21 Received: 2022.02.05
https://doi.org/10.12913/22998624/147368 Accepted: 2022.04.21
ISSN 2299-8624, License CC-BY 4.0 Published: 2022.05.15
Case Study of Composite Chassis Manufacturing Process Using Low
Temperature Molds Tempered with Gradual Heat Annealing Process
Witold Rządkowski1*, Przemysław Klik1, Jan Tracz1, Michał Kowalik1
1
Institute of Aeronautics and Applied Mechanics, Warsaw University of Technology, ul. Nowowiejska 24, 00-665
Warsaw, Poland
* Corresponding author’s e-mail:
[email protected]ABSTRACT
This case study describes a manufacturing process of composite chassis also known as monocoque. The structure
is made using carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) which are manufactured in out-of-autoclave (OOA) pro-
cess from pre-impregnated carbon fabrics and aluminium alloy honeycomb core. Since the material cost is high
the aim of the project was to reduce the cost of manufacturing process i.e. cost of models and moulds. Therefore,
instead of high-temp models and moulds a cheaper alternative was used. It consisted of Styrofoam models made
using polyurethane (PU) paste and moulds made from CFRP using wet layup process which were cured at room
temperature. Such moulds had to be adapted to withstand high temperatures during pre-preg cure. This was done
with gradual heat annealing process which increased the maximum service temperature from 45°C to 90°C. This
was enough for the low-temp cure of pre-preg material, but it might be possible to increase the temperature even
further. As a result, the cost of manufacturing process had been reduced by 50%.
Keywords: monocoque; manufacturing; out-of-autoclave; manufacturing process; gradual heat annealing.
INTRODUCTION commercial cars, mostly electric vehicles as the
mass advantage justifies the additional cost of the
The monocoque is a part of vehicle chassis structure. It is likely that the trend will continue
developed first back in the 1960s in by McLaren thus research in the areas of both materials and
F1 Team. Its main purpose was to protect the manufacturing process is justified.
driver from impacts and serve as attachment The goal of this project was to manufacture
structure for other systems (suspension, aero a chassis that would be compliant with Society
package, steering, electronics, etc.). Obviously, of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standards for
all the loads that are created in these systems formula racing series. The design process of the
pass through the monocoque structure. This chassis itself will not be described in detail, as
exhibits huge stresses and deformations on the it is not the scope of this paper, however a sum-
chassis, which needs to have sufficient strength mary is as follows. It begins with numerous tests
and stiffness to resist them. On the other hand, of materials in particular composite panels what
the structure must be lightweight, as it is key re- will be used to create the shell of a monocoque.
quirement in motorsport racing. This was possi- The panels can be made of various composite
ble with carbon fiber reinforced polymers, which materials. There have been trials with basalt rein-
is a composite material that has changed many forced polymers [1], yet it is the carbon fibre that
areas of engineering. The monocoque stayed remains the most popular choice. Also, a range of
with formula one and proved to be useful and as materials can be used for the core of the sandwich
a result became popular in motorsport vehicles. panel. There as cases where the core is not used
In recent years it has been seen for first time in [2], but it is dictated by the application type such
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Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal 2022, 16(3), 12–21
as heavily loaded components which require high be achieved using only carbon fiber molds which
stiffness and strength. For the rest of the mono- must be made using an initial model on which the
coque structure the sandwich core must be used as mold can be laminated. The goal of this research
the carbon fiber has poor shear properties. A foam is to create an affordable manufacturing system,
[3], PVC [4], Nomex [5] or aluminum honeycomb which would fulfil the conditions given above
[6] are used. Usually, panels have a kind of alu- and compare it to the costs of creating other sys-
minum core as it has been reported to have good tems such as ones presented in [15] and [19].
