BASIC COMPUTER AND APPLICATION FOR MASS

MEDIA II

BY

ENGR. LAWAL ADEWOLE JIMOH

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What is a Computer?
An electronic device that accepts input, stores large quantities of data, execute complex instructions
which direct it to perform mathematical and logical operations and outputs the answers in a human
readable form.
Computers are not very intelligent devices, but they handle instructions flawlessly and fast. They must
follow explicit directions from both the user and computer programmer. Computers are really nothing
more than a very powerful calculator with some great accessories. Applications like word processing
and games are just a very complex math problem.

Computer Generations
From the 1950’s, the computer age took off in full force. The years since then have been divided into
periods or generations based on the technology used.

1. First Generation Computers (1945-1954): Vacuum Tubes

These machines were used in business for accounting and payroll applications. Valves were unreliable
components generating a lot of heat. They had very limited memory capacity. Magnetic drums were
developed to store information and tapes were also developed for secondary storage. They were
initially programmed in machine language (binary). A major breakthrough was the development of
assemblers and assembly language.

The main features of the first generation are:

 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated a lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of AC
 Non-portable
 Consumed a lot of electricity

Some computers of this generation were:

 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

2. Second Generation (1955-1964): Transistors

The development of the transistor revolutionized the development of computers. Invented at Bell Labs
in 1948, transistors were much smaller, more rugged, cheaper to make and far more reliable than
valves. Core memory was introduced and disk storage was also used. The hardware became smaller and
more

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reliable, a trend that stills continues. Another major feature of the second generationwas the use of
high-level programming languages such as Fortran and Cobol. These revolutionized the development
of software for computers.

The main features of second generation are:

 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

3. Third Generation (1965-1974): Integrated Circuits (ICs)

IC’s were again smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable than transistors. Speeds went from the
microsecond to the nanosecond (billionth) to the picosecond (trillionth) range. ICs were used for main
memory despite the disadvantage of being volatile. Minicomputers were developed at this time.
Terminals replaced punched cards for data entry and disk packs became popular for secondary storage.
IBM introduced the idea of a compatible family of computers, 360 family easing the problem of
upgrading to a more powerful machine. Operating systems were developed to manage and share the
computing resources and time-sharing operating systems were developed. These greatly improved the
efficiency of computers. Computers had by now pervaded most areas of business and administration.
The number of transistors that be fabricated on a chip is referred to as the scale of integration (SI).
Early chips had SSI (small SI) of tens to a few hundreds. Later chips were MSI (Medium SI): hundreds
to a few thousands. Then came LSI chips (Large SI) in the thousands range.

The main features of third generation are:

 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Costly
 AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language

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Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316

4. Fourth Generation (1975-1984): VLSI (Very Large SI)

The term fourth generation is occasionally applied to VLSI-based computer
architecture. VLSI has made it possible to fabricate an entire CPU, main memory, or similar devices
with a single IC. This has resulted in new classes of machines such as inexpensive personal computers,
and high- performance parallel processors that contain thousands of CPUs. VLSI allowed the
equivalent of tens of thousand of transistors to be incorporated on a single chip. This led to the
development of the microprocessor a processor on a chip. Intel produced the 4004 which was followed
by the 8008,8080, 8088 and 8086 etc. Other companies developing microprocessors included Motorolla
(6800, 68000), and Zilog. Personal computers were developed and IBM launched the IBM PC based on
the 8088 and 8086 microprocessors. Mainframe computers have grown in power. Memory chips are in
the megabyte range. VLSI chips had enough transistors to build 20 ENIACs. Secondary storage has
also evolved at fantastic rates with storage devices holding gigabytes (1024Mb = 1 Gb) of data. On the
software side, more powerful operating systems are available such as Unix. Applications software has
become cheaper and easier to use.

The main features of fourth generation are:

 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PCs
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

5. Fifth Generation (1991-Present):

The race is now on building the next or “fifth” generation of computers, machine that exhibit artificial
intelligence (AI). Thus new generations of computers will involve robotics and computer networks.
Developments are still continuing.

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Computers are becoming faster, smaller and cheaper. Storage units are increasing in capacity.
Distributed computing is becoming popular and parallel computers with large numbers of CPUs have
been built.

The main features of fifth generation are:

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook

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Types of Computers
Computer now comes in a variety of shapes and sizes, which could be roughly classified according to
their processing power into five sizes: super large, large,medium, small, and tiny.Microcomputers are
the type of computers that we are most likely to notice and use in our everyday life. In fact there are
other types of computers that you may use directly or indirectly:

 Supercomputers-super large computers: supercomputers are high- capacity machines with hundreds
of thousands of processors that can perform more than 1 trillion calculations per second. These are the
most expensive but fastest computers available. "Supers," as they are called, have been used for tasks
requiring the processing of enormous volumes of data, such as doing the U.S. census count, forecasting
weather, designing aircraft, modeling molecules, breaking codes, and simulating explosion of nuclear
bombs.

 Mainframe computers - large computers: The only type of computer available until the late 1960s,
mainframes are water- or air-cooled computers that vary in size from small, to medium, to large,
depending on their use. Small mainframes are often called midsize computers; they used to be called
minicomputers. Mainframes are used by large organizations such as banks, airlines, insurance
companies, and colleges-for processing millions of transactions. Often users access a mainframe using
a terminal, which has a display screen and a keyboard and can input and output data but cannot by
itself process data.

