Pre-History and Indus Valley Civilization

Topics

• Pre-History
• Paleolithic
• Mesolithic
• Neolithic
• Chalcolithic

• Indus Valley Civilization

• Location and Sites
• Characteristics
• Polity, Religion and Society
• Economy and Trade
• Decline
 Pre-History and Proto-History
• Concept of Pre-history and
Proto-History

BCE CE

• Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age (BCE 2.5 mya-

10,000)
• Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age (BCE 9000-
4000)
• Neolithic or New Stone Age (BCE 4000-2500)
 Human Remains in India
• Arun Sonakia of the Geological Survey of
India made an important discovery near
Hathnora village on the northern bank of
the Narmada.

• In 2001, P. Rajendran, a teacher in the

Department of History of Kerala
University, found a complete fossilized
human baby skull in Odai in the Villupuram
district of Tamil Nadu.

Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Page-65

 Paleolithic
Lower Paleolithic-2.5 m.y.a Middle Paleolithic-100,000 Upper Paleolithic- 40,000
to 100,000 BCE to 40,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE

Characteristics

• Hunting- Gathering Societies

• Habitations close to water resources

• Open Air sites along with caves

• Use of Fire
 Tool Technology
Paleolithic Tools Features

Early or Lower Paleolithic Hand axes, Cleavers, Pieces of stone were

(B.C 2.5 lakh-1 lakh) Choppers chipped to form large tools.

Middle Paleolithic Flakes, Blades, Points, Tools were smaller and

(B.C 1 lakh-40,000) Borers and Scrapers formed from chips

Late or Upper Paleolithic Chips and flakes, parallel- They may have used tools
(B.C 40,000-10,000) sided blades and burins. of wood and bone but these
have not survived.

Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Page-68

 Middle Paleolithic
Lower Paleolithic
Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Page-69, 77 and 79
Upper Paleolithic
 • 1863 - Pallavaram, Robert Bruce Foote
• Soan Valley - Punjab
• Narmada valley - MP
• Belan valley - UP
• Didwana - Rajasthan
• Kurnool dt-Andhra Pradesh.
• Bhimbetka – MP - Most important
Paleolithic site

Note: Alluvial Plains of the Ganges,

Indus and Western Ghats - No Paleolithic
Site
Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Page-70
 Mesolithic (BCE 9000-4000)
Characteristics

• The Age of Microliths

• Domestication of Animals- bear, wolf, rhino, cattle, goat, sheep and dogs

• Growth of Population

• Semi Permanent Hut Structures

• Evidence of Burials and Rituals

Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Page-84
• Bagor-Rajasthan
• Tilwara- Gujarat
• Langhnaj- Gujarat
• Chopani Mandi- UP
• Sarai Nahar Rai
• Adamgarh- MP
• Bhimbetka- MP
• Chotanagpur Plateau
 Neolithic (BCE 4000-2500)
• Neolithic Revolution

Characteristics

• Sedentary Life and Domestication of Plants - Wheat, Millets, Ragi and Barley

• Ground Polished Tools related to Agriculture

• Pottery appears for first time

• Complex Societies
Tool Technology
 Important Sites
• Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, Pakistan) - Discovered by archaeologist J.F Jarrige, Oldest Neolithic
site in the sub-continent
• Koldihwa (UP) - Earliest evidence of rice cultivation in the world (5000 BC)
• Mahagara (UP) - Evidence of extensive Barley cultivation
• Burzahom (Jhelum, Srinagar, Kashmir)- Evidence of Pit dwellings; Double burial (dog buried
with human)
• Chirand (Bihar)

South Indian Neolithic Sites- Ashmounds - Burnt cattle dung

• Karnataka: Maski, Brahmagiri, Piklihal, Tekkalakota, Sanganakallu

• Andhra Pradesh: Nagarjunakonda, Pallavoy
• Telangana: Utnur
• Tamilnadu: Paiyampalli, Sendoormalai
 Chalcolithic Age (BCE 3000-700)
• Stone with Copper Tools