energy absorption properties for the given thick-
ness that is optimal for the structure. [7–9]. Bas-
ing on the literature and data sheets of available METHODS AND MATERIALS
commercial products a few carbon fiber types and
aluminum honeycomb core were selected for fur- As mentioned above, the monocoque struc-
ther tests. They included obligatory (required by ture in constructed using composite panels. They
the rules of SAE) perimeter shear and three point consist of aluminum honeycomb core and 2mm
bending tests which determined the properties of a carbon fiber skins. The carbon fiber used is a
panel [9–10]. Basing on the results the Computer commercially available out-of-autoclave pre-
Aided Design (CAD) models were made togeth- impregnated carbon fiber called XPREG XC110
er with structure analysis using Finite Element [21]. It is based on Pyrofil TR30S 3K carbon fab-
Methods (FEM). Usually at first it is beneficiary ric with a 2×2 Twill 3K weave which is impreg-
to prepare concept design and test it using FEM nated with epoxy resin in B stage. For the core
methods which accelerate the design process sig- material, an aluminum alloy honeycomb is used.
nificantly as it has been done and reported in [12– It is a commercially available 5082 aluminum
14]. Moreover, the importance of manufacturing alloy honeycomb [22]. Its thickness varies from
process must not be forgotten as it equally if not 10mm to 20mm at different areas of the structure
more important for the design to be properly made which results from the design stage. To bond the
as well as cost and time effective. There have been core material to the carbon skins, a epoxy film
a few approaches to this problem [15–17]. There adhesive is used. It is a 0.15mm thick, commer-
were a few well documented designs in this field, cially available film adhesive called XA120 [23],
utilizing various design philosophies, materials which is compatible with both materials and to
and manufacturing processes [18–20] and can some degree limits the galvanic corrosion. Both
serve as benchmarks and tutoring materials. carbon and adhesive film require one of cure cy-
The manufacturing process was designed cles, which has been shown at Figure 1.
taking the chosen materials and CAD models. In Therefore, molds created for the project must
case of manufacturing a composite structure, one withstand the cure temperature and be stiff to pre-
needs models from which molds can be produced serve the design geometry. Also, since the mold
or just the molds suitable for a given manufac- will be moved from the workshop to the oven it
turing process. Additionally, since the material should be lightweight, so that it can be transport-
chosen through tests was pre-impregnated car- ed by two people. This can be achieved by using
bon fiber, which utilized out of autoclave cure at composite molds as they offer excellent stiffness
high temperature it is required that molds must to weight ratio. Since the geometry of the product
be able to withstand the given conditions without is complex one needs three separate molds to be
deformation. On top of it, to ensure geometrical connected together in order to achieve the final
accuracy of the final cured product, the thermal shape. This can be seen at Figure 2 where the two
expansion should be as little as possible. Finally, halves (green) are joined with a cockpit opening
only single product (monocoque) is being made mold (black) in order to achieve a surface inside
using the molds since the vehicle is a prototype that corresponds to the geometry of designed
and only one piece is produced (or at least one structure. The molds can be created using a few
piece with that geometry). approaches. The one most common for such proj-
Those requirements create a major problem, ects is the one where models are machined from
as such molds are in general expensive due to the high temperature material such as epoxy boards.
cost of high temperature materials and additional Next the molds are created using a tooling pre-
costs of machining such materials to create the preg material which is laminated on the machined
models/molds. Also, low thermal expansion can models and cured in the oven at high temperature.
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Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal 2022, 16(3), 12–21
Figure 1. High and low temperature cure cycle for XC110 pre-
pregs and XA110 film adhesive used in this project
This approach can be viewed at [24] However, which is enough for the given case. However,
in this project an alternative solution was used they are not suitable for high temperature cure,
in order to reduce the tooling cost. The models thus a different approach to mold preparation
were obtained by roughly machining Styrofoam is needed. The molds can be laminated using a
block to required shape and applying thick layer wet layup technique and subjected to a process
of polyurethane (PU) mould paste [25], which to temper them for high temperatures. It can be
was left to cure. The following step was to ma- done with gradual heat annealing performed af-
chine the paste to required shape using precise ter curing the composite molds, which should
CNC machining techniques. Penultimately, the increase their glass temperature.
