Chapter 18:

1
 Endo/crine Glands
“inside” / “secrete”

Endocrine system includes glands, the hormones they produce, and the target
tissues that they affect
Endocrine means “internal secreting” - releasing chemical signals called hormones
(hormon/o) into blood (circulatory system).
• Example: Adrenal Gland
• Adren/o, Adrenal/o = adrenal gland

Hormones mediate responses to environmental stimuli and regulate growth,

development, and reproduction.

• Example: Mammary Gland, tear, saliva, sweat ducts).

Hormones reach all parts of the body, but only certain target cells are equipped to
respond to them.
Ex. Thyroid hormone only targets the thyroid gland.
 1. The endocrine system secretes hormones that
coordinate slower but longer-acting responses including
2 Control reproduction, development, energy metabolism,
growth, and behavior.
Systems in the 2. The nervous system conveys high-speed electrical
signals along specialized cells called neurons; these
Body: signals regulate other cells.

Signals from the nervous system initiate and regulate

endocrine signals.
 • The nervous system plays a central role in
regulating the endocrine pathways.
The • The hypothalamus receives information from
nerves throughout the body, including the brain.
Hypothalamus In response, it initiates endocrine signaling, to
regulate the environment.
and Pituitary • Homeostasis
Gland • Homeo = sameness, -static = control
Homeostasis:
“Thermostat”
Maintenance of Body cells
take up more Insulin
glucose.
glucose homeostasis by
Beta cells of
insulin pancreas
release insulin
and glucagon into the blood.
Liver takes
up glucose
and stores it
as glycogen.

STIMULUS:
Blood glucose level
Blood glucose rises.
level declines.

Homeostasis:
Blood glucose level
(about 90 mg/100 mL)

Blood glucose STIMULUS:

level rises. Blood glucose level
falls.

Alpha cells of pancreas

release glucagon.
Liver breaks
down glycogen
and releases Glucagon:
glucose. Glucagon Gluc/o = glucose
-agon = assemble, gather together
The Hypothalamus and
Pituitary Gland
• Signals from the hypothalamus travel to the
pituitary gland, located at the its base.
• The pituitary gland is composed of the
posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary.
(pituitar/o = pituitary)
 • The hypothalamus secretes oxytocin and ADH and
Posterior transports it to the posterior pituitary, where they are stored,
until triggered to be released by nerve signals.
Pituitary • Oxytocin induces uterine contractions (during labor) and
the release of milk (during breast feeding)
Hormones • Oxy = rapid
• -tocia = labor, birth (Toc/o = childbirth, ia = condition)
• Oxytocin = “quick birth”
 • Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) produced by the
hypothalamus, stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid
Anterior stimulating hormone (TSH), which then regulates thyroid activity.

Pituitary • -tropin = stimulating the function of (to turn or act on)

Hormones • Thyro, thyroid/o = thyroid gland

• Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary regulate a diverse

set of processes in the human body, including metabolism,
osmoregulation, and reproductive activity.
Hypothalamus
TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone)

Anterior Pituitary
TSH

Thyroid

Target Cells

10
 How do hormones work?
1. Hormones are synthesized in a gland

2. They are secreted into the circulatory system until they reach their
target tissue

3. They bind to a receptor protein on a cell of the target tissue, triggering

that cell to “do something”
Ligand (ligand)
Hormone

Transport Prot ein

Receptor Protein

brane prot eins Recept or Prot ein

Hey Cell— 12
monly function Do Something!!!

ransport , and
Hormone Cascade
Pathways
• A hormone can stimulate the release of a series of
other hormones, the last of which activates a
target cell; this is called a hormone cascade
pathway.
• For example: the release of thyroid hormone
results from a hormone cascade pathway
involving the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary,
and thyroid gland.
• Hormone cascade pathways are usually regulated
by negative feedback.
 3 Kinds of Hormones
Steroid Hormones
(Made from Cholesterol)
Peptide Hormones
(Made of Long Chains of Amino
Acids, i.e. Proteins)

Amine Hormones
(Made from Individual Amino Acids
such as Tyrosine)

14
Amine Hormones
Example: Epinephrine / Adrenaline
(Made in Adrenal Medulla)

Cortic/o = cortex (outer region)

Ex. Corticosteroid
Medull/o = soft inner part
-in, ine = substance
Ex. Epinephrine
 Steroid Hormones
(The Rings make them Rigid) Ster/o = solid structure

Adrenal Cortical Steroids

(Made in Adrenal Cortex)

Sex Hormones
(Made in Gonads)
Peptide Hormones

Example: Insulin
(Made in the Pancreas)
In class exercises
• Hypokalemia
• Hyponatremia
• Hyperglycemia
• Hypocalcemia

18
In class Exercises
• Hyperglycemia
• Polyuria
• Polydipsia:
• Polyphagia

19
 Symptoms of Diabetes:
-- Glucose spilling out into urine brings water along for the ride (Polyuria)
-- This water loss leads to thirst (Polydipsia)
-- Loss of glucose via urine without it entering the cells leads to hunger (Polyphagia)

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Chapter 8:
Female
Reproductive
System