• Non-Harappan Chalcolithic Culture

Banas Culture (2600- 1900 BCE)
Kayatha Culture (2400- 2000 BCE)
Malwa Culture (1700- 1400 BCE)
Jowre Culture (1400- 700 BCE)

Characteristics

• Limited Use of Copper Implements except in Ahar culture

• Limited Urbanization
• Bone Tools more in comparison to Stone

• Rice Based Culture

• Later emerged as Iron Cultures

• Social Stratification
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 Indus Valley Civilization
Three Phases
Early Mature Late
Harappan-c. Harappan-c. Harappan-c.
3200–2600 2600–1900 1900–1300
BCE BCE BCE

Chance discovery
• 1826: Charles Masson (EIC soldier, explorer) - Was the 1st European to discover the ruins of
Harappa; collected terracotta artifacts while laying tracks for railway line.
• Alexander Cunningham (archaeologist) visited the site of Harappa in mid 19th century.
• Feb 1871: Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was created. Alexander Cunningham was
appointed as its First Director General.
• 1924: Sir John Marshall as Director General of the ASI announced the discovery of this
Civilization in a London weekly (The Illustrated London Times) - He was the first scholar to
use the term ‘Indus Civilization’.
 Extent of the Civilization
Manda (J&K)

Sutkagendor Alamgirpur

Daimabad (Maharashtra)
Characteristics

• Citadel and Lower Town

• The streets and houses of Harappan

cities were be laid on a grid pattern
oriented north– south and east– west.

• Well laid- out streets and side lanes

associated with an efficient and well-
planned drainage system
• The sewage chutes and pipes were separate from drains for collecting rain water.

• The Harappans made elaborate arrangements for water for drinking and bathing.

• A striking feature of Harappan structures is the uniformity in the average size of the
bricks—7 × 14 × 28 cm for houses and 10 × 20 × 40 cm for city walls.

• People lived in houses of different sizes, mostly consisting of rooms arranged around a
central courtyard.

• Doorways and windows generally faced the side lanes and rarely opened onto the main
streets.
Size
• Harappan sites varied a great deal in size and function, from large cities to small pastoral
camps.

• The largest settlements include Mohenjodaro (over 200 ha), Harappa (over 150 ha),
Ganweriwala (over 81.5 ha), Rakhigarhi (over 80 ha), and Dholavira (about 100 ha).

• The second rung of Harappan settlements are moderate sized sites ranging between 10 and
50 ha, such as Judeirjodaro and Kalibangan.

• Then, there are the even smaller sites of 5–10 ha, such as Amri, Lothal, Chanhudaro, and
Rojdi.

• The many settlements in the 1–5 ha range include Allahdino, Kot Diji, Rupar, Balakot,
Surkotada, Nageshwar, Nausharo, and Ghazi Shah.
 Important Structures and Location
• Great Bath, Granaries, Assembly Hall and College of Priests- Mohenjodaro

• Seal making, shell working, and the making of stone weights- Chanudaro

• Granaries- Harappa

• Horse- Surkotada

• Fire Altars and both the citadel complex and lower town were fortified- Kalibangan

• Dockyard- Lothal

• Water Tanks, Water Harvesting and Management- Dholavira

• Large number of beads of gold, lapis lazuli, and carnelian, tiny weights, and a ‘touchstone’ showing steaks of gold-
Jeweller’s house - Banawali
 Economy
• There is a great variety of standardized, mass-produced craft items at Harappan sites.

• The Khetri deposits of Rajasthan was an important source of copper.

• Lead and zinc probably also came from Rajasthan.

• Tin is available in the Tosam area of modern Haryana.

• Most varieties of semi- precious stone used for bead manufacture came from Gujarat. The lapis lazuli was obtained
from Afghanistan.

• Two-wheeled carts were an important mode of transport for people and goods. Bronze and terracotta models of carts
have been found at various sites.