mould had been covered with thin layer of white Prior to the monocoque lamination a compat-
polyester gelcoat [26], which was polished be- ibility test has been conducted using smaller part
fore fully curing. This layer also served as a bar- (nose cone), which has proven that all used ma-
rier between polyurethane (PU) mould paste and terials didn’t cause unwanted reactions and most
the epoxy gelcoat used in the next step in mould importantly the annealing cycle was effective.
manufacturing as PU could react with epoxy The scheme of the whole process can be simpli-
resin and its surface is highly porous. Such mod- fied to the series of blocks (Figure 3) and each
els can withstand 2–3 mould lamination cycles, step will be commented briefly.
Figure 3. Scheme of manufactur-
Figure 2. Assembly of three-piece molding system ing process of monocoque
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Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal 2022, 16(3), 12–21
Gelcoat reinforced by the Airrex 80.55 5mm thick foam.
Then the layup was symmetrically mirrored for a
To create a gelcoat, one requires a laminat- total of 6 plies. Figure 4 g-l presents the bagging
ing resin mixed with short life hardener. The process where first the peel-ply was applied fol-
chosen system was laminating resin LH 385 to- lowed by foil and breather. In the end the bag was
gether with H 285 hardener. Full properties and sealed and connected to vacuum pump for the cur-
data can be found at It has the similar proper- ing process, which took 24h. The process was re-
ties as LH 285, yet comes without certification peated for all three pieces of mould assembly.
required in aerospace sector, which is not neces-
sary for mould manufacturing. The shape of the
Mould cure
mould which has many vertical surfaces requires
the gelcoat to remain at vertical surfaces, with- One of the biggest challenges of manufactur-
out external forces applied (only its own weight). ing process was to increase the glass transition
This type of physical property is called thixotrop- temperature of the epoxy resin used in the mold to
icity and can be achieved with adding aerosil to approximately 90–100 °C as it had to be resistant
the mixture. Additionally, to decrease chance of to temperatures used during low temp curing of
cracks, the titanium oxide will be added as well pre-pregs. According to the TDS of LH 385 the
as red pigment to enable for easier recognition of glass temperature of epoxy resin equals to the
uncovered areas, as the white colour of model and cure temperature increased by 30 °C. Therefore,
the transparency of resin system could make it for molds cured at room temperature it can be as-
prone to overlooks during gelcoat coverage. The sumed that their temperature resistance is about 50
exact mixing ratios were established by sample ° C. If the desired temperature resistance (90–100)
tests and guidance from academic staff. The ratios was to be reached, the moulds would have to be
are stored in Table 1. cured at around 70 C. However, glass temperature
of used PU models was equal to 47 °C. There was
Laminating the moulds no possibility of reaching the required temperature
for OOA pre-pregs at one cure cycle as curing at
This was depicted at figure below. The pro- higher temperatures could change the geometry of
cess started with inserting 5mm aluminium posi- the molds and model as they would become unso-
tioning pins into the holes machined in the mod- lidified when entering glass transition state. Due to
els. Their purpose is to transition position of the that reason other solution had to be implemented.
attachment points from model to the mold. All After the first cycle has been completed, the
pins were covered with release agent and the fit- part was naturally cooled down and separated
ting space between model and a pin was sealed by from the model. Secondly, the mold has been
applying extra layer of solid release agent. placed in an oven and subjected to next anneal-
Next models were covered with a 400 gsm lay- ing cycle (Figure 5). This time the temperature
er of gelcoat (Figure 4a–d) and were left for about was gradually increased to 75 °C with the same
2 h in order for the gelcoat to enter the gel state. temperature step and ramp rate. When reaching
When it did, a subsequent layer of gelcoat was ap- the maximum temperature, the mold had been left
plied and again left for the same amount of time. A for 3 hours at that condition and ultimately, it was
total of three layers of gelcoat were applied. When naturally cooled to room temperature.