21
Gonadal (gonad/o) Sex
Hormones
• Synthesis of the sex hormones is controlled by
FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary.
• The gonads (testes and ovaries), produce most
of the sex hormones: androgens, estrogens,
and progestins (progesterone)
• Andr/o = male
• Estr/o = female
• All three sex hormones are found in both males
and females, but in different amounts.
• The testes primarily synthesize androgens, mainly
testosterone, which stimulate development and
maintenance of the male reproductive system and male
secondary sex characteristics.
• Estrogens, made in the ovary, most importantly
estradiol, are responsible for maintenance of the
female reproductive system and the development of
female secondary sex characteristics.
• In mammals, progestins, which include progesterone, are
primarily involved in preparing and maintaining the uterus.
• Oophor/o, Ovari/o = ovary
• O/o, ov/o, ovul/o = egg
Layers of the Uterus
Metr/o, Metri/o = Uterus
1. Endometrium
2. Myometrium
3. Perimetrium

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Endometriosis

25
In Class Exercises
• Oophorectomy
• Hysterectomy
• Amenorrhea
• Menarche
• Nulliparous
• Nulligravida
• Mastitis

26
Salpingitis

27
Episiotomy

28
Colposcopy

29
Intrauterine Device (IUD)

30
 31

Chapter 19:
Cancer Medicine
(Oncology)
 Chromosomes in Humans

In humans:
• Somatic cells (all body cells except reproductive cells) have 46
chromosomes.
• How? You inherited 46 chromosomes, one set of 23 from each parent.
• Somat/o = body
• Gametes or reproductive cells (sperm and eggs) have half as many
chromosomes as somatic cells.
• I.e. one set of 23 chromosomes.
• Fertilization fuses two gametes together
 Somatic Cells and the Cell Cycle

INTERPHASE MITOSIS
(cell preparing to divide) (cell dividing)

G0
(Cell has left the
cell cycle)
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 3 Categories of Human Cells
(Based Upon Participation in the Cell
Cycle)

1. LABILE CELLS:
(e.g. skin, gut lining)
Spend very little time in G0; quickly re-enter the cell cycle and are constantly dividing

2. STABLE CELLS
(e.g. liver)
Only leave G0 and re-enter the cell cycle with proper stimulus

3. PERMANENT CELLS
(e.g. cardiac muscle)
Stay in G0 and never re-enter the cell cycle

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Lifespan of each cell varies
 Lifespan of different human cells
The life span of cells depends the type of cell involved, its function, and location.
• The average lifespan varies from a few hours or days for certain blood cells, to weeks and
months for skin cells, and years and even a lifetime for nerve cells.
• Ex. Taste receptor cells live for about 10 days.
• Liver cells live for about 8-16 months.
• Red blood cells for about 120 days.
• Mature nerve cells do not divide
• Factors such as degenerative conditions, illness, and some environmental stressors, can
also impact life span.
• There is some evidence that the brain generates new neurons (nerve cells) during
adulthood. But due to the complexity of the brain and spinal cord, little spontaneous
regeneration, repair, and healing occurs.
• This is why brain damage, paralysis from spinal cord injuries, or neurodegenerative
diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
(ALS, also known as Lou Gehrig's disease), and multiple sclerosis are often permanent and
incapacitating.
 Loss of Cell • Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s control
Cycle Controls mechanisms
• The underlying basis of this abnormality is usually due to a
in Cancer Cells change in one or more genes resulting in faulty cell cycle
control.
 • The frequency of certain cancers increases when the
Cancer and immune response is impaired.
• Two suggested explanations are
Immunity • Immune system normally suppresses cancerous cells
• Increased inflammation increases the risk of cancer
Environmental Pollution and Cancer

• Examples: Pesticides in soil and food crops, industrial chemicals in air and water
• “Even though air, water and soil pollution became a major concern during the 20th
century, only recently has compelling evidence mounted that carcinogenic chemicals are
taking a significant toll on human health. Case studies of water and soil contamination are
finding cancer clusters and population-wide epidemiological trends that link pollution to
increases in the overall cancer burden, especially in impoverished regions where exposures
are often higher than in wealthier nations.”
• Source:
• http://www.ewg.org/enviroblog/2011/08/cancer-belatedly-environmental-causes-
get-their-due
In Class Exercises
• Oncology
• Mutagenic / Mutation
• Carcinogen
• Neuroblastoma
• Neoplasm
• Hyperplasia
• Angiogenesis
• Cachexia
• Chemotherapy

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Metastasis

• A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a process called transformation. The

immune system normally recognizes a transformed cell as an insurgent and destroys it
(unless the cell evades and forms tumors).
• Cancer cells form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue
• If abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor
• Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and impair the function of one or more
organs. It can metastasize (spread), exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body,
where they may form secondary tumors
• Meta = beyond, change
• Stasis = Control
Fig. 12-20

Lymph
vessel
Tumor
Blood
vessel

Cancer
Glandular
cell
tissue Metastatic
tumor
1 A tumor grows 2 Cancer cells 3 Cancer cells spread 4 Cancer cells may
from a single invade neigh- to other parts of survive and
cancer cell. boring tissue. the body. establish a new
tumor in another
part of the body.
Ex. Lymph node, liver,
bone, lungs
Papilloma
• A small wart-like growth on the skin derived from the epidermis and
usually benign (non-cancerous).
• Papill/o = nipple

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