• Traders must also have transported their merchandise across long distances in caravans of pack animals such as oxen,
sheep, goats, and donkeys.
• Several routes of trade and communication connected the
various parts of the Harappan culture zone—Baluchistan,
Sindh, Rajasthan, Cholistan, Punjab, Gujarat, and the
upper doab.
• It is likely that the Indus saw a certain amount of riverine
traffic. There was also a coastal route linking the Gujarat
sites such as Lothal and Dholavira to sites such as
Sutkagendor on the Makran coast.
• Pottery kilns were found at Mohenjodaro, Harappa,
Nausharo, and Chanhudaro.
• There is a great variety of pottery, including black-on-
red, grey, buff, and black and- red wares. Most pots were
wheel turned.
• The decorative patterns range from simple horizontal
lines to geometric patterns and pictorial motifs. Some of
the designs such as fish scales, pipal leaves, and
intersecting circles have their roots in the early Harappan
phase. Human figures are rare and crude.
• The Harappan civilization is marked by a large number of copper objects.

• Copper and bronze artefacts included vessels, spears, knives, short swords, arrowheads,
axes, fishhooks, needles, mirrors, rings, and bangles.

• Seal making was another important Harappan craft. Most of the seals are square or
rectangular. Most of the seals are made of steatite.

• Most of the seals have a short inscription. Some rectangular seals have writing, but no motif.

• A new type of cylindrical stone drill was devised and used to perforate beads of semi-
precious stones. Such drills have been found at sites such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa,
Chanhudaro, and Dholavira.
• The archaeological evidence for Harappan–
Mesopotamian trade consists mainly of a few
Harappan or Harappan-related seals and carnelian
beads at Mesopotamian sites such as Kish, Lagash,
Nippur, and Ur.

• Mesopotamian texts mention imports from Meluhha:

lapis lazuli, carnelian, gold, silver, copper, ebony,
ivory, tortoiseshell, a chicken-like bird, dog, cat, and
monkey.

• The sites in Iran which have yielded Harappan and

Harappan- related artefacts are Hissar, Shah Tepe,
Kalleh Nisar, Susa, Tepe Yahya, Jalalabad, and
Marlik.

• The Harappans were also trading with the Oman

peninsula.
 Writing
• A total of about 3,700 inscribed objects have been
found at Harappan sites.

• Most of the inscriptions are very short, with an

average of five signs. The longest one has 26 signs.

• There are 400–450 basic signs and called

boustrophedon style—with consecutive lines
starting in opposite directions.
 Society
• Stratified Society

• The Harappan civilization covered an enormous area within which there was great
ecological variety—alluvial plains, mountains, plateaux, and sea-coasts.

• Wheat has been found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa; barley at Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and
Kalibangan; and sesamum at Harappa. Harappa has also given evidence of watermelon
seeds, peas, and dates.

• Rice occurs at Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, and Rangpur. Millets have been identified at
Harappa, Surkotada, and Shortughai. Grapes were known, so was henna (mehendi).

• Cotton was also have been grown.

• We have discovered a ploughed field at early Harappan levels at Kalibangan.
Terracotta models of ploughs have been found at Bahawalpur and Banawali.

• Irrigation canals have been found at Shortughai.

• Bones of wild animals have been found at Harappan sites. These include many
varieties of deer, pig, boar, sheep, goat, ass, and pig.
 Religion
• Great Bath

• Mother Goddess Figures

• Pashupati Seal

• Stone icons of lingas and yonis

• The Harappan seals, sealings, amulets, and copper tablets depict a number of
trees, plants, and animals, some of which may have had cultic significance.

• The pipal tree

• Fire Altars

• Burials
 Polity

• Citadel Complex

• Priestly Rule- Priest King

• Merchant Rule
 Decline
• Aryan Invasion Theory?

• Flooding and Hydrological Issues

• Desiccation and Environmental Change

• Trade and External Linkages