the last layer entered the gel state, the models were
covered with layers of carbon fiber, which would Monocoque molds joining
create the mould structure. First with a thin layer
of 160 gsm twill fabric was applied (Figure 4e) fol- After the mold and model separation, the
lowed by a layer of a thicker 200 gsm biaxial fab- pieces were joined together first with clamps and
ric reinforcement (Figure 4f). In the places where micro-positioned to obtain best match possible.
the studs are located the layup was additionally To connect the molds, several holes were drilled
Table 1. Gelcoat mixing ratios
Ingredient LH 385 Titanium oxide Aerosil Pigment H 285
% mass 66.5 1 3.5 1 28
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Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal 2022, 16(3), 12–21
Figure 4. Mold manufacturing process
in the flange, after the halves were positioned Sealer application. The challenge was to seal
accurately. Joined molds had been annealed in any remaining dips at joining lines of the mold,
horizontal orientation. Prior to the process, pins which result from presence of blends at edges
were inserted into the structure (Figure 6) as instead of sharp corners due to model machin-
there was a concern about possible deforma- ing process limitation. An Airtech Toolwright
tion of positioning holes.Afterwards the sur- 3 film had been used as its thickness (75 μm)
face of the molds had been thoroughly cleaned will most likely be neglectable when it comes
with acetone and prepared for Frekote Mold to geometrical aspects.
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Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal 2022, 16(3), 12–21
Figure 5. First and second annealing cycle
Figure 6. Inside of a mould viewed from the front
Laminating inside layer inserted after the layers of carbon had been laid, as
it made the process easier. Following the success-
As the layup has been verified by the real-life ful lay-up of all layers, the harness mount foams
testing beforehand it had to be replicated in pri- were added to the structure with one layer of ad-
mary structure. It consisted of the following lay- hesive release film. They will enable to position
ers of pre-preg: [45200, 45200, 90o200, 45400, 90400, the harness mount inserts properly. Next, the peel-
45200]T. As it can be seen the reinforcing layers ply was laid together with perforated release film
of 400 gsm fabrics were placed inside the layup, and breather that has been present on both sides of
with lighter cloths on the surface. The first layer the structure, as there was a concern whether the
(Figure 7) had been debulked under the vacuum mould surface contains small sharp bits of carbon
bag with high-perforage release film in order to fibre, that could damage the vacuum bag.
allow the fabric to fit into sharp corners and en-
hance the surface of the product. Consequently,
Core and inserts
next layers were laid on top of each other. The
fabric flat patterns used during lay-up accounted The general idea of insert geometry in this
for lap joining of the following layers, yet they monocoque has been based on [3] and consist of
didn’t add unnecessary material. Pins were used aluminum bushing between the carbon skins with
to create through holes in a product. They were or without the filled core of aluminum honeycomb
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Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal 2022, 16(3), 12–21
Figure 7. First layer of pre-preg fabric laid on a mold
(Figure 8a). The inside diameter of aluminum possible. Raw panels were post cured at 80°C to
bushing was set as a tight clearance hole for M6 prevent clogging of CNC milling machine as this
and M8 screws. Their outside diameter has been his increased their hardness. Moreover, the alu-
set accordingly to expected loads and were com- minum bushings were made using lathe machine
puted based on [3]. For the higher loads exhibited and their surface had been prepared for gluing by
by some components, the honeycomb had to be grinding it with low-grade sand paper. Next, all
filled to additionally stiffen the area around the the surfaces had been cleaned with acetone and
insert. Such areas included mainly the suspension glued to each other using 2 component epoxy
system mounting points for which epoxy filled glue (Loctite 9466). When the glue had cured
honeycomb panels were prepared (Figure 8b). In at room temperature, both faces of panels were
the next step aluminium bushings were inserted grinded with the same sand paper to obtain both
into these panels and glued (Figure 8c). The white good adhesion surface and remove any additional
color of panels comes from an epoxy filler i.e. mi- glue that has leaked. Ultimately machined pieces
crobaloons (6014 type). They have been mixed were glued to the CFRP skins (Figure 8d). Their
in the mass ratio of 10:3 to obtain lightest epoxy positioning was realized with shoulder bolts (ISO
Figure 8. Mounting points (inserts) preparation process
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Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal 2022, 16(3), 12–21
7379) wrapped in thin masking tape to prevent laminated on the models using tooling pre-preg and
glue adhesion (Figure 8c). Other bushing which cured. Finally, the product is made using such molds
didn’t require reinforcement from filled honey- in the same way as depicted in this case study.