 Workstations - medium computer: Introduced in the early 1980s, workstations,are expensive,

powerful computers usually used for complex scientific, mathematical, and engineering calculations
and for computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing. Providing many capabilities
comparable to midsize mainframes, workstations are used for such tasks as designing airplane
fuselages, prescription drugs, and movie special effects. Workstations have caught the eye of the public
mainly for their graphics capabilities, which are used to breathe three-dimensional life into movies such
as Jurassic Park and Titanic. The capabilities of low-end workstations overlap those of high-end
desktop microcomputers.

 Microcomputer - small computers: Microcomputers, also called personal computers (PC), can fit
next to a desk or on a desktop, or can be carriedaround. They are either stand-alone machines or are
connected to a computernetwork, such as a local area network. A local area network (LAN)
connects,usually by special cable, a group of desktop PCs and other devices, such asprinters, in an
office or a building. Microcomputers are of several types:
 Desktop PCs: are those in which the case or main housing sits on a desk, with keyboard in front and
monitor (screen) often on top.
 Tower PCs: are those Microcomputer in which the case sits as a "tower," often on the floor beside a
desk, thus freeing up desk surface space.
 Laptop computers (also called notebook computers): are lightweightportable computers with built-in
monitor, keyboard, hard-disk drive, battery, and AC adapter that can be plugged into an electrical
outlet; they weigh anywhere from 1.8 to 9 pounds.
 Personal digital assistants (PDAs) (also called handheld computers or palmtops) combine personal
organization tools-schedule planners, address books, to-do lists. Some are able to send e-mail and
faxes. Some PDAs have touch-sensitive screens. Some also connect to desktop
computers for sending or receiving information.

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 Microcontrollers-tiny computers: Microcontrollers, also called embedded computers, are the tiny,
specialized microprocessors installed in "smart" appliances and automobiles. These microcontrollers
enable PDAs microwave ovens, for example, to store data about how long to cook your potatoes and at
what temperature.

Basic Blocks of a Microcomputer

If we think of the computer as an information manipulation device the basic components of a
microcomputer are:

All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following
five basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

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Input Units -- "How to tell it what to do"
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates a
link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form
understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the
operation of all parts of the computer. CPU itself has the following three components:

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit

Output Units -- "How it shows you what it is doing"

The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer.
This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's output
into a form understandable by the users.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features:

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

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CPU itself has following three components.
 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory -- "How the processor stores and uses immediate data"

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other
units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the
primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM). Its size affects speed, power, and capability.
Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the
memory unit are:
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any
actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section

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Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.

Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
 Optical Character Reader (OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer.
The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys
provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are
also available for Windows and Internet..
The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

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Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends
corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. Generally, it has two buttons
called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to
control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive

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 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a
stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a
socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions. The function of the joystick is similar to that
of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed,
its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse.
This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved. Since
the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in
various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further
manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form
that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever
the camera had been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial
data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and
image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form. The microphone is
used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed
every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type
of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is
called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and
less error prone.

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Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans the text optically, character by character,
converts them into a machine readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines).
Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld
scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts
it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected
to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is
used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for checking
the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer.
It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of
the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better
the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such
as the letter ‘e’ in the word help. A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once.
The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a
standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data
horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT:
 Large in Size
 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists.
Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and
graphics display.

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The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:
 Emissive Displays - Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For
example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays - Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from
some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types -

 Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)
 Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of pattern
of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a
character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

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Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower) which is
why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices
that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of two types -
 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer

Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is divided
into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132
characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets
available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one
line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages
 Very high speed

Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set
may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy

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Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete page
at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types -
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers
 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with
presentable features. They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles
of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable

Disadvantages
 Expensive as the cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the
storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing
are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell
has a unique address, which varies fromzero to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer

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has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these
locationsvaries from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types -
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which
are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to
cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It
has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to
be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided intotwo subcategories RAM and ROM.

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Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories. It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these
memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are
first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM,
DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories. It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.

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 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and
program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as
the machine is switched off, data is erased. Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is,
each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same
amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive. RAM is volatile,
i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a
backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in
terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types -

 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-
transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not
be refreshed on a regular basis. There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than
DRAM for the same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus
used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

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Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by
placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM
is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells,
which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime
 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on
it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is
referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic
items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys ablank PROM
and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses
which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

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EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an
EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an
insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage
path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This
exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a
sticker.
11. Computer Fundamentals ─ Read Only Memory
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any
location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather
than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. It
connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and
expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features:
 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.

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 Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
 Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard
to function properly.
 Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.

Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.
 Intel
 ASUS
 AOpen
 ABIT
 Biostar
 Gigabyte
 MSI

Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-
drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single
socket for CPU, whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide
ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries
fans and a special port designed for power supply. There is a peripheral card slot in front of the
motherboard using which video cards, sound cards, and other expansion cards can be connected to the
motherboard. On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the monitor, printer,
mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow
compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen drive, digital
cameras, etc.

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