comb panels were glued to the skins first and then Other approach is so called cut and fold
sheets of honeycomb with pre-drilled holes were method, which consists of first laminating the flat
placed around the bushings (Figure 8e). As multi- panels and later removing the strips of material at
ple thicknesses of honeycomb were used, it had to places where the bends are necessary. Next, pan-
be chamfered at the boundaries to provide smooth els are bended to the desired shape and reinforce-
transition. It can be seen at Figure 8 f. ments are added at the bend locations. Usually, the
honeycomb is filled with epoxy at the bend radius
Final layer to stiffen the structure. Yet another approach is to
mix the two solutions and apply the so called “hy-
After curing the core with inserts the inside brid” method where the molding system is created
layer of carbon plies were lied forming the inside from CNC laser cut sheets of aluminum, which
skin of a monocoque. Again, same procedure fol- are bent to the desired shape. Next, they are po-
lowed with debulking of first ply and mirroring the sitioned to create the interior of a mold. This ap-
layup so that it is now [45200, 90 o400, 45o400, 90200, proach was used in [20] together with hardpoints
45200, 45200] T. This time however, the pins were not / insert locating holes cut in the aluminum sheets.
inserted as the position of inserts was already es- Is has the advantage of skipping the mold making
tablished. This meant that the fabrics would not be procedure, yet the aluminum sheets are heavier
pierced through, and holes would have to be drilled and also have higher coefficient of thermal ex-
after the final cure. When the cycle has finished pansion. Also, it is slightly less accurate than
the product was extracted from the moulds. There the standard molding process as it was noticed
were some visible markings from the release agent by the authors. The cost of each type of process
used, and occasional pinholes, thus it was neces- has been presented in Table 2. It has been calcu-
sary to gelcoat the surface (Figure 9). lated excluding labor costs as they are dependent
on region, thus only the material and processing
costs were presented. The materials cost also in-
RESULTS cludes all auxiliary materials that had be used e.g.
vacuum bags etc. The sub costs were calculated
To sum up the manufacturing process a compar- relative as a percentage of a total cost as the val-
ison of costs will be made between the investigated ues itself are not very meaningful when it comes
approach and some of the typical manufacturing to other projects. The total cost is a sum of three
processes for monocoques of this type. The stan- components – models, molds and product.
dard (reference) manufacturing technology solution As it can be seen the standard manufactur-
is the one where epoxy tooling boards which are ing process is the most expensive as the material
CNC machined to obtain models. Next molds are cost of creating the models is relatively high. This
simulated cost of standard process is close to the
one in [19] where the cost of manufacturing was
about 10 250 USD. Although the structure there
consisted of also the rear part thus making it a
full monocoque. The important information to be
taken from the cost simulation is that the product
costs are not dominant of majority of solutions.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The manufacturing process used to produce
the monocoque using the alternative method
can be successfully used instead of the standard
Figure 9. Final product after ex- approach. It has both advantages and disadvan-
traction from the molds tages. On the plus side it can be said that it is
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Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal 2022, 16(3), 12–21
Table 2. Simulation of costs for different manufacturing processes
Standard Alternative Cut and fold Hybrid
Total [USD]
11447 5815 5371 5028
Models 61% 16% 0% 0%
Materials 51% 5% 0% 0%
Processing 11% 26% 0% 0%
Molds 14% 20% 0% 44%
Materials 11% 8% 0% 24%
Processing 3% 13% 0% 20%
Product 25% 49% 100% 56%
Materials 17% 33% 65% 38%
Processing 8% 15% 35% 18